Unit 2: Definitions of Course, Syllabus, Syllabus refers to the "Content or subject matter of a

particular individual subject. Graves (1996), citing

ESP
White's (1988) definition, states that "A syllabus will be
defined narrowly as the specification and ordering of
Curriculum and ESP Course/Syllabus
content of a course or courses (p. 25).
Design
Shaw (1975) defines a syllabus as "a statement of the
Definitions of COURSE plan for any part of the curriculum, excluding the
element of curriculum evaluation itself (p. 62)
A course is a structured program of learning designed
to impart knowledge, skills, and understanding in a In defining a language "syllabus". Noss and Rodgers
specific subject area or field. It typically involves a (1976) refer to it as a set of justifiable, educational
series of lectures, workshops, assignments, and objectives specified in terms of linguistic content (p.
assessments, all aimed at achieving specific learning 123). Here the specification of objectives must have
objectives. something to do with language form or substance, with
language-using situations, or with language as a
Courses can be offered at various levels, from
means of communication.
introductory to advanced, and can be delivered in a
variety of formats, including online, in-person, and Strevans (1977) says that the syllabus is partly an
blended learning. administrative instrument, partly a day-to-day guide to
the teacher, partly a statement of what is to be taught
A course is a series of educational lessons or lectures
and how. sometimes partly a statement of an
on a particular subject. It's a broader term that
approach the syllabus embodies that part of the
encompasses all the materials, assignments, and
language which is to be taught, broken down into
assessments that make up a class.
items, or otherwise processed for teaching purposes
On the other hand, a syllabus is a specific document (p. 209)
that outlines the topics, assignments, and
Basically, a syllabus can be seen as "a plan of what is
expectations for a particular course. It's a narrower
to be achieved through our teaching and our students
term that refers to a single document within a course.
learning" (Breen, 1984) while its function is to specify
what is to be taught and in what order" (Prabhu,
1984).
Definitions of SYLLABUS
 The curriculum contains the following aspects (beside
the other core aspects of curriculum such as goal and
CURRICULUM syllabus):
As defined by Allen (1984) is a very general concept. It •Specific task, vocabulary, and language in context
involves consideration of philosophical, social and (Higgins in Swales, 1988),
administrative factors which contribute to the planning
of an educational programme. •The starting point based on the learners' background
knowledge,
According to Shaw (1975) , the curriculum includes the
goals, objectives, content, processes, resources, and •Operational, communicative, and notional syllabus,
means of evaluation of all the learning experiences
planned for pupils both in and out of the school and •Learner centered
community. through classroom instruction and related
programs. (p. 83)
ESP COURSE/SYLLABUS DESIGN
Curriculum refers to the totality of the content to be
taught. It includes everything about the learner (who), According to Munby (1984), syllabus design is seen as
contents to be taught (what), methodology (how), "a matter of specifying the content that needs to be
aims (why). context/setting (where), time (when) and taught and then organizing it into a teaching syllabus
evaluation (how much was achieved). Curriculum is of appropriate learning units"
wider term as compared with syllabus.
Webb (1976), syllabus design is understood as the
organization of the selected contents into an ordered
and practical sequence for teaching purposes. His
ESP CURRICULUM
criteria for syllabus design are as follows:
ESP curriculum refers to the overall framework and
•Progress from known to unknown matter
structure of learning materials and activities designed
for English for Specific Purposes (ESP) courses. Unlike •Appropriate size of teaching units
general English courses, ESP focuses on developing
language skills relevant to a specific profession, •Proper variety of activity teachability
academic discipline, or field of study.
•Creating a sense of purpose for the student
Garcia (1970) expands on this and provides more methodology consistent with the syllabus, a set of
comprehensive criteria which should be taken into techniques consistent with the methodology, and
consideration when designing a language syllabus. He evaluation procedure consistent with the whole” (p.
says that particulars concerning the social forces, the 47)
prejudices, the habits and the motives of the student
population, the relation of student characteristics to
what are considered universal concepts in language
Logical Sequence of Syllabus Design in Three
learning processes, contemporary insights into the
Main Stages:
nature of the language, and how it should be taught to
non-native speakers and for what realistic purposes, •Needs analysis,
must guide curricular decisions (p. 26).
•Content specification, and
According to Halim (1976). the language course
designer has to pay serious consideration to all the •Syllabus organization.
relevant variables He has grouped all the variables
This follows very closely the general model
into two categories, namely;
advocated by Taba (1962) which gave the
1. Linguistic variables following steps:

This includes linguistic relations, between the I. Needs analysis

language to be taught and the language or languages
II. Formulation of objectives
which the student uses in his or daily activities.
III. Selection of content
2. Non-linguistic variables
IV. Organization of content
Ranges from policy to social, cultural, technological
and administrative variables. V. Selection of learning activities
Maley (1984) sums it up when he says that syllabus VI. Organization of learning activities
design encompasses the whole process of designing a
language programme. He stated: VII. Decisions about what needs evaluating and how to
evaluate.
“The needs analysis which produces an order unit of
items to be taught is organically related to a
Theories in Course/Syllabus Design subject, while a course is a set of classes or a plan of
study in a particular subject, and a curriculum is the
Theory of Language - Seeks to understand how overall content that is taught in an educational system
language is acquired and used by individuals and or a course.
communities.

