Semantic Technologies

(Knowledge Graphs and All That)

Michael Zakharyaschev
Department of Computer Science and Information Systems

Birkbeck, University of London

– email: zmishaz@gmail.com
– homepage: http://www.dcs.bbk.ac.uk/~michael
– ST Web page: http://www.dcs.bbk.ac.uk/~michael/sw15/sw15.html
 Acknowledgements

When working on this module, I used some materials developed by

• Prof. Dr. Markus Krötzsch (Dresden)

https://iccl.inf.tu-dresden.de/web/Knowledge_Graphs_(WS2018/19)

• Prof. Dr. Jens Lehmann (Leipzig)

https://sewiki.iai.uni-bonn.de/teaching/lectures/kga/2018/start

• Prof. Dr. Sebastian Rudolph (Dresden)

https://iccl.inf.tu-dresden.de/web/Foundations_of_Semantic_Web_
Technologies_(SS2017)/en

• Prof. Martin Giese (Oslo)

Special thanks are due to Prof Frank Wolter (Liverpool),

Dr Stanislav Kikot (Oxford) and Dr Roman Kontchakov (London)

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 Knowledge Graphs are everywhere
Knowledge Graphs Everywhere

All company logos subject to copyrights. All rights reserved.

Markus Krötzsch, 16th Oct 2018 Knowledge Graphs slide 8 of 25

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 Knowledge Graphs are everywhere
Knowledge Graphs Everywhere

All company logos subject to copyrights. All rights reserved.

Markus Krötzsch, 16th Oct 2018 Knowledge Graphs slide 8 of 25
What is a knowledge graph?
Google: “... we have been working on an intelligent model — in geek-speak, a
‘graph’— that understands real-world entities and their relationships to one another:
things, not strings.”
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 What is a Knowledge Graph?
The original “Knowledge
Google Graph” (Google, 2012):
Knowledge Graph (2012)

(c) Google. All rights reserved.

Things, not Strings!
Markus Krötzsch, 16th Oct 2018 Knowledge Graphs slide 9 of 25

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 What is a Knowledge Graph?
The original “Knowledge
Google Graph” (Google, 2012):
Knowledge Graph (2012)

(c) Google. All rights reserved.

Things, not Strings!
Markus Krötzsch, 16th Oct 2018 Knowledge Graphs slide 9 of 25

– Google’s Knowledge Vault – Wikidata

– Yahoo!’s Knowledge Graph – DBpedia
– Microsoft’s Bing Satori – YAGO
– Facebook’s Entities Graph – Amazon Neptune
– LinkedIn knowledge graph – Apple also working ...

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 What is a Knowledge Graph?
The original “Knowledge
Google Graph” (Google, 2012):
Knowledge Graph (2012)

(c) Google. All rights reserved.

Things, not Strings!
Markus Krötzsch, 16th Oct 2018 Knowledge Graphs slide 9 of 25

– Google’s Knowledge Vault – Wikidata

– Yahoo!’s Knowledge Graph – DBpedia
– Microsoft’s Bing Satori – YAGO
– Facebook’s Entities Graph – Amazon Neptune
– LinkedIn knowledge graph – Apple also working ...

Exercise: Represent the information on page 1 as a ‘knowledge graph’

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 So, what is a Knowledge Graph?

“...major companies such as Google, Yahoo!, Microsoft, and Facebook have

created their own ‘knowledge graphs’ that power semantic searches and
enable smarter processing and delivery of data. The use of these knowledge
graphs is now the norm rather than the exception” (ISWC 2014)
however, there is no precise definition of knowledge graphs...

Intuitively, a Knowledge Graph is a knowledge base in the form of graph

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 So, what is a Knowledge Graph?

“...major companies such as Google, Yahoo!, Microsoft, and Facebook have

created their own ‘knowledge graphs’ that power semantic searches and
enable smarter processing and delivery of data. The use of these knowledge
graphs is now the norm rather than the exception” (ISWC 2014)
however, there is no precise definition of knowledge graphs...

Intuitively, a Knowledge Graph is a knowledge base in the form of graph

What is a knowledge base?

• “A technology to store complex structured and unstructured information

used by a computer system. . . represents facts about the world”(Wikipedia)
• “A collection of knowledge expressed using some formal knowledge repre-
sentation language.” (Free Online Dictionary of Computing)
• “A store of information or data that is available to draw on; the underlying
set of facts, assumptions, and rules which a computer system has available
to solve a problem. (Google Dictionary)

Knowledge bases will be discussed throughout this module

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 What is a Graph?

