BACHELOR OF ARTS - GENERAL

PLB-1111 (Introduction to Political Theory)

Block 1: Understanding Political Theory

UNIT 1: CONCEPT AND NATURE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE, SCOPE

OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning and Definition of Political Science
1.3 Concept and Nature of Political Science
1.4 Scope of Political Science
1.5 Summary
1.6 Exercises
1.7 Readings and References

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Its expanding breadth is also explained by political science. Its scope include the study of the state, the
research of the political system, the study of the government, the study of power, the study of the
individual and his political behavior, and the study of political concerns that either directly or indirectly
affect politics. Political institutions (such as the State, Government, Judiciary, Parliament, Pressure groups,
Political Parties, etc.), Political behaviour, and Human activities, among other things, are the subject matter
of political science, which is a branch of social science that addresses the political issues that affect people.
Additionally, it has connections with other social science disciplines including history, sociology,
philosophy, economics, etc.
Most people believe that Aristotle (384-322 BCE), who introduced empirical observation into the study of
politics, was the discipline's true founder. Some have claimed that Plato (428/427-348/347 BCE), whose
ideal of a stable republic still yields insights and metaphors, was the first political scientist.
Politics at the municipal, state, national, and international levels are the main topics of study in political
science. We are committed to advancing modes of inquiry that support citizenship as well as
understandings of the institutions, behaviors, and relationships that make up public life.

1.2 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

Political Science comprises of two words 'political' and 'science'. The term ‘politics’ is derived from the
Greek word ‘polis’ which means the ‘city-state’. Science is the systematic study of the structure and
behaviour of the physical and natural world through observation, evidence and experiment. So political
science is the branch of knowledge that deals with systematic study of the structure and behaviour of the
state and political institution through scientific analysis
The great Greek philosopher Aristotle was the first to use the term ‘politics’ and is therefore regarded as
the ‘father of Political Science’. In his famous book, "Politics", Aristotle has asserted:"Man is by nature a
political animal and he, who by nature and not by mere accident is without state, is either above humanity
or below it”.

Definitions of Political Science

Traditional definition: These early definitions of political science dealt generally with state and
government.
Dr. Garner, "Political Science begins and ends with the state"
Stephen Leacock, “Political Science deals with the Government only”
Paul Janet, “Political Science is that part of social science which treats the foundations of the State and
the principles of government.”
Modern definition: In the beginning of the 20thcentury there developed a new way of looking at political
science. This new approach is known as behavioural approach. The main thrust of the new view is the
treatment of politics as an activity and a process.
Harold Laswell: “Politics is the study of influence and the influential” or “the study of the shaping and
sharing of power”
David Easton: “Politics is the authoritative allocation of values.”
Catlin: “Political Science is the study of the act of human and social control”.