To design a syllabus is to decide what gets taught and

in what order. UNIT 02 TYPES AND IMPORTANCE OF
Theory of Learning - describes how students SYLLABUSES
receive, process, and retain knowledge during
II. INTRODUCTION
learning.
A syllabus is your guide to a course and what will be
Theory of learning also plays an important part in
expected of you over the course of the quarter.
determining the kind of syllabus used. For example, a
Generally, it will include course policies, rules and
syllabus based on the theory of learning evolved by
regulations, required texts, and a schedule of
cognitive code of teaching would emphasize language
assignments. A syllabus can tell you nearly everything
forms and whatever explicit descriptive knowledge
you need to know about how a course will be run and
about those forms.
what will be expected of you. A syllabus is a document
that outlines all the essential information about a
college course. It lists the topics you will study, as well
Acquisition Theory - the process by which we are as the due dates of any coursework including tests,
able to develop and learn a language. quizzes, or exams.

A syllabus based on an acquisition theory of learning The syllabus establishes the prerequisites,
would emphasize unanalyzed and carefully selected expectations, requirements, and policies for the
experiences of the new language. The choice of a course. Your syllabus may include policy statements
syllabus is a major decision in language teaching, and on academic integrity and collaboration, attendance
it should be made as consciously and with as much and the submission of assignments, and even the
information as possible. integration of technology in class.
In summary, a syllabus describes the summary of
topics covered or units to be taught in a particular
III. THE FOUR BASIC PARTS OF A SYLLABUS jumping between topics or skipping ahead, as the
progression relies on a structured flow.
1. Instructor information - near the top you will find
the name of your instructor, their contact information, Characteristics of Linear Syllabus
and office hours.
a. Organized content, it has a clear and step-by-step
2. Reading materials and supplies - this section progression where lessons build upon the previous
lists books, online resources, and other content you one.
will need for class. Additional tools, like a calculator or
specific software, will be listed here, too. Typically, b. Follows a logical sequencing, from the basic
there is a note about which materials are required and concepts to the most complex ones.
which are recommended. 2. Cyclical or Spiral syllabus - A spiral syllabus is a
3. Policies - the document should outline how you will type of curriculum structure where concepts are
be graded, attendance requirements, and how the introduced in a basic form and then revisited and
professor expects students to behave. expanded upon in greater depth over time. Instead of
following a strict, linear progression, a spiral syllabus
4. Class schedule - this section covers when revisits topics periodically, allowing students to build
assignments are due, when tests will be given, and all on what they have previously learned as they
coursework for the class, including in-class encounter those concepts again at a more advanced
assignments, homework, essays, labs, and level.
assessments.
This approach helps reinforce understanding and
allows for continuous growth, as each revisit offers a
new layer of complexity.
IV. TYPES OF SYLLABUSES
Characteristics of Cyclical Syllabus
1. Linear Syllabus - A linear syllabus is a type of
curriculum structure where the content is delivered in a. Revisiting of concepts taught in the past but in
a sequential, step-by-step manner. In this structure, different stages to deepen their understanding.
topics are taught in a fixed order, and each lesson
typically builds on the previous one. In a linear b. Useful in terms of continuous practice of the
syllabus, there isn't much flexibility in terms of context learned.
 The internal syllabus is flexible and specific to an
institution, while the external syllabus is standardized
A syllabus can also be classified as internal and and controlled by an external governing body to
external: ensure uniformity and quality across a broader
1. Internal Syllabus - usually refers to a curriculum educational system.
that is specifically designed and used within a In external syllabus, it is subdivided into what we
particular educational institution or organization. It is called as interpreted and uninterpreted syllabus. An
often tailored to the needs, goals, and standards of interpreted syllabus refers to a syllabus that more
that institution, rather than being a standardized or dynamic and student-centered, the teacher plays a
externally regulated syllabus. key role into interpreting the syllabus and integrating
This internal syllabus is usually created by the faculty it to cater the interests, needs, and progress of the
or the academic department and could be adapted to students. Whereas, uninterpreted syllabus is a more
fit the institution's teaching style, student population, fixed, the content has predefined standards and the
or particular focus areas. In some contexts, an teacher nor the students cannot alter it to meet both
"internal syllabus" could also refer to a syllabus for of their needs.
courses or programs that are designed for a specific
group or audience within an institution (such as a
specialized program or a unique elective course). V. Several Syllabuses and their Functions

2. External Syllabus - An external syllabus refers to 1. The Evaluation Syllabus - this kind of syllabus
a curriculum that is designed and regulated by an will be most familiar as the document that is handed
external body or organization, such as a national or down by ministries or other regulating bodies. It states
regional education authority, a certification board, or a what successful learner will know by the end of the
professional organization. course.

