Forging

Dr.K. Santhy
Associate Professor
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
CARE Group of Institutions
Tiruchirappalli – 620 009

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 Content
• Classification of forging processes
• Forging equipment and operations
• Open die forging
• Closed die forging
• Plane strain forging analysis
• Forging defects
• Metallurgical variables associated with forging
• Powder metallurgy forging
• Residual stresses in forging

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 Forging
• Forging is the working of metal into a useful shape by
hammering or pressing.
• The oldest of the metalworking arts (primitive blacksmith).
• Replacement of machinery occurred during early the
Industrial revolution.
• Forging machines are now capable of making parts ranging in
size of a bolt to a turbine rotor.
• Most forging operations are carried out hot, although certain
metals may be cold-forged.

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Range of cold, warm and hot forged parts

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 Examples such as coins, medals, cutlery and
various hand tools, as well as cold-coined hot
forged parts

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• Forging is basically involves plastic deformation of
material between two dies to achieve desired
configuration. Depending upon complexity of the
part forging is carried out as open die forging and
closed die forging.
• In open die forging, the metal is compressed by
repeated blows by a mechanical hammer or
manually.
• In closed or impression die forging, the desired
configuration is obtained by squeezing the workpiece
between two shaped and closed dies.

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Open Die Forging

Closed Die Forging

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8
• Open-die forging is
carried out between
flat dies or dies of very
simple shape.
• The process is used for
mostly large objects or
when the number of
parts produced is
small.
• Open-die forging is
often used to preform
the workpiece for
closed-die forging.
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• In closed die forging, the
workpiece is squeezed
between two die halves
which carry the impressions
of the desired final shape.
• The workpiece is deformed
under high pressure in a
closed cavity.
• The process provide
precision forging with close
dimensional tolerance.
• Closed dies are expensive.

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• On squeezing the die cavity gets completely filled and excess
material comes out around the periphery of the die as flash
which is later trimmed.
• Press forging and drop forging are two popular methods in
closed die forging.
• In press forging the metal is squeezed slowly by a hydraulic or
mechanical press and component is produced in a single
closing of die, hence the dimensional accuracy is much better
than drop forging.
• Both open and closed die forging processes are carried out in
hot as well as in cold state.
• In forging favourable grain orientation of metal is obtained

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 Grain orientation in forging

Forging Machining

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 Closed Die Forging
Rough- Finishing Trimming Final
Billet Preshaped
forge die die product

Flash is the excess metal, which

squirts out of the cavity as a
thick ribbon of metal.

Figure: Typical curve of forging load vs. stroke

for closed-die forging.
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Functions of flash:
• Acts as a ‘safety value’ for excess metal
• Regulates the escape of metal
• Thin flash, builds up high pressure to ensure that the
metal fills all recesses of the die cavity.

Flash gutter:
For wide flash, a ridge is
provided
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Metal flow is influenced by the part
geometry.
• Spherical and block like shapes are
easy
• Shapes with thin and long sections or
projections (ribs and webs) are
difficult
– due to high surface area per unit volume
– Friction and temperature effects are high
– Forging ties must be tapered to facilitate
removal of the finished parts.
– Draft allowance is ~50

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 Classification of Forging

Press
Closed Die Forging
Forging Drop
Forging
Open die Forging
forging

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Metal will flow easily
to the nearest free
surface due to lowest
frictional path
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 Types of Forging Operation
• Fullering
• Edging
• Cogging
• Upsetting
• Heading
• Swaging
• Radial forging etc.

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Edging is used to shape the ends of the bars
and to gather metal. The metal flow is
confined in the horizontal direction but it is
free to flow laterally to fill the die.

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Drawing is used to reduce the
cross-sectional area of the
workpiece with concurrent
increase in length.

Piercing and punching are

used to produce holes in
metals.

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Fullering is used to reduce the cross-
sectional area of a portion of the stock.
The metal flow is outward and away
from the centre of the fuller. i.e.,
forging of connecting rod for an internal
combustion engine.