Graphs are ‘drawings’ with dots and (not necessarily straight) lines or arrows:

x u uy a u ub
1 u
I - uI
2
@ 
@ Z
@ Z
@ Z
= ZZ
u ~ u3
?
z u u
d u u 4
@
w c J

The dots are called vertices (or nodes).

The lines or arrows are called edges.

Formally, a graph is a structure G = (V, E) where V is a non-empty set (of

vertices) and E a set of (ordered or unordered) pairs of vertices (i.e., edges)

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 Different kinds of graphs

Type Edges Multiple edges Loop edges

(simple) graph undirected no no

multigraph undirected yes yes

directed graph directed no yes

... ... ... ...

Because graphs have applications in a variety of disciplines,

many different terminologies of graph theory have been introduced.

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 Example 1: Niche overlap graphs in ecology

Competitions between species in an ecosystem can be modelled using

a niche overlap graph:
Each species is represented by a vertex. An edge connects two vertices if the
two species represented by these vertices compete
(that is, some of the food resources they use are the same).

Racoon u
H u
H u Owl
HH Hawk HH
H H
HH HH
u HHuSquirrel HHu Crow
H H
Opossum XXX
XXX H
HH
XXX
XXXHH
XXH
Shrew u u X u Woodpecker
XHXH
Mouse

; simple graph (with labelled vertices)

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 Example 2: Road networks

x x
Oxford London

x x
Cambridge Brighton

; multigraph

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 Example 3: ‘Knowledge Graph’

; directed labelled graph

What are the labels (in the context of the Web)?

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 Example 3: ‘Knowledge Graph’

; directed labelled graph

What are the labels (in the context of the Web)?

Why ‘graphs’? What about relational databases?
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 The World Wide Web
...
15th century: industrial society, knowledge-based economy
J. Gutenberg developed a moveable type in 1447,
a mechanism to speed the printing of Bibles

...
21st century: information society, digital economy

T. Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989 at CERN

to provide rapid, electronic access to online technical
reports created by the high-energy physics labs

• social contacts (social networking platforms, blogging, . . . )

• economics (buying, selling, advertising, . . . )
• administration (e-government)
• education (e-learning, . . . )
• etc.
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 The Semantic Web

TBL’s vision of the Web was much more ambitious:

“I have a dream for the Web [in which computers] become capable
of analyzing all the data on the Web — the content, links,
and transactions between people and computers.
A Semantic Web , which should make this possible, has yet to emerge,
but when it does, the day-to-day mechanisms of trade, bureaucracy
and our daily lives will be handled by machines talking to machines. The
intelligent agents people have touted for ages will finally materialize.”
(Berners-Lee, 1999)

The Semantic Web is a ‘web of data’ that facilitates machines to understand the
semantics, or meaning, of information on the WWW. It extends the network of hy-
perlinked human-readable web pages by inserting machine-readable metadata
about pages and how they are related to each other, enabling automated agents
to access the Web more intelligently and perform tasks on behalf of users

Berners-Lee is now the director of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C),
which oversees the development of Semantic Web standards.
Since 2013, Semantic Web activities have been subsumed by
Web of Data activities
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 Understanding the problem with WWW

How can we answer the queries:

Where does MZ work?

What is his research area?
Did he publish a book?
What is his academic position?
...

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 Understanding the problem with WWW

How can we answer the queries:

Where does MZ work?

What is his research area?
Did he publish a book?
What is his academic position?
...
Google ‘Michael Zakharyaschev’

The Web page contains enough

information to answer the queries

• but this information is implicit

• we understand it because we ‘know’ the context
• while machines cannot make sense of it

Task: can we make the data on the Web explicit and machine readable ?