The main idea behind an external syllabus is to 2. The Organizational Syllabus - this syllabus states
maintain uniformity and ensure that students across the order in which it is to be learnt. It is most familiar
different schools or regions are learning the same core in the form of the content page of a textbook. The
material, which is often important for standardized organizational syllabus differs from the evaluation
testing, university admissions, or professional syllabus in that it carries assumption about the nature
certifications.
of learning as well as language, since, in organizing a planned lesson. The classroom thus generates its
the items in syllabus. own syllabus (Breen, 1984).

3. The Material Syllabus - the first person to 6. The Learner Syllabus - the learner syllabus is the
interpret the syllabus is usually the materials writer. In network of knowledge that develops in the learner’s
writing materials, the author adds yet more brain which enables that learner to comprehend and
assumptions about the nature of language, language store the later knowledge. The learner syllabus
learning, and language use. The author decides the belongs to the internal syllabus it is a retrospective
context in which the language will appear, the relative record of what will be learnt (Candlin, 1984)
weightings and integration of skills, the number and
type of exercises to be spent on any aspect of
language, the degree of recycling or revision.
VI. 8 Criteria which Are Needed in Organizing
4. The Teacher Syllabus - the second stage of Syllabus
interpretation usually comes through the teacher. The
a. Topic Syllabus - topic-based syllabus is based on
great majority of students in the world learn language
topics which are selected from the students’ specialist
through the mediation of a teacher. Thus, we have the
studies and the language analyzed based on
teacher syllabus (Breen, 1984). The teacher can
appropriate syntax (Jordan, 1997).
influence the clarity, intensity, and frequency of any
item, and thereby affect the image that the learners b. Structural / situational syllabus - the focus of a
receive. Stevick (1984) recounts how an inexperienced structural syllabus is on aspects of grammar (e.g.,
teacher would finish in two minutes an activity that he verb, tenses, sentence patterns, articles, nouns, etc.)
would spend twenty minutes on. This kind of variability and then the gradation of these aspects for teaching,
will inevitably affect the degree of learning. supposedly from the simple to the complex, and based
on frequency and usefulness of these aspects (Jordan,
5. The Classroom Syllabus - as every teacher
1997, Robinson, 1991).
knows, what is planned and what actually happens in a
lesson are two different things (Allwright, 1984b). A c. Functional / notional syllabus - Jordan (1997)
lesson is a communicative event, which is created by points out, entails conceptual meanings: notions (e.g.,
the interaction of a number of forces. The classroom time, space, and quantity) expressed through
then creates conditions which will affect the nature of language and the communicative purposes for which
we use language (e.g., greetings, requests, apologies,
description, comparisons, cause and effects, etc.). It is h. Skills and strategies syllabus - Skills and
often referred to as the communicative approach strategies syllabus concerns to the strategies which
(Jordan, 1997). can be used to teach and assess students’ competence
and comprehension.
d. Skills syllabus - skill-based syllabus is organized
around the different underlying abilities that
are involved in using a language for purposes of such
as listening, speaking, reading, writing, (Thakur, 2013). VII. WHY SHOULD WE MAKE A SYLLABUS?
As Robinson (1991) suggests, a course in writing
1. To make the material manageable – With the
business letters, or in oral skills for business people, or
syllabus, we can manage what to include, what should
in academic reading can be examples of this syllabus.
be learnt on a particular level, and most importantly,
e. Situational syllabus - according to Taghizadeh the time set for the instruction.
(201) a situational syllabus is a collection of real or 2. To give moral support to the teacher and
imaginary situations in which language occurs or is learner
used. The primary purpose of a situational language
teaching syllabus is to teach the language that occurs 3. To give a cosmetic role
in the situations such as in a business setting, seeing
the dentist, complaining to the landlord, buying a book 4. To make our analogy of learning a journey –
at the book store, meeting a new student, and so on. they can see it as a picture of their progress and
development.
f. Functional / task-based syllabus – a task-based
syllabus is a series of complex and purposeful tasks 5. To know the “what” and “why” of our what – it’s
that the students want or need to perform with the as simple as knowing what we have to know, and why
language they are learning such as applying for a job, are we learning the things we have to know.
talking with a social worker, getting housing 6. To provide a set of criteria for material
information over the telephone, and so on (Dincay, selection
2010)
7. To provide a basis for testing – it provides an
g. Discourse / skills syllabus - it emphasizes the answer whether the instruction have failed or it was
discourse which are related with the context of its use. successfully implemented.
VIII. IMPORTANCE OF A SYLLABUS: 6 Main Stages in the Development of Language:

1. It makes an impression on your students - 1. Classical or Tradition Grammar

Since the syllabus is one of the first materials students
will have about the course, the design of the syllabus - Under Classical Grammar, languages were described
is your opportunity to make a good first impression on based on the classical languages – Greek and Latin.
your students.