1.3 CONCEPT AND NATURE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

Politics, governance, and political conduct are all subjects that political science systematically studies. It
aims to comprehend and examine the dynamics, structures, and actions of political systems as well as the
conduct of individuals and social groupings within them. Here are some essential political science ideas:
Politics: Politics is the study of the processes, choices, and actions that affect how resources, authority,
and power are allocated within a society. It includes the procedure for developing and putting into effect
laws, policies, and regulations. Making decisions that affect the constituents of a group or society is the process of
politics. It includes a broad range of institutions and activities, such as politics, government, and other forms of
governance. Here are some significant political factors:
Government: The organization and operations of the government are frequently essential to politics. Governments
are in charge of making and enforcing laws, offering public services, and upholding social order.
Political Parties: Political parties play a significant role in many democratic systems. These groups compete in
elections to control posts in the government, representing various philosophies, interests, and policies.
Elections: An essential component of democratic politics is elections. They give the people the option to select their
representatives, from local politicians to international figures. A key component of democratic governance is the
holding of free and fair elections.
Political Ideologies: Conflicting ideologies and opinions about how society should be run frequently influence
politics. Conservative, liberal, socialist, libertarian, or other mixes of these philosophies are all possible.
Public Policies: Political decisions lead to the development of public policies that deal with problems including
health care, education, the economy, international affairs, and social welfare. The lives of people can be significantly
impacted by policy decisions.
International Relations: Politics includes dealings among many nations. Diplomacy, treaties, commercial
agreements, and international conflicts are all part of international politics.
Political Activism: People and organizations frequently participate in political activism to promote certain causes or
laws. Protests, lobbying, and community organization are a few examples of this.
Political Philosophy: For a very long time, political philosophers have thought about issues such as the nature of
power, justice, and the function of the state. Plato, Aristotle, John Locke, and Karl Marx are just a few of the
thinkers who have influenced political theory.
Power and Influence: Politics frequently revolves around how power and influence are allocated and used.
Decisions made by those in positions of authority have an impact on other people's lives, and many actors try to
influence those decisions.
Civics and citizenship: Political awareness is crucial for responsible citizenship. People who take civics classes
learn about their rights and obligations as citizens, how the government works, and how to get involved in politics.
Government: A specified territory's laws, policies, and regulations are created and enforced by the entity
or system known as the government. It consists of a number of branches, including the executive,
legislative, and judicial branches, which collaborate to administer a country's affairs. “Government" is the
mechanism or body that a society or political entity uses to exercise its power and make decisions on
behalf of its constituents. Governments are essential for keeping the peace, delivering public services,
upholding the law, and protecting the rights of the citizens they are in charge of. There are several different
types of government, each with its own ideals and organization. Several prevalent forms of government
include:
Democracy: Citizens have the right to vote in order to participate in the decision-making process, where
power is vested in the people. Direct democracy (where citizens vote on laws and policies directly) and
representative democracy (where citizens elect representatives to act on their behalf) are the two basic
varieties.
Monarchy: A monarchy is a form of governance in which a single person, sometimes a king or queen,
maintains absolute power. Monarchies can be either absolute (where the ruler has nearly limitless power)
or constitutional (where the ruler's authority is constrained by a legal framework or other regulations).
Oligarchy: An oligarchy is a form of government in which a few people or families control the
government and make choices that affect the entire society. This may depend on one's money, social
standing, or other circumstances.
Authoritarian Systems: Governments that are authoritarian are defined by centralized control and
constrained political freedoms. In authoritarian systems, the ruling elite frequently exert substantial
influence over all facets of the state and society.
Totalitarianism: Governments that practice totalitarianism have complete control over both public and
private life. The state often tries to control every part of society, including the economy and culture, and
individual freedoms are severely curtailed.
Republic: In a republic, authority is controlled by elected individuals who represent the interests of the
people and the government is referred to as a "public matter." Depending on their particular architecture,
republics can be democratic or not.
Federalism: In federal systems, regional or state governments and the federal government share power.
Large nations frequently employ this strategy to guarantee that various regions maintain a certain level of
autonomy while still being a part of a bigger political entity.
Parliamentary System: In a parliamentary system, the legislature (parliament) serves as both the
executive branch's source of legitimacy and its direct source of accountability. Typically, the leader of the
dominant party in parliament serves as the head of state.
Presidential System: In a presidential system, the legislative branch and the executive branch, which is
headed by the president, are distinct from one another. The president is chosen independently from the
legislature and has a set tenure in office.
Communism: The state owns and controls the means of production and distribution under communism,