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 How to make the data on the Web more accessible?

ks at
wor

publish
ed by

• some extra information—metadata—must be

added to links and data
• this information links data to other data and
gives meaning to (characterises) links & data
• this information must be machine readable
• this should be done in a standard way

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 How to make the data on the Web more accessible?

ks at
wor

publish
ed by

• some extra information—metadata—must be

added to links and data
• this information links data to other data and
gives meaning to (characterises) links & data
• this information must be machine readable Web of Data
• this should be done in a standard way
‘Knowledge Graph’
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 Linked Data
a method of publishing structured data so that it can be interlinked and become useful through
semantic queries. It builds upon standard Web technologies such as HTTP, RDF and URIs,
and enables data from different sources to be connected and queried. Linked Data in 2017

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 Linked Data basic principles

1. Use URIs (uniform resource identifiers) to name (identify) things

2. Use HTTP URIs so that these things can be looked up

(interpreted, ‘dereferenced’)

3. Provide useful information about what a name identifies when it’s looked up,
using open standards such as RDF , SPARQL , etc.

4. Refer to other things using their HTTP URI-based names when publishing
data on the Web.

– All kinds of conceptual things, they have names now that start with HTTP.
– If I take one of these HTTP names and I look it up, I will get back some data in a
standard format which is kind of useful data that somebody might like to know about
that thing, about that event.
– When I get back that information it’s not just got somebody’s height and weight and
when they were born, it’s got relationships. And when it has relationships, whenever
it expresses a relationship then the other thing that it’s related to is given one of
those names that starts with HTTP.
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 Another application of KGs: data integration

Bookstore dataset A (relational database)

ID Author Title Publisher Year
ISBN-0-00-651409-X id xyz The Glass Palace id qpr 2000

ID Name Home Page

id xyz Ghosh, Amitav http://www.amitavghosh.com

ID Publisher City
id qpr Harper Collins London

Bookstore dataset F (Excel sheet)

A B C D
1 ID Titre Traducteur Original
2 ISBN0-20203886682 Le Palais des miroirs A13 ISBN-0-00-651409-X
...
6 ID Auteur
7 ISBN-0-00-651409-X A12
...
11 Nom
Query: what is the title of the original?
12 Ghosh, Amitav
13 Besse, Christianne (no answer)
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 Merge in an abstract graph data model
(two identical URIs merged)

Glass Palace a:title

http://.../isbn/000651409X
2000 a:year
r
a:city lis he
London ub Le Palais des miroirs
a:p

ur
r

f:o
ho

ute
e
a:p nam

ut

r ig
Harper Collins

f:a
a

ina
a:

e
f:titr
l
Ghosh, Amitav
a:name
f:nom http://.../isbn/2020386682
e
ag eur
ep ct
om du
h ra
a: Ghosh, Amitav f:t
www.amitavghosh.com
f:n
om

Besse, Christianne
Query: give me the title of the original (Glass Palace)
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 Add more information

The data representation on previous page can be constructed by the machine

but the machine doesn’t know that a:author and f:auteur should be the same

We can add some extra information to the merged data:

• a:author is equivalent to f:auteur

• both refer to a ‘Person’ (every a:author is a person)
• the term ‘Person’ may already be defined by the Web community
• anyway, we may state that
• a Person is uniquely identified by the name and homepage
• can be used as a category for certain type of resources
This will provide answers to more queries, e.g.,
Query: give me the home page of the original’s auteur

• The dataset can be further combined with other sources such as Wikipedia

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 Extending merged data

Glass Palace a:title

http://.../isbn/000651409X
2000 a:year
r
he
a:city blis

r
London Le Palais des miroirs
:pu

eu
a

ut

f:o
:a
e

f
a:p nam

r ig
Harper Collins

r,
o
th

ina

e
au

f:titr
l
a:
Ghosh, Amitav
a:name
http://.../isbn/2020386682
e
ag e ur
p ct
r:ty

e u
om ad
pe

h r
a: f: t
www.amitavghosh.com
e
foaf:Person r:typ f:n
om

Besse, Christianne
Query: give me the home page of the original’s auteur

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 What did we do?

1. We combined different datasets, which

• are somewhere on the Web,
• are of different formats (Mysql, Excel, HTML, etc.),
• have different names for relations,
into a “knowledge graph”

2. We could combine the data because some URIs were identical

3. We could add some simple extra information (the ‘glue’),

possibly using common terminologies produced by the community

As a result, new relations could be found and retrieved

It can become even more powerful if we add extra knowledge such as:
• a full classification of various types of library data
• geographical information
• etc.
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 What are Semantic Technoligies?

Semantic Technologies can be thought of as a collection of

standard technologies to realise a Web of Data

The examples above show that we need:

1. formal, machine understandable languages to describe, query, etc.

the data and their connections

2. formal ‘rules’ that allow the machines to extract information from the data
(classify, query, etc.)