2. It sets a tone - the syllabus can set a tone for

They described language in terms of cases based:
what students’ interactions with you will be like.
1.1. Nominative Cases - A grammatical case that
3. It conveys information about expectations identifies the subject of a sentence. It is also known as
the subjective case.

Example: The dog chased the cat.

Module 2: Factors Affecting Course
Design: LANGUAGE DESCRIPTION 1.2 Genitive Cases - Is a grammatical case that
shows the relationship between a noun and a pronoun
Language Description - Refers to the various ways and another word. It is often used to indicate
of analyzing and explaining how language works, such possession, but it can also express other meanings.
as grammar, vocabulary, discourse, and pragmatics.
Apostrophe 's': Used to show possession by a person
According to Hutchin and Waters (1987), the or animal, such as "the doctor's office"
language description involves questions like:
"Of" phrase: Used to show possession by an object,
“What topic areas will need to be covered?” such as "the wheels of the car"

“What does the student need to learn?” Possessive adjectives or pronouns: Used to show
possession, such as "my", "your", "his", "hers", "its",
“What aspects of language will be needed and how will "ours", and "theirs"
they be described?”
Examples:
"The children's toys are all over the floor" - Is seen as prescriptive grammar because it is seen as
word because it fails to show language as an
"The President of Chile's speech was very long" integrated systemic event.
"This is my pen." - It follows the rules of classical grammar and
1.3 Dative Case - Is a grammatical case that shows prescribed how people should use language correctly.
the indirect object of a verb. The indirect object is the - It had limitations in explaining all the variations in
person or thing that receives the direct object of the grammar.
verb.

Types of dative case:

2. Structural Linguistics
Dative of indirect object: Indicates "to whom" or
"for whom" an action is performed - It focus on the observable aspects of language, such
as sounds, word forms, and sentence structures.
Dative of advantage: Indicates who receives the
advantage or disadvantage of an action - It is typically a synchronic approach to language
study in which a language is examined as a separate
Dative of possession: Indicates the owner of network of formal systems, each of which consists of
something. elements that are distinguished by their differences
1.4. Instrumental Cases - Is a grammatical case that with other elements in the system.
shows the means or agency by which an action is
performed. It is usually marked by the words “by” or
“with” in English, followed by the noun that indicates Ferdinand de Saussure was the founder of modern
the instrument. structural linguistics, which is a way of studying
language as a system of signs that connect meaning
Examples: “I can’t live without you.” and sound.

- He argued that the sounds of language are not

related to their meanings in any natural way, but are
1.2 Traditional Grammar
based on convention.
- He also proposed that language is a complex Example: “Mary can be seen by John”.
structure, in which each element is defined by its
difference from the other elements.

- He suggested that the role of a linguistic element can Language Competence - The unconscious
be determined by looking at the elements that can knowledge of the rules and principles of a language
replace it. that speakers have in their minds.

Leonard Blooomfield was the leader of this high Example: A child understands that the correct
school, and he proposed a strict method for analyzing sentence structure is "subject-verb-object" even if they
any language based on observable data. haven't practiced saying it out loud.

3. Transformational / Generative Grammar Language Performance - The actual use of language

in real situations, which may be influence by various
- This theory tries to explain how speakers of a factors, such as memory, attention, emotion, etc::
language can produce and understand sentences that
they have never heard before, using a set of rules that Example: When speaking to a teacher, the child might
are stored in their minds. stumble over their words or use incorrect grammar
due to nervousness, even though they know the
3.1. Deep Structure correct way to form the sentence.

- Is the basic meaning of the sentence, and it is

generated by a set of rules that combine words into
phrases and phrases into sentences. 4. Language Variations and Register Analysis

Example: "John can see Mary.” Dialect Variation - It is semipermanent, is language

variation which helps to distinguish one person, or
3.2. Surface Structure group of people from others.

- The actual form of the sentence, and it is derived Examples:

from the deep structure by applying another set of
rules that change, add, or delete some elements of the The differences in how English is spoken in the United
sentence. States compared to England.
Registers - Is a form of language that is specific to a 6. DISCOURSE (RHETORICAL) ANALYSIS
certain situation or context, and it is influenced by
factors such as purpose, audience, and mode of - Is a logical development of a functional/notional view
communication. of language.

Example: Using "could you please" instead of "just - The emphasis here is on how meaning is generated
give me" when making a request to a superior. between sentences.

Choosing technical jargon when speaking to A way of studying how language is used in different
colleagues in a specialized field. situations and for different purpose.