which is both a political ideology and a system of government. Theoretically, communism seeks to create a
society without classes and with shared ownership of the resources.
Political institutions: The ways in which nations set up and build their political and governmental
institutions are known as political systems. Democracies, authoritarian regimes, monarchies, and
theocracies are typical examples of political structures. Political institutions are the structures,
organizations, and frameworks that direct and support the operation of a political system inside a nation,
state, or other larger political body. These institutions are essential in influencing how a society makes
decisions and conducts politics. The following are some of the major political institutions that are
frequently present in democracies:
Executive: Implementing and upholding laws is the responsibility of the executive branch. The head of
state (such as a president or king) and the head of government (such as a prime minister) are often
included. Various government departments and agencies are also a part of the executive branch.
Legislature: Lawmaking and law-passing are the responsibilities of the legislative branch. In either a
bicameral or unicameral system, elected representatives make up the parliament or congress. There are two
chambers in bicameral systems, often an upper house (the Senate) and a lower body (the House of
Representatives).
Legal System: The country's legal system interprets and applies its laws. It comprises of the legal system,
which includes lesser courts and the Supreme Court or its equivalent. Judges have three main
responsibilities: deciding legal cases, protecting the constitution, and making sure the law is administered
equitably.
Electoral System: The electoral system is the set of regulations and procedures that citizens use to select
their representatives and government officials. To determine how votes translate into seats in the
legislative branch, different nations utilize different electoral systems, such as first-past-the-post,
proportional representation, or a combination of these.
Political Parties: Political parties are formally constituted associations of people who share a common
political ideology and set of objectives. By endorsing candidates for office, energizing the electorate, and
influencing public policy through their platforms and agendas, they play a crucial part in democratic
regimes.
Bureaucracy: Government employees and civil servants who oversee government policies and programs
make up the bureaucracy. They are in charge of carrying out the decisions made by the legislative and
executive branches and frequently offer knowledge and consistency in how government is run.
Fundamental Law: A constitution is a fundamental law that defines the foundation for the political
system, spells out the duties and rights of the people and the government, and establishes the procedures to
be followed by political institutions. There are both written and unwritten constitutions.
Local and Regional Administration: To oversee local issues and services, many nations establish a
system of local and regional administration. Depending on the country's type of government, these
institutions' abilities and duties can differ greatly.
Independent Institutions: To promote accountability, transparency, and the defense of certain interests or
rights inside the political system, several nations have independent bodies, such as a central bank,
ombudsman, or election commission.
Media: Despite not being a recognized political entity, the media is crucial for educating the people,
keeping tabs on governmental actions, and promoting political conversation. A strong democracy requires
a free and independent media.
Political Theory: The study of theories and concepts pertaining to politics and governance is referred to as
political theory. It delves into the philosophical underpinnings of political institutions and examines ideas
like justice, liberty, equality, and rights.
Political Behavior: Investigating how people and groups interact within the political system is known as
political behavior. It covers voting habits, political involvement, public perception, and the conduct of
political leaders.
International Relations: The study of diplomacy, conflict, international organizations, and world politics
are all topics covered in the subfield of international relations, which focuses on the relationships between
nations.
Public Policy: The study of how governments create, carry out, and assess policies to address social
challenges is known as public policy analysis. It takes into account how policies affect both specific people
and society at large.
Political Institutions: The organizations and structures that support a government's operation are referred
to as political institutions. Parliaments, congresses, executive branches, and courts are all included in this.
Political ideologies: Political ideologies are systems of ideas and principles that direct political behaviour
and cognition. Liberalism, conservatism, socialism, and fascism are examples of common political
ideologies.
Political Power: Political power is the capacity to influence or regulate other people's actions and the
choices made within a political system. It can be used by people, organizations, or institutions.
Political Economy: Political economy looks at how politics and economics interact. It investigates the
effects of governmental actions on economic systems and vice versa.
Comparative Politics: Comparative politics entails analyzing and contrasting various political systems.
Understanding the similarities and variations between political systems in various nations is a goal of this
field's academics.
Political Culture: The collective ideals, attitudes, and beliefs that influence societal behavior and attitudes
are referred to as political culture. It may have an impact on political engagement and judgment.
Political Change and Revolution: This field of research focuses on historical transformational events
such as revolutions, shifts from authoritarianism to democracy, and other instances of political change.
History, economics, sociology, psychology, philosophy, and other academic disciplines are all used in the
multidisciplinary field of political science. It is essential in assisting us in comprehending how political
systems operate as well as the difficulties and opportunities they provide to nations all over the world .