3. corresponding technologies and efficient tools

And apart from that, we need

4. ‘ontologies’ in those languages that describe various types of data

In this module, we consider some fundamental aspects of these problems

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 What is Semantics?

Semantics (Greek semantikos, giving signs, significant, symptomatic, from sema, sign)
refers to the aspects of meaning that are expressed in a language, code, or
other form of representation.

In other words, semantics refers to the meanings assigned to symbols and sets
of symbols in a language.

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 What is Semantics?

Semantics (Greek semantikos, giving signs, significant, symptomatic, from sema, sign)
refers to the aspects of meaning that are expressed in a language, code, or
other form of representation.

In other words, semantics refers to the meanings assigned to symbols and sets
of symbols in a language.

Is it hard to explain the meaning of, say, ‘a pint of ale’

• to a human?

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 What is Semantics?

Semantics (Greek semantikos, giving signs, significant, symptomatic, from sema, sign)
refers to the aspects of meaning that are expressed in a language, code, or
other form of representation.

In other words, semantics refers to the meanings assigned to symbols and sets
of symbols in a language.

Is it hard to explain the meaning of, say, ‘a pint of ale’

• to a human?

• to a computer?

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 What is Semantics?

Semantics (Greek semantikos, giving signs, significant, symptomatic, from sema, sign)
refers to the aspects of meaning that are expressed in a language, code, or
other form of representation.

In other words, semantics refers to the meanings assigned to symbols and sets
of symbols in a language.

Is it hard to explain the meaning of, say, ‘a pint of ale’

• to a human?

• to a computer?

Now let’s check at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ale

http://dbpedia.org/page/Ale
https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208385

analyse the ‘explanations’

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 Ontology: origins and history

Ontology in Philosophy
a philosophical discipline — a branch of phi-
oντ oλoγiα losophy that deals with the nature and the
organisation of reality

• Science of Being (Aristotle, Metaphysics, IV, 1)

• Tries to answer the questions:

– What characterises being?

– Eventually, what is being?

• How should things be classified?

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 Ontology in Philosophy

In philosophy, ontology is the study of being or existence.

It aims to find out what entities and types of entities exist:

• What exists?
• Is existence a property?
• What is an object?
• Do non-physical
(abstract) objects exist?
• How things
should be classified?

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 Ontology in Philosophy

In philosophy, ontology is the study of being or existence.

It aims to find out what entities and types of entities exist:

• What exists?
Aristotle’s ontology:
• Is existence a property?
• What is an object?
• Do non-physical
(abstract) objects exist?
• How things
should be classified?

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 Ontology in Computer Science

An ontology is an engineering artefact

• It is constituted by a specific vocabulary used to describe a certain reality,

plus
• a set of explicit assumptions regarding the intended meaning
of the vocabulary. (Almost always including how concepts should be classified.)

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 Ontology in Computer Science

An ontology is an engineering artefact

• It is constituted by a specific vocabulary used to describe a certain reality,

plus
• a set of explicit assumptions regarding the intended meaning
of the vocabulary. (Almost always including how concepts should be classified.)

Thus, an ontology describes a formal specification of a certain domain:

• Shared understanding of a domain of interest

• Formal and machine manipulable model of a domain of interest

“An explicit specification of a conceptualisation”

[Tom Gruber 1993]

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 Schema.org

Schema.org was launched in 2011 by Bing, Google, Yahoo!, Yandex (largest

search engines) to create and support a common set of schemas for structured
data markup on web pages

They propose using the schema.org vocabulary along with the Microdata, RDFa,
or JSON-LD formats to mark up website content with metadata about itself.
Such markup can be recognised by search engine spiders and other parsers,
thus gaining access to the meaning of the sites.
Inspired by earlier formats such as Microformats, FOAF, OpenCyc.

To test the validity of the data marked up with the schemas and Microdata,
such validators as the Google Structured Data Testing Tool, Yandex Microformat
validator and Bing Markup Validator can be used.

Some Schema markups such as Organization and Person are used to influence
Google’s Knowledge Graph results. http://schema.org/Person
How to mark up your content using microdata: http://schema.org/docs/gs.html

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 Google’s Knowledge Graph

The Knowledge Graph is a knowledge base used by Google to enhance its

search engine’s search results with semantic-search information gathered from
a wide variety of sources. Knowledge Graph display was added to Google’s
search engine in 2012.