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Fullers come in different shapes

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Swaging is used to produce a bar
with a smaller diameter (using
concave dies).
• Swaging is a special type of
forging in which metal is
formed by a succession of rapid
hammer blows
• Swaging provides a reduced
round cross section suitable for
tapping, threading, upsetting or
other subsequent forming and
machining operations.
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 Classification of Forging Process
By equipment
1) Forging hammer or drop hammer
2) Press forging
By process
1) Open - die forging
2) Closed - die forging

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 Hammer and press forging processes
• Forging hammers :
– Forces is supplied by a falling weight or ram
– Energy restricted machines (K.E. + P.E.)
– There are two basic types of forging hammers used;
• Board hammer
• Power hammer
• Forging presses :
– Stroke restricted machines
– There are two basic types of forging presses available;
• Mechanical presses
• Hydraulic presses

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 Board
hammer
Hammer
Steam
hammer
Forging
Mechanical
presses
Presses
Hydraulic
presses

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Factors influences forging related to machine:
• Machine load > required load
• Machine energy > required energy
• No. of strokes per minute  production rate
• Contact time  time the workpiece remains in the die under
load (Die wear)
• Dimensional accuracy  stiffness of the product

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 Board hammer –forging hammer
• The upper die and ram are raised by friction
rolls gripping the board.
• After releasing the board, the ram falls under
gravity to produce the blow energy.
• The hammer can strike between 60-150 blows
per minute depending on size and capacity.
• The board hammer is an energy restricted
machine. The blow energy supplied equal the
potential energy due to the weight and the
height of the fall.
Potential energy = mgh
• This energy will be delivered to the metal
workpiece to produce plastic deformation and
elastic deformation of die. 29
• Dies are
expensive being
accurately
machined from
special alloys
(susceptible to
thermal shock).

• Drop forging is
good for mass
production of
complex shapes.
• Shortest contact
time
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 Power hammer
• Power hammer provides greater
capacity, in which the ram is
accelerated on the downstroke by
steam or air pressure in addition to
gravity.
• Steam or air pressure is also used to
raise the ram on the upstroke.
• Energy of the blow can be controlled
whereas in the board hammer the
mass and height of fall are fixed
• Preferred for closed die forging than
board hammer

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• Forging weight varies from pound to tons
• It has shortest contact time
• The total energy supplied to the blow in a power drop
hammer is given by
W= (½)mv2 + pAH = (mg +pA)H
Where, m = mass
v=velocity of ram at start of deformation
g = acceleration of gravity
p = air or steam pressure acting on ram cylinder on down stroke
A = area of ram cylinder
H = height of the ram drop

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Disadvantage of Forging hammer:
• Accuracy is not possible
• Problem in ground shock, noise and vibration.
– Overcome this problems by counter blow hammer.

Recently High Energy Rate Forging (HERF) Machine is

available. It is used for mass production due to it’s
high velocity

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 Forging Press

• Using a hydraulic press or a mechanical press

to forge the metal, therefore, gives continuous
forming at a slower rate.
• Provide deeper penetration.
• Better properties (more homogeneous).
• Equipment is expensive.

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 Mechanical press forging
Crank press translates rotary motion
into reciprocating linear motion of the
press slide.
• The ram stroke is shorter than in a
hammer or hydraulic press.
• Presses are rated on the basis of the
force developed at the end of the
stroke.
• The blow press is squeeze the
workpiece than like the impact of the
hammer, therefore, dies can be less
massive and die life is longer than
with a hammer.