Nature of Political Science

According to Aristotle and other scholars, politics is as old as human civilization, and its significance may
be determined by the fact that it affects every facet of daily life, including the economy, culture, social
interactions, and moral standards. What does politics mean, and what constitutes its essence and scope, is
thus a vital topic that arises? These questions are addressed in the sections that follow.
Politics' definition has changed across time and space. During the Middle Ages, Machiavelli in the West
and Kautilya in India gave politics a pragmatic perspective, whereas in Greece and India it was associated
with ethics and conceptualized in theological terms. The term "political" refers to anything having to do
with the state because the word "politics" is derived from the Greek word "polis," which signifies the state.
Political science is therefore described as the study of the state, which includes state theory, government,
and organization. Political scientists like R. G. Gettel, J. W. Garner, Bluntschli, Paul Janet, George Catlin,
Hans Eulan, and many more have endorsed this traditional perspective.
This is a rather limited definition of political science, though, as there are other institutions and groups
operating within the state, such as trade unions and nongovernmental organizations, which, despite being
unofficial, have an impact on both public policies and people's daily lives. Laswell and Robert Dahl,
among other contemporary political theorists, have defined politics in terms of power, influence, and
authority. Therefore, Laswell and Kaplan's definition of political science as the "study of shaping and
sharing of power" has moved the emphasis away from the purely structural and institutional research and
toward the analysis of acts and processes.
Political science is currently described as the study of conflict resolution by Miller and Peter B Haris.
Haris claims that "the modern emphasis in the study of politics is laid on disagreements and reconciliation
or resolution of these disagreements". The definition of political science has evolved in response to
changing conditions and researchers' evolving perceptions, as may be seen from the debate above. These
concepts could be roughly divided between conventional and contemporary political science approaches.
The modern approach has placed more emphasis on the study of what is actually happening in the state,
including the various forces, processes, and informal structures operating within the state, as opposed to
the traditional definition of political science as the study of the state, government, and formal institutions,
which places emphasis on the study of formal legal structures and theoretical part.
The question of whether political science falls inside the purview of pure science has also dominated the
modern approach to the subject. Political Theory became one of the subfields of Political Science after it
emerged as a separate academic field. Political science focuses on describing and understanding the reality
of political behavior, making generalizations based on empirical data about persons and political
institutions, and the function of power in society. Political theory, on the other hand, specifies the
objectives that nations, governments, communities, and citizens should work toward in addition to being
concerned with the actual behavioral study of political occurrences. As a result, it is being questioned
whether political science can be considered a branch of pure science. Both arguments in favor and against
this claim have been made.
Political science lacks scholarly agreement on its definition, nature, and vocabulary, in contrast to natural
science. Additionally, unlike the laws of natural science, which state that two plus two always equals four,
its principles are not precise and clear enough to be allied uniformly. This is due to the fact that political
science works with real people whose behavior cannot be predicted in advance or studied in a lab. As a
result, post-behavioralist, a medium approach to political science, evolved, and political science started to
be seen as both a science and an art. Political science, according to Robert Dahl, "is both a science and an
art. Political analysis can be viewed as scientific whenever political science students compare their
hypotheses to evidence from observation and experience. It is art when this political insight is used to
improve political institutions' operations.
Social sciences include political science. Unlike physical sciences like physics and chemistry, it has a
different nature. We discover many facets of political science's character whenever we examine its
beginnings, development, and evolution. Political science is defined as the systematic study of political
theory, political institutions, political forces, and political processes. When we refer to politics as "political
science," we need to consider how well this field holds up to the definitional requirements of science. We
talk about the characteristics of political science as a social science in this unit.