It identifies three dimensions of registers:

Medium - refers to the mode of communication, such Module 2: Factors Affecting ESP
as speech or writing. Course Design: Learning Theories &
Domain - refers to the field of discourse, such as the Needs Analysis
topic and the function of the language.
Learning Theories
Tenor - refers to the relationship between the
Learning theories in the context of English for Specific
participants, such as the level of formality and
Purposes (ESP) refer to frameworks that explain how
politeness
learners acquire and develop language skills
specifically tailored to a particular field or profession.

5. FUNCTIONAL / NOTIONAL GRAMMAR Learning theories in ESP guide the design and
implementation of teaching materials and
Function - Is about how people use language to do methodologies, considering factors like learners' prior
things and behave in society. knowledge, motivation, and the specific language
demands of the target field.
Notion - Is about how people think and use language
to understand the world.

I. COGNITIVE THEORY
According to Cunnningsworth (1984), it involves the response becomes more probable in the future.
activities “which engage conscious mental processes Learning through rewards and punishments.
such as analyzing and understanding, and involved
How Behaviourism Impacts Learning
learning and applying explicitly formulated rules” (p.
31). Behaviourism is often used by teachers who reward or
punish student behaviours.
It views language learning as a conscious and
reasoned thinking process rather than a mere habit
formation. This approach focuses on how learners
actively process information, build mental III. MENTALISM THEORY
representations, and apply learning strategies to
According to Noam Chomsky, he sees learners as
achieve specific language goals.
thinking beings who are capable of coping with infinite
range of possible situations from a finite range of
experience. The mind uses individual experiences to
II. BEHAVIORISM THEORY formulate hypothesis. For instance, knowing that
words that end in ‘–y’ take ‘–ies’ to form their plural,
"Behaviorism" refers to a teaching approach that
focuses on shaping language acquisition through while those that end in ‘–f’ will change to ‘–ives’, the
observable behaviors by using repetition, learner given these rules can form a lot of plurals even
reinforcement, and controlled practice. of words they have never seen before.

Classical Conditioning - We are biologically “wired” He suggests that your mind isn’t just following rules
so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific blindly. It’s actively thinking and applying rules to new
response. situations which allows you tp understand and use
language flexibly.
Example: Students exhibit irrational fears and
anxieties like fear of failure, fear of public speaking
and general school phobia. (Pavlov)
IV. CONSTRUCTIVISM
Operant Conditioning - occurs when a response to a
They are "constructing" their own knowledge by
stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning
testing ideas and approaches based on their prior
is a simple feedback system: If a reward or
knowledge (schema) and experience, applying these
reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then
to a new situation, and integrating the new knowledge learning environment, fostering the growth of
gained with pre-existing intellectual constructs. individuals who are not just knowledgeable but also
capable and independent.
Relevance of Constructivism
Affective factors are emotional factors which influence
The transition of the teacher's role from "sage on the learning. They can have a negative or positive effect.
stage" (fount/transmitter of knowledge) to "guide on Negative affective factors are called affective filters
the side" (facilitator, coach); and are an important idea in theories about second
Teaching "higher order thinking skills such as problem- language acquisition.
solving, reasoning, and reflection. Two Types of Motivation
Enabling learners to learn how to learn Instrumental Motivation - The learners learn a
Cooperative and collaborative learning skills language not because they want but because they
need the language for something such as for study or
work purposes, to transact business with the owners of
the language, and learning a language for a specific
V. HUMANISM AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS purpose and not for leisure, etc.
In humanism, it prioritizes the learner's individual Integrative motivation – This comes from the desire
needs, self-awareness, and emotional well-being, to be a part of a community that speaks a particular
focusing on fostering a positive learning environment language. According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987),
where students feel empowered to actively engage it’s an internal want, not an external need. For
with the language and reach their full potential, often example, some parents might encourage their kids to
through collaborative learning and a focus on real- speak English at home to help them fit into a social
world communication rather than purely grammatical class that values English.
drills.

Key proponents of humanism include Carl Rogers and

Abraham Maslow. In this approach, learning revolves VI. LEARNING AND ACQUISITION
around the students. Teachers became facilitators
rather than just information providers. Moreover, the These are two psychological ideas about how we pick
ultimate aim is to create a cooperative and supportive up languages.
Learning - is a conscious process of gaining Needs analysis is like a crucial foundation, not just in
knowledge and skills through formal instruction and language teaching but especially in English for Specific
study. It involves understanding grammatical rules, Purposes (ESP). It helps create a focused course that
memorizing vocabulary, and practicing specific meets the specific needs of learners. (Dudley Evans
language functions. & St. John, 1998).

Acquisition - is a more natural and unconscious

process of internalizing the language through
exposure and immersion in authentic contexts. When we talk about learner needs, we mean two
things: what the learner wants to achieve with the
language (specific goals) and what they need to do to
actually learn the language. Hutchinson and Waters
NEEDS ANALYSIS (1987) break down these needs into three parts:
Needs analysis in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) 1. Necessities – are what learners must know to do
emerged to address the diverse communication needs well in specific situations.
of learners. It prioritizes understanding what learners
require in terms of language use and organizing these 2. Lacks - refer to the gap between what a learner
needs accordingly. knows now and what they need to know.