It uses a graph database to provide structured and detailed information about

the topic in addition to a list of links to other sites. The goal is that users would
be able to use this information to resolve their query without having to navigate
to other sites and assemble the information themselves. The short summary
provided in the knowledge graph is often used as a spoken answer in Google
Assistant searches.

According to some news websites, the implementation of Google’s Knowledge

Graph has played a role in the page view decline of various language versions
of Wikipedia. As of the end of 2016, knowledge graph holds over 70 billion facts.

https://www.google.com/intl/bn/insidesearch/features/search/knowledge.html

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 Wikidata

Wikidata is a free and open knowledge base that can be read and edited by
both humans and machines. Wikidata acts as central storage for the structured
data of its Wikimedia sister projects including
Wikipedia, Wikivoyage, Wikisource, and others.
Wikidata is a document-oriented database, focused on items. Each item represents
a topic and is identified by a unique ID. Information is added to items by creating
statements. Statements take the form of key-value pairs.

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 Wikidata

Wikidata is a free and open knowledge base that can be read and edited by
both humans and machines. Wikidata acts as central storage for the structured
data of its Wikimedia sister projects including
Wikipedia, Wikivoyage, Wikisource, and others.
Wikidata is a document-oriented database, focused on items. Each item represents
a topic and is identified by a unique ID. Information is added to items by creating
statements. Statements take the form of key-value pairs.

also http://wiki.dbpedia.org

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 Ontologies in sciences
• Bioinformatics

– The Gene Ontology, The Protein Ontology MGED, etc.

• Medicine

– The Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine Clinical Terms (SNOMED CT) On-

tology: a Core terminology of over 364,000 health care concepts;
more than 984,000 descriptions; ≈ 1.45 million semantic relationships.

Pericardium is-a Tissue and containedIn . Heart

Pericarditis is-a Inflammation and hasLocation . Pericardium
Inflammation is-a Disease and actsOn . Tissue
Disease and hasLocation . containedIn . Heart is-a
HeartDisease and NeedsTreatment
• Linguistics
• Database integration
• User interface design
• Fractal Indexing
• ...
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 Semantic Technologies at the BBC

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 BBC Online

Launched in the mid 1990s, the BBC website was focused on supporting

– broadcast brands such as Top Gear as well as

– domain-specific sites: news, food, gardening, etc.

BBC Web-based service is one of the most visited websites and the world’s largest news
website. As of 2007, it contained over two million pages

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 BBC Online

Launched in the mid 1990s, the BBC website was focused on supporting

– broadcast brands such as Top Gear as well as

– domain-specific sites: news, food, gardening, etc.

BBC Web-based service is one of the most visited websites and the world’s largest news
website. As of 2007, it contained over two million pages

Focus has been on separate, standalone HTML microsites that are

not linked together and to other data sources on the Web

difficult to find everything BBC has published about any given object

cannot navigate from a page about a musician to

a page with all the programmes that have played that artist,
to their biography, etc.

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 Creating a website for the Football World Cup 2010

32 teams, 8 groups, 776 players

too many pages to create, too few journalists to create & manage content

Solution use Semantic Technologies:

– ontology describes the interrelation between facts of the World Cup
– all such metadata stored as RDF triples

Example: ‘Frank Lampard’ is part of ‘England Squad’

‘England Squad’ competes in ‘Group C’ of the ‘FIFA World Cup 2010’

“The underlying publishing framework does not author content directly; rather
it publishes data about the content — metadata. The published metadata
describes the world cup content at a fairly low-level of granularity, provid-
ing rich content relationships and semantic navigation. By querying this
published metadata we are able to create dynamic page aggregations
for teams, groups and players.”

Jem Rayfield, Senior Technical Architect, BBC News and Knowledge

http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/bbcinternet/2010/07/bbc_world_cup_2010_dynamic_sem.html
Semantic Technologies 1 35
 The BBC website for the Football World Cup 2010

– Inference for enrichment of the data and SPARQL for queries

– In addition, the ontology contains parts written by journalists:

stories, blogs, profiles, images, videos and strategies

– Journalistic articles are tagged automatically (NLP techniques) and manually

– Stats and scores from other sources are imported from XML and
mapped to ontological concepts

– Web pages are created automatically and contain relevant references

– Use of the technique also for the 2012 Olympic Games in London

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 The BBC Football World Cup 2010

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 The underlying architecture