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• The total energy supplied during the stroke of a press
is given by
w  1 I[ 2  2 ]
2 0 f
Where I is moment of inertia of the flywheel
ω is angular velocity, ωo-original, ωf-after deformation
• Load rating 300 – 12,000 tons

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 Hydraulic Press Forging
• Hydraulic presses are load
restricted machines in which
hydraulic pressure moves a
piston in a cylinder.
• The full press load is available at
any point during the full stroke
of the ram. Therefore, hydraulic
presses are ideally suited for
extrusion-type forging
operation.
• Provide close-tolerance forging.
• Load 500 to 50,000 tons
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• Due to slow speed,
contact time is longer at
the die-metal interface,
which causes problems
such as heat lost from
workpiece and die
deterioration.
• Hydraulic presses are
more expensive than
mechanical presses and
hammers

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 Screw Presses
• Used for hot and cold
forgings
• Ram is connected to rotary
joint of the spindle.
• The rotary motion of a fly
wheel converts into linear
motion of ram.

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 Typical values of velocity for different
forging equipment
Forging machine Velocity range, ms-1
Gravity drop hammer 3.6 – 4.8
Power drop hammer 3.0-9.0
HERF machine 6.0 -24.0
Mechanical press 0.06 -1.5
Hydraulic press 0.06-0.30

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 Forming machines
Machine Type Load Available Ratio (W/F)
rating (F Energy per ( in x 10-3)
in kN) blow (W in kJ)
Drop hammer 12250 106 1.3
Friction screw press 12250 8.0 6.4
Crank press 12250 25 16
Hydraulic press 12250 250 200

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 Die Materials
Required Properties:
• Thermal shock resistance
• Thermal fatigue resistance
• High temperature strength
Die materials: alloyed
• High wear resistance
steels (with Cr, Mo, W, V),
• High toughness and ductility tool steels, cast steels or
• High hardenability cast iron. (Heat treatments
• High dimensional stability such as nitriding or
during hardening chromium plating are
• High machinability required to improve die life)

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• Die life can be increased by
– Using composite die
– Using surface coating or self lubricating coating

• Ultra hard surface coating used on die surface due to

– Improve die life.
– Reduce energy input.
– Reduce die-related uptime and downtime.
– Reduce particulate emission from lubricants.

1) Carbon steels with 0.7-0.85% C are appropriate for small

tools and flat impressions.
2) Medium-alloyed tool steels for hammer dies.
3) Highly alloyed steels for high temperature resistant dies used
in presses and horizontal forging machines.
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 Die Failures

Different parts of dies are liable to permanent deformation

and wear resulting from mechanical and thermal fatigue.
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 Typical forging defects
• Incomplete die filling: Loose scale or lubricant residue that
accumulates and forms scale pockets on complex shape of
the die cause underfill. Incomplete rescaling of the
workpiece results in forged in scale on the finished part
• Die misalignment
• Incomplete forging penetration
– Normally observed in large workpiece which should be forge on
the forging press.
• Microstructural differences resulting in pronounced
property variation.
– Incomplete dendritic ingot structure. Observed by
macroetching of dendritic structure.
• Pitted surface, due to oxide scales occurring at high
temperature stick on the dies.

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• Buckling, in upsetting forging.
– Subject to high compressive
stress of the workpiece develops
circumferential tensile stresses
– To avoid, concave dies are used
• Surface cracking Excessive
working of the surface at low Buckling
temperature or result of hot
shortness (due to high sulphur
concentration in steel and
nickel.)
– due to temperature differential
between surface and centre
• Microcracking, due to residual swaging
stress.
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• Flash line crack, after trimming occurs more often in thin workpieces.
– Therefore, increase the thickness of the flash or relocating the flash position
or less critical region of the forging
– Avoided by hot trimming or stress relieving the forging prior to cold
trimming of the flash
• Cold shut or fold, is discontinuity produced when two surfaces of
metal fold against each other without welding completely, due to
flash or fin from prior forging steps is forced into the workpiece.
Due to
– Metal flows past part of the die cavity that has already filled
– Metal partly filled because the metal failed to fill in due to sharp corner
– Excessive chilling
– High friction
– Small die radius

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• Internal cracking
– due to secondary tensile stress.
– During upsetting of a cylinder or a round results
circumferential tensile stresses
– Proper die design can minimize this type of cracking
– Less prevalent in closed die forging because lateral
compressive stresses are developed by interaction
workpiece with die wall

