UNIT-V

System Noise

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 Introduction
Noise is a general term which is used to describe an unwanted signal
which affects a wanted signal. These unwanted signals arise from a
variety of sources which may be considered in one of two main
categories:-

•Interference, usually from a human source (man made)

•Naturally occurring random noise

Interference

Interference arises for example, from other communication systems

(cross talk), 50 Hz supplies (hum) and harmonics, switched mode
power supplies, thyristor circuits, ignition (car spark plugs) motors
… etc.
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Noise

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Types of Noise

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Noise Effect

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Thermal Noise (Johnson Noise)

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Cont’d…

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Cont’d…

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Cont’d…

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 Cont’d…

The law relating noise power, N or Pn, to the temperature and

bandwidth is
N or Pn = k TB watts

Thermal noise is often referred to as ‘white noise’ because it has a

uniform ‘spectral density’.

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Cont’d…

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 Shot Noise

• Shot noise was originally used to describe noise due to random fluctuations
in electron emission from cathodes in vacuum tubes (called shot noise by
analogy with lead shot).
• Shot noise also occurs in semiconductors due to the liberation of charge
carriers.
• For pn junctions the mean square shot noise current is

Where I n2 = 2(I DC + 2 I o ) qe B (amps) 2

IDC is the direct current as the pn junction (amps)
IO is the reverse saturation current (amps)
qe is the electron charge = 1.6 x 10-19 coulombs
B is the effective noise bandwidth (Hz)

• Shot noise is found to have a uniform spectral density as for thermal noise.

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 Low Frequency or Flicker Noise
Active devices, integrated circuit, diodes, transistors etc also
exhibits a low frequency noise, which is frequency dependent (i.e.
non uniform) known as flicker noise or ‘one – over – f’ noise(pink
noise-1/f).

Excess Resistor Noise

Thermal noise in resistors does not vary with frequency, as
previously noted, by many resistors also generates as additional
frequency dependent noise referred to as excess noise.

Burst Noise or Popcorn Noise

Some semiconductors also produce burst or popcorn noise with a
2

spectral density which is proportional to  1 f 

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 General Comments

For frequencies below a few KHz (low frequency systems), flicker

and popcorn noise are the most significant, but these may be ignored
at higher frequencies where ‘white’ noise predominates.

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 Noise Calculation
The essence of calculations and measurements is to determine the signal
power to noise power ratio, i.e. the SNR or (S/N) expression in dB.

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Noise Calculation in Amplifier

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Analysis of Amplifier with Noise

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Analysis of Amplifier without Noise

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 Analysis of Noise in Communication Systems

Thermal Noise (Johnson noise)

This thermal noise may be represented by an equivalent circuit as shown below
____
V = 4 k TBR (volt 2 )
2

(mean square value , power)

then VRMS = V____2 = 2 kTBR =Vn
i.e. Vn is the RMS noise voltage.

A) System BW = B Hz
N= Constant B (watts) = KB
B) System BW
N= Constant 2B (watts) = K2B

For A, S = S For B, S = S
N KB N K 2B

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 Cont’d…..

Resistors in Series
Assume that R1 at
temperature T1 and R2 at
temperature T2, then
____ ___ ___
V =V +V
2 2 2
n n1 n2
____
= 4 k T1 B R1
2
V n1
____
Vn 2 = 4 k T2 B R2
2

____
 V = 4 k B (T1 R1 + T2 R2 )
2
n
____
= 4 kT B ( R1 + R2 )
2
Vn

i.e. The resistor in series at same temperature behave as a

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single resistor
 Cont’d….

Resistance in Parallel
R2 R1
Vo1 = Vn1 Vo 2 = Vn 2
R1 + R2 R1 + R2

____ ___ ___

V =V +V
2 2 2
n o1 o2

R R 
R 
____
4kB
V =
2 2
T1 R1 +R12 T2 R2   1 2 
n (R1 + R2 )2 2
 R1 R2 

_____
4kB R1 R2 (T1 R1+ T2 R2 )
V 2
=
n
(R1 + R2 )2
_____
 RR 
V 2
= 4kTB  1 2 
 R1 + R2 
n

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 Matched Communication Systems
In communication systems we are usually concerned
with the noise (i.e. S/N) at the receiver end of the system.
The transmission path may be for example:-

Or

An equivalent circuit, when the line is connected to the receiver is shown below.

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Cont’d….

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Noise Temperature

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Noise Figure – Noise Factor for Passive Elements

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 Cascaded Network
A receiver systems usually consists of a number of passive or active elements connected in
series. A typical receiver block diagram is shown below, with example

In order to determine the (S/N) at the input, the overall receiver noise figure or noise
temperature must be determined. In order to do this all the noise must be referred to the same
point in the receiver, for example to A, the feeder input or B, the input to the first amplifier.

Te or N e is the noise referred to the input.

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 System Noise Figure
Assume that a system comprises the elements shown below,

Assume that these are now cascaded and connected to an aerial at the input, with N IN = N ae
from the aerial.

Now , N OUT = G3 (N IN 3 + N e3 )
= G3 (N IN 3 + (F3 − 1) N IN )
Since N IN 3 = G2 (N IN 2 + N e 2 ) = G2 (N IN 2 + (F2 − 1)N IN )

similarly N IN 2 = G1 ( N ae + (F1 − 1)N IN )

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 Cont’d….
N OUT = G3 G2 G1 N ae + G1 (F1 − 1)N IN  + G2 (F2 − 1)N IN  + G3 (F3 − 1)N IN
The overall system Noise Factor is
N OUT N OUT
Fsys = =
GN IN G1G2 G3 N ae
N IN (F2 − 1) N IN (F3 − 1) N IN
= 1 + (F1 − 1) + +
N ae G1 N ae G1G2 N ae

(F2 − 1) (F3 − 1) (F4 − 1) (Fn − 1)

Fsys = F1 + + + + ........... +
G1 G1G2 G1G2 G3 G1G2 ..........Gn−1
The equation is called FRIIS Formula.
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System Noise Temperature

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