According to Jordan (1997), needs analysis is like 3. Wants - are what learners feel they need, what
gathering information or data. It’s a crucial step before they want may not be what they actually need,
setting language learning goals. causing a conflict that can affect how motivated they
are to learn.
Hutchison and Waters (1987) add that it’s a key
part of designing courses for English for specific
purposes. The goal of a needs analysis is to create a
list of goals and objectives for everyone involved. CONDUCTING NEEDS ANALYSIS

Brown (1995) suggests that these goals should be The teachers' views of students' needs were identified
the basis for making tests, materials, teaching as:
activities and evaluation strategies. Language Proficiency View: This view focuses on
how well students can use the language.
Psychological-Humanistic View: This view Also, observation is another way to understand
considers the emotional and personalaspects of learners’ needs:
learning.
Non-participant Observation - This means just
Specific Purposes View: This view looks at the watching without getting involved. It's good for
practical needs of students, like what they want to do collecting data through observation alone.
with the language.
Participant Observation - This involves some level
of involvement. It’s especially useful for understanding
the workplace better.
To gather information for needs analysis, teacher can
use various methods such as advance documentation, In summary, teachers use interviews and observation
surveys, self-assessment, observation and monitoring., to figure out what their students need. Structured
etc. Needs analysis isn’t a one-time thing; it’s an interviews provide clear data, unstructured interviews
ongoing process where conclusions are regularly allow for in-depth discussions and observation helps to
checked and adjusted. get a real feel for the learners’ environment.

To get information, teachers can use different

types of interviews:
STEPS IN NEEDS ANALYSIS
Structured Interview - This is when teachers ask
prepared questions, and the answers are noted down. 1. Purpose of analysis: This step sets the foundation
It gives both numbers and detailed information. for the entire needs analysis process by defining the
goals and objectives. Without a clear purpose, the
Unstructured Interview - This is more flexible and analysis may lack direction and coherence.
allows for in-depth discussion. It takes more time and
doesn't have a fixed format. 2. Delimit student population: ldentifying the
target population ensures that the analysis focuses on
Semi-Structured Interview: This is a mix of the two, the specific group whose needs are to be assessed.
using some prepared questions but also allowing for This step helps in tailoring the analysis to the
more open discussion. characteristics and requirements of the intended
audience.
3. Decide upon the approach(es): Choosing the applying appropriate analytical techniques to make
appropriate methodology or approach for data sense of the data and draw meaningful conclusions.
collection is crucial for obtaining reliable and valid
results. This step involves considering various 8. Determine objectives: Based on the analysis of
qualitative and quantitative methods based on the results, this step involves revisiting the initial
nature of the research questions and the available objectives to determine if they have been met and to
resources. identify any new objectives or priorities that may have
emerged.
4. Acknowledge constraints/limitations:
Recognizing and addressing any constraints or 9. Syllabus, content, material, methods, etc.:
limitations upfront helps in managing expectations and Using the findings from the needs analysis, decisions
ensuring the feasibility of the analysis. This step can be made regarding the development or adaptation
involves considering factors such as time, budget, of syllabi, content, materials, and teaching methods to
access to resources, and potential biases better meet the identified needs of the student
population.
5. Select methods of collecting data: Selecting
suitable methods for data collection is essential for 10. Evaluate procedure and results; implement
gathering relevant and accurate information. This step decision: Finally, it is essential to evaluate the entire
may involve using a combination of techniques such as needs analysis process, including the procedures used
surveys, interviews, observations, or document and the outcomes achieved. This step helps in
analysis, depending on the research objectives and the assessing the effectiveness of the analysis and making
characteristics of the target population. informed decisions about implementing the
recommendations derived from the analysis.
6. Collect data: This step involves executing the
chosen data collection methods to gather information
from the identified student population. It is essential The Purpose of Needs Analysis
data collection procedures are carried out
systematically and ethically to maintain the integrity of Richards (2001) itemized the following as some
the analysis. of the reasons why needs analysis is conducted:

7. Analyze and interpret results: Once data has 1. To find out what language skills a learner needs in
been collected, it needs to be analyzed to identify order to perform well at the target situation.
patterns, trends, and key insights. This step involves
2. To help determine if an existing course adequately Module 2: Approaches to Needs
addresses the needs and potential students.
Analysis & Principles for Analyzing
3. To determine which student from a group are most Learners Needs
in need of training in particular language skills.