1.4 SCOPE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

The area of social science known as political science is concerned with the foundations of the state and the
guiding principles of governance. Politics "begins and ends with the state," says J. W. Garner. Politics is
the "study of the state in the past, present, and future," according to R. G. Gettel. In a similar vein, Harold
J. Laski said that the study of politics is concerned with how men and women's lives relate to the
established state. Political science thus addresses those characteristics of people in society that are related
to their organizations and actions committed to gaining power, resolving conflicts, and all of these within a
general framework of the rule and law as established by the state.
The subject matter or content of political science is referred to as its scope. Different political theorists
disagree on the precise parameters of politics. Political science language and definitions are vague, which
has led to confusion about the topic. Despite the ambiguity and disagreement in the field, the following are
some of the different components of political science that are studied: -
Political scientists gathered in September 1948 in the UNESCO House to discuss current political issues.
Political Science is the Study of Political Theories:
Political scientists have focused on developing political theories and concepts throughout history. For
instance, Plato described the Ideal State and the Theory of Justice, and Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau
described the Theory of the Origin of the State. These theories allow us to categorize their observations
and provide a framework for further observations and research.
Political Institutions:
Studying political science entails learning about numerous constitutions, as well as the benefits and
drawbacks of various forms of governance, such as parliamentary, presidential, dictatorial, democratic, and
coalition governments. Such a study enables us to change our political structures in order to achieve our
objectives.
Political Parties and Pressure Groups:
It examines the various political party structures, as well as their significance. Interest and pressure
organizations are growing more significant. Political science examines their function, tactics, and other
political system-specific elements. This increases the realism of political science education. Political
opposition, pressure organizations Governments are not formally formed by non-governmental
organizations (NGOS). They have an indirect impact on governmental decisions and policies. As a result,
if the study of governance is restricted to the study of government, it is insufficient.
International Relations:
It covers the study of international politics and organizations. States don't exist in a vacuum. Foreign and
domestic policies are intertwined. Therefore, in these days of globalization, studying international relations
is more important than ever.
Political Science is the Study of the relationship between government and civil society:
The two components of the state are the government and civil society. Both organizations have different
effects on governance. Citizens, non-governmental organizations (NGOS), advocacy groups, and
opposition political parties make up civil society. Civil society has an indirect impact on governance by
persuading the government to adopt particular policies. whereas the government has the ability and
capacity to actively affect governance. Consequently, one key factor affecting state governance is the
interaction between the government and civil society. Political science investigates this connection to learn
more about the nature of the state and the effectiveness of governance.
It is the study of Power, Authority, Influences, Political activities, Political Processes:
Political science is both empirical and normative. Political science's normative approach examines
standards, values, morals, and political philosophy, such as what the ideal state should be like. Political
science's empirical approach involves scientifically observing and analyzing political institutions and
actions as they actually occur.
Morgenthau said scope of Political-Science includes three branches:
Political institutions, political philosophy, and political sociology. Modern political scientists consider
society to be a cohesive totality. Any modification to a person's social environment has an impact on that
person's political life. The effects of social, psychological, economic, and cultural forces are unavoidable
for the modern state. As stated by Leacock Political science must consider the process of change and
evolution as well as the shifting social and intellectual environment. It cannot limit itself to analyzing
political institutions as they are at any given time.
‘Master Science’:
Political science is the "Master Science," according to Aristotle, because it creates the context in which
each individual will arrange his existence. Nobody can claim to have no involvement in politics. Nobody
can evade the limitations imposed by politics. Between a man's personal and political life, the ancient
Greeks made no separation. They contend that politics is the comprehensive study of people, society, the
state, morality, etc.
Study of Political System and its Environments:
There are numerous political systems that operate in various environments. Political science examines
them in light of the remarks made and feedback received. The other systems are impacted by the policies
of one system. Political choices are not made in a vacuum either. These are influenced by social
institutions, economic structure, and the overall setting in which the state operates.

Other Scope of Political Science:

The study of politics, governance, and public policy is explored in the large and vibrant discipline of
political science. Political science has a broad range of topics within its purview, and it is relevant to many
facets of human civilization. In the realm of political science, the following are some important areas:
Political Theory: It examines the underlying tenets of political ideologies and systems. It focuses on
issues of justice, rule of law, and the function of the state.
Comparative Politics: It compares various political structures, institutions, and modes of political conduct
between nations. It analyzes governmental operations, election processes, and political structures.
International Relations: It focuses on international organizations, diplomacy, conflict, and other cross-
national relations. It analyzes how globalization has affected political processes.
Political Economy: It investigates how politics and economics are related. It examines how political
institutions affect economic decisions and outcomes.
Public Policy and Administration: It investigates the formulation, application, and assessment of
governmental policies. It examines the operation of government agencies and the work of the bureaucracy.
Political Methodology: It creates and uses research techniques to investigate political phenomena. Its use
both quantitative and qualitative research methods.
Political Sociology: It examines the sociological facets of politics, such as the examination of political
institutions, behavior, and ideology. It examines the impact of social structures on political processes.
Political Geography: It examines the geographic component of political processes. It examines how
geography, politics, and international relations are related.
Political Psychology: It investigates the psychological elements determining political beliefs and actions.
It examines how personality, feelings, and thought processes affect political decision-making.
Environmental Politics: It examines environmental concerns and sustainable development from a
political perspective. It examines the governmental reactions to environmental problems.
Human Rights and Justice: It focuses on themes of equality, social justice, and human rights. It examines
how politics affects how laws and morals are created.
Political Communication: It investigates the function of communication and the media in political
processes. It investigates how public opinion is affected by the transmission of information.
As the political climate throughout the world evolves, political science's field of study is constantly
changing. Political scientists make significant contributions to the public debate, policymaking, and our
comprehension of the intricacies of governance and society. Political science is a dynamic and significant
topic of study due to its multidisciplinary nature, which enables links with other disciplines.
1.5 SUMMARY
In conclusion, political science covers a wide range of subjects that investigate the theory, application, and
dynamics of political systems and government. Political science aims to comprehend the intricacies of
human interaction in the context of power and authority through the study of political philosophy and
ideologies as well as the research of political institutions, behaviors, and policies. Addition to national
boundaries, political science also examines international relations and global governing systems. It
explores the complexities of diplomacy, how to settle disputes, and how economic, social, and cultural
issues interact on a global scale.
Furthermore, political science has real-world applications that influence public policy, influence political
discourse, and help create just and efficient government. It is not merely an academic discipline. As
civilizations change, so does the field of political science, which adapts to face new problems such
advancing technology, environmental problems, and changes in social norms.
Political science is an interdisciplinary field that can use knowledge from sociology, economics, history,
law, and other disciplines to create a comprehensive understanding of political processes. In essence,
political science's field of study is a dynamic environment that reflects the dynamic character of politics in
general. It is still an essential study for individuals who want to understand, explore, and contribute to the
intricate web of connections that underpins political institutions and cultures all over the world.

1.6 EXERCISES
1. What are the fundamental definitions of political science, and how have they evolved over time?
2. How does political science distinguish itself from other social sciences in terms of its focus and
methodology?
3. In what ways does political science intersect with fields like economics, sociology, and history?
4. How do different political theorists define the core objectives of political science?
5. What are the primary concepts and terms central to understanding political science?
6. What are the primary areas of study within political science?
7. How does the empirical nature of political science contribute to its study and analysis?
8. In what ways does normative political theory differ from empirical political science?
9. How do quantitative and qualitative methods complement each other in political science research?

1.7 READINGS AND REFERECES

Almond, G. A., & Powell, G. B. (1996). Comparative Politics Today: A World View (6th ed.). New York,
NY: HarperCollins.
Dahl, R. A. (2000). On Democracy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Easton, D. (1965). A Systems Analysis of Political Life. New York, NY: Wiley.
Goodin, R. E., & Klingemann, H.-D. (Eds.). (1996). A New Handbook of Political Science. Oxford,
England: Oxford University Press.
Heywood, A. (2015). Key Concepts in Politics and International Relations. London, England: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Huntington, S. P. (1996). The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York, NY:
Simon & Schuster.
Lijphart, A. (1999). Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries.
New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Marsh, D., & Stoker, G. (Eds.). (2010). Theory and Methods in Political Science (3rd ed.). Basingstoke,
England: Palgrave Macmillan.
Putnam, R. D. (1993). Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
Shively, W. P. (2018). Power & Choice: An Introduction to Political Science (15th ed.). New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill Education. Almond, G. A., & Powell, G. B. (1996). Comparative Politics Today: A
World View (6th ed.). New York, NY: HarperCollins.
Dahl, R. A. (2000). On Democracy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Easton, D. (1965). A Systems Analysis of Political Life. New York, NY: Wiley.
Goodin, R. E., & Klingemann, H.-D. (Eds.). (1996). A New Handbook of Political Science. Oxford,
England: Oxford University Press.
Heywood, A. (2015). Key Concepts in Politics and International Relations. London, England: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Huntington, S. P. (1996). The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York, NY:
Simon & Schuster.
Lijphart, A. (1999). Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries.
New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Marsh, D., & Stoker, G. (Eds.). (2010). Theory and Methods in Political Science (3rd ed.). Basingstoke,
England: Palgrave Macmillan.
Putnam, R. D. (1993). Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
Shively, W. P. (2018). Power & Choice: An Introduction to Political Science (15th ed.). New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill Education.

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