– Information is dynamically aggregated from external, publicly available data

– All data available as Linked Open Data
– Data access via simple HTTP request
– Data is always up-to-date without manual interaction
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 Data access in industry
(from Norwegian Petroleum Directorate’s FactPages)

show me the wellbores completed before 2008 where Equinor as a

drilling operator sampled less than 10 meters of cores

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 Data access in industry
(from Norwegian Petroleum Directorate’s FactPages)

show me the wellbores completed before 2008 where Equinor as a

drilling operator sampled less than 10 meters of cores

5 days later:
SELECT DISTINCT cores.wlbName, cores.lenghtM, wellbore.wlbDrillingOperator, wellbore.wlbCompletionYear
FROM
( (SELECT wlbName, wlbNpdidWellbore, (wlbTotalCoreLength * 0.3048) AS lenghtM
FROM wellbore core
WHERE wlbCoreIntervalUom = ’[ft ]’ )
UNION
(SELECT wlbName, wlbNpdidWellbore, wlbTotalCoreLength AS lenghtM
FROM wellbore core
WHERE wlbCoreIntervalUom = ’[m ]’ )
) as cores,
( (SELECT wlbNpdidWellbore, wlbDrillingOperator, wlbCompletionYear
FROM wellbore development all
UNION
(SELECT wlbNpdidWellbore, wlbDrillingOperator, wlbCompletionYear
FROM wellbore exploration all )
UNION
(SELECT wlbNpdidWellbore, wlbDrillingOperator, wlbCompletionYear
FROM wellbore shallow all )
) as wellbore
WHERE wellbore.wlbNpdidWellbore = cores.wlbNpdidWellbore
...
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 Data access in industry
(from Norwegian Petroleum Directorate’s FactPages)

show me the wellbores completed before 2008 where Equinor as a

drilling operator sampled less than 10 meters of cores

5 days later:
SELECT DISTINCT cores.wlbName, cores.lenghtM, wellbore.wlbDrillingOperator, wellbore.wlbCompletionYear
FROM
( (SELECT wlbName, wlbNpdidWellbore, (wlbTotalCoreLength * 0.3048) AS lenghtM
FROM wellbore core
WHERE wlbCoreIntervalUom = ’[ft ]’ )
UNION
(SELECT wlbName, wlbNpdidWellbore, wlbTotalCoreLength AS lenghtM
FROM wellbore core
WHERE wlbCoreIntervalUom = ’[m ]’ )
) as cores, at Equinor (former Statoil):
( (SELECT wlbNpdidWellbore, wlbDrillingOperator, wlbCompletionYear
FROM wellbore development all
UNION 1,000 TB of relational data
(SELECT wlbNpdidWellbore, wlbDrillingOperator, wlbCompletionYear
FROM wellbore exploration all )
UNION 2,000 tables
(SELECT wlbNpdidWellbore, wlbDrillingOperator, wlbCompletionYear
FROM wellbore shallow all )
) as wellbore different schemas
WHERE wellbore.wlbNpdidWellbore = cores.wlbNpdidWellbore
... 30–70% of time on data gathering
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 Ontology-based data access (OBDA)

SELECT DISTINCT ?unit ?well

WHERE {
[] npdv:stratumForWellbore ?wellboreURI ;
query
npdv:inLithostratigraphicUnit [ npdv:name ?unit ] .
?wellboreURI npdv:name ?well .
?core a npdv:WellboreCore ; ProductionWellbore
npdv:coreForWellbore ?wellboreURI . ∪
}
Wellbore coreForWellbore WellboreCore

[] rdf:type rr:TriplesMap;
rr:logicalTable "select * from wellbore core"; stratumForWellbore
rr:subjectMap [ a rr:TermMap;
rr:template "&npd-v2;wellbore/{wlbNpdidWellbore}/";];
rr:propertyObjectMap [ rr:property npdv:coreIntervalBottom; WellboreStratum ontology
rr:column "wlbCoreIntervalBottom" ];
... mappings
A B C D
1
2
CREATE TABLE wellbore core ( 3
wlbName varchar(60) NOT NULL, 4
wlbCoreNumber int(11) NOT NULL, 5
wlbCoreIntervalTop decimal(13,6),
)
... data sources

Ontology
– gives a high-level conceptual view of the data
– provides a convenient & natural vocabulary for user queries
– enriches incomplete data with background knowledge
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