4. To identify a gap between what students are able to

do and what they need to be able to do. FIVE (5) APPROACHES TO NEEDS ANALYSIS

5. To collect information about particular problem I. A Sociolinguistic Model

learners are experiencing.
In his attempt to make a contribution to syllabus
design, Munby (1978) proposed his approach to needs
analysis which soon drew great attention from syllabus
CONCLUSION designers, particularly ESP architects. His work was a
landmark in ESP and had a huge influence on ESP
To make a good English course, we need to think
since it provided a new vision on individual needs
about how people learn. Some methods teach rules,
(Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). His model can be used
while others focus on real-life use. A good course
to specify valid ‘target situations’ (Jordan, 1997; West,
should include both.
1994) that is, target communicative competence.
Choosing the right materials is very important. If we
Target Situation Analysis (TSA) - centers on
pick the wrong ones, students may not learn well.
identifying the learners’ language requirements in the
Texts help with vocabulary and other skills.
occupational or academic setting.
ESP (English for Specific Purposes) courses focus on
The best-known framework for target-situation
what learners need for real communication. Needs
analysis was devised by Munby. The core of this
analysis helps find out these needs. It guides the
framework is the “Communication Need
course, from goals to tests. Needs analysis should
continue to keep the course useful. Processor,” which looks at the different factors that
influence communication needs and how they interact
with each other. By using this method, we can get a
summary of what students need to learn in the
language and change it into a “communicative
competence specification” that helps us make a 1. Impractical & Time-Consuming – The model
syllabus (Jordan, 1997). provides too much detail, making it complex and
difficult to implement (West, 1994).
Components of Communication Needs Processor
2. Inflexibility – The rigid structure does not easily
a. Communicative events (e.g., discussing everyday adapt to different learners or contexts.
tasks and duties)
3. Ignores Human Variables – Learners’ voices are
b. Purposive domain (e.g., educational)
not considered; it collects data about learners rather
c. Medium (e.g., spoken) than from them (West, 1994).

d. Mode (e.g., dialogue) 4. Delayed Consideration of Constraints –

Practical factors like teacher availability and resources
e. Channel of communication (e.g., face-to-face) are only considered after syllabus design (Jordan,
1997).
f. Setting of communication

g. Main communicator/s
Four Major Criticisms (West, 1994)
h. Person/s with whom the communicator/s
communicate 1. Complexity – The model’s systematic approach
makes it too rigid and time-consuming.
l. Dialect
2. Learner-Centeredness – Munby claims his model
j. Attitudinal tone (e.g., informal)
is learner-centered, but it actually excludes learners’
k. Subject content and level of English ability input.
required for the communication
3. Constraints – Real-world limitations (e.g., trained
(After a profile has been created, the communication teachers, resources) should be considered before
needs are developed into a syllabus.) syllabus design, not after.

4. Language – The model does not explain how to

convert learner profiles into actual teaching materials.
Weaknesses of the Model
 Present-situation analysis (PSA) ascertains
students’ language proficiency at the beginning of the
Alternative Needs Analysis to Complement course. This is a way of finding out how well students
Munby’s Model can use the language at the start of the course. It
helps teachers and course designers understand the
Since Munby’s model has limitations, other forms of
needs analysis help provide a more complete picture: students’ current level and needs in the language.

• Deficiency Analysis - Identifies what learners lack

in terms of language skills. It also considers both Richterich and Chancerel (1977) suggest a way
objective needs (actual gaps) and subjective needs to find out what adults need to learn a foreign
(what learners think they lack) (Allwright, 1982). language.
• Strategy Analysis - Focuses on how learners prefer • Checking learners’ language skills at the course’s
to learn rather than just what they need to learn. And start.
helps create a syllabus that aligns with students’
learning styles & strategies. • Interviewing learners about their abilities, resources,
and opinions on language learning.
• Means Analysis - Investigates the educational
environment where ESP courses take place (Swales, • Gathering insights from the places where learners’
1989). study or work.

Considers available resources, institutional constraints, • Using methods such as surveys, interviews, and
and practical challenges. scales.

II. Systemic Approach Although this approach has not received much
criticism, two concerns should be raised:
Richterich and Chancerel (1977) propose a systemic
approach for identifying the needs of adults learning a 1. Lack of attention to learners’ real-world needs
foreign language. This approach fills the gaps in the
sociolinguistic model in terms of flexibility and shows a
distinct concern for learners.
2. Over-reliance on learners’ perceptions of their include vocabulary, grammar, and skills specific to a
needs. It became an issue because some learners are profession or task.
not particular about what they want to learn.
Lacks: The gap between what learners already know
and what they need to know (their current proficiency
level vs. target proficiency).
III. Learning-Centered Approach
Wants: What learners believe they need or desire in
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) call this approach the their language learning.
learning-centered approach and stress the importance
of a lively, interesting, and relevant teaching and
learning style in ESP materials. It focuses on language
learning rather than just language use and prioritizes 2. Learning needs – focus on how learners learn—it
how learners learn over simply identifying language looks at the characteristics and preferences of the
needs. They argue that other approaches give too learner, as well as the environment in which they will
much attention to language needs, whereas more learn. These include:
attention should be given to how learners learn. They
• Learners’ background (e.g., socio-cultural,
suggest that a learning needs approach is the best
educational, language proficiency) influences how they
route to convey learners from the starting point to the
engage with the language.
target situation.
• Learning styles (e.g., auditory, visual, kinesthetic)
determine how learners prefer to take in and process
Two Main Approaches of Learner Needs information.

1. Target needs – refer to what learners need to be • Attitudes towards English and the cultures of
able to do in the specific situation where they will use English-speaking countries can affect engagement and
the language. In other words, it's the practical success.
application of language skills in real-world contexts.
• Available resources (such as time, materials, and
These needs are typically categorized into: facilities) shape the learning experience.

Necessities: What the learner must know in order to

function effectively in the target situation. This could
 Subjective Needs: Emerge during the course (based
on confidence, attitudes, and learning strategies).
IV. Learner-Centered Approach
Importance of Learner-Centered Approaches
It focuses on you as the learner. It emphasizes what
you need and how you learn best, instead of just - Recognizes learners’ attitudes, emotions, and
focusing on what the teacher thinks is important. perspectives.
Berwick (1989) & Brindley (1989) are the pioneers in
learner-centered needs analysis. - Combines communication needs (language for
specific situations) with learning needs (how learners
learn best).

Types of Needs in Language Learning - A learner-centered syllabus & methodology prevents

contradictions and enhances student engagement.
1. Perceived vs. Felt Needs

Perceived Needs: Identified by experts (what

learners need). V. Task-Based Approach

Felt Needs: Expressed by learners (what they believe A task-based approach focuses on using tasks and
they need). activities to promote real-world language use. It also
encourages interaction and practice to improve
2. Product vs. Process-Oriented Interpretations speaking skills. The key principle is that tasks must be
Product-Oriented: Focus on language needed for relevant to learners’ actual language needs.
specific situations (e.g., workplace).

Process-Oriented: Focus on how learners respond

Long's Recommendation (2005a)
emotionally and cognitively to learning.
- Advocates for a task-based approach in both needs
3. Objective vs. Subjective Needs
analysis and teaching.
Objective Needs: Identified before the course (based
- Rejects a grammar-only focus, emphasizing active
on language proficiency and real-life use).
learner participation.
- Learners acquire language through engagement, not - Understanding communication needs alone is not
just teacher instruction. enough (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987).

Analyzing Learning Needs through Tasks - Learning situations and methodologies must be
carefully considered.
- Tasks are units of analysis in language learning
research. 3. Take “context” into account

- Researchers study real-world discourse related to - The way English is used (context) affects teaching
tasks and learning.

Comparison with Communicative Events - Neglecting context leads to ineffective instruction.

- Similar to Munby’s (1978) communicative events, but

focuses on language use rather than sociolinguistic
factors. Additional factors to consider when looking at
the context of teaching and learning. (Richards,
2001):

Principles for Analyzing Learners’ Needs 3.1. Societal expectations – refers to expectations
of society (e.g., workplace English standards).
1. Prioritize Communication Needs
3.2. Institutional influences – they influence the
- ESP courses should focus on learners’ real-world specificity of ESP (e.g., engineering-specific language
communication needs. instruction may differ from general academic English).
- Predicting students’ communication needs prepares 3.3. Teacher beliefs & styles (e.g., emphasis on
them for practical situations. reading vs. speaking).
2. Give Equal Importance to Learning Needs 4. Invite Multiple Perspectives
- Learning involves both cognitive and affective They should consider different viewpoints (Berwick,
factors. 1989; Brindley, 1989). Multiple perspectives refer to
institutions, teachers, and learners (Benesch, 1999;
2001; Richterich & Chancerel, 1977). Stakeholders
include institutions, teachers, and learners. They • Continuous Evaluation – Needs analysis should be
should be invited to participate in needs analysis an ongoing process, allowing for continuous
research. assessment and adaptation to meet evolving learner
needs.
Sources of Communication Needs:
• Dynamic Learner Needs – Learner needs change
Employers & Engineers – Workplace requirements. over time due to contextual and affective variables,
Lecturers – Observations of professional interactions. necessitating regular reassessment.

• Iterative Curriculum Adjustment – The curriculum

Former Students – Bridging learning and real-world
should be continuously revised and improved based on
demands.
feedback and observations from the teaching and
Current Students – Insights on the learning process. learning process.

5. Employ Multiple Data Collection Methods • Emphasis on Change for Improvement – Needs
analysis should drive curriculum changes that enhance
- Interviews – Direct insights from stakeholders the effectiveness of instruction and better meet
(Long, 2005a). learners’ needs.
- Observation – Understanding real-world language
use (Patton, 2002).

- Classroom Work Samples – Assessing course

effectiveness (Wortham, 1995).

- Focus Group Interviews – Discussing specific

needs (Cohen et al., 2000).

- Instructional Material Evaluation – Ensuring

relevance and real-life application (Cunningsworth,
1995).

6. Treat Needs Analysis as an On-going Activity