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 Residual Stresses
• Due to inhomogeneous deformation, RS is small in forging.
Most of the forging done at high temperature which reduces
the RS.
• Appreciable RS develops during quenching of steel forgings.
• Large forgings are subject to formation of small cracks or
flakes at the center of the cross section.
• In addition, flakes are associated with H2 gas
• Special cares are required for cooling large steel forgings.
– Vacuum degassed steel largely eliminates problems with flaking
– Large forgings are cooled slowly
– Hot workpieces are
• buried in ashes for several weeks
• Undergoes controlled cooling treatment

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 Forging in Plane Strain
Consider forging stress ‘P’ acting on plate of
constant thickness ‘h’ under plane strain
condition.
1. Frictional shear stress τxy at the interface
of die and workpiece
2. Lateral pressure σx.
Fictional force resist the workpiece deformation
in lateral pressure. The equilibrium in x
direction is,
Fig.: Stresses action on a plate forged in
 x h  (  x  d  x ) h  2  xy dx  0
plane strain

 d  x h  2  xy dx  0 Differentiate the above equ. W.r.t x, then

2 (  0' does not change with x)
d xy
dp  d x   2 xy
x  
dx h
dx dx h
Von Mises’ yield criterion for plane strain
Shearing stress is related to normal
condition is,
pressure by coulomb’s law of sliding friction
   2    '
1 3
3 0 0 (τxy = μp), dp  2p
dx h
If p=σz, then     '  p  x dp   2dx
1 3 0 50
p h
 dp   2dx
p h The mean forging pressure is,
Integrate the above equation, a pdx a ' 2 a  x
p    0 [1  ]dx
ln p   2x  ln c 0 a 0 a h
h
Apply boundary condition, xa σx=0 and
 '  2ax x2  a
p  a0  x   
p=σ0’. Therefore, 

h h 
0
ln p  ln '   2a  ln C p   ' 1 a 
0 h 0 h 
ln C  ln '  2a If the ratio a/h increases, the forming
0 h pressure p and forming load rises rapidly .
2x
ln p    ln '  2a
h 0 h
2 a  x
ln p   ln '
h 0
2 a  x
p   ' exp( )
0 h
Usually μ is small number, ey=1+y+y2/2!+…
' 2 a  x
p   [1 ] Fig.: Distribution of normal stress and
0 h
longitudinal stress for compression
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between plates.
• In high friction condition (sticking friction), the mean forging pressure is,
p   '  a 1
0 2h 

The forming load is dependent on the flow stress of the materials and the
geometry of the workpiece.

For example, a/h =8 then, .p  5 0'

To reduce the forming load,
– reduce friction coefficient μ
– Changing the workpiece geometry
'
– Reducing  0 by increasing the temperature.

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Problem: A block of lead 25x25x150 mm3 is pressed between flat dies to a size
6.25x100x150 mm3. If the uniaxial flow stress σo = 6.9 MPa and μ = 0.25,
determine the pressure distribution over the 100 mm dimension at x = 0, 25
and 50 mm and the total forging load in the sticky friction condition.

Since 150mm dimension does not change the deformation is plane strain.

p   ' exp(
2 a  x
) '  2 
0 0 3 0
h

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Problem: A block of lead 25x25x150 mm3 is pressed between flat dies to a size
6.25x100x150 mm3. If the uniaxial flow stress σo = 6.9 MPa and μ = 0.25,
determine the pressure distribution over the 100 mm dimension at x = 0, 25 and
50 mm and the total forging load in the sticky friction condition.
Since 150mm dimension does not change the deformation is plane strain.
' 2 a  x  '  2
p   exp( ) 0 3 0
0 h
At the center line of the slap,
2(6.9)  2(0.25) 
p exp
 6.25
 50  0  435MPa

3  
2(6.9)  2(0.25) 
p exp

 50  25  58.9MPa

3  6.25 
2(6.9)  2(0.25) 
p exp
 6.25
 50  50  8MPa

3  
The mean forging load at sticky friction condition,
2   2(6.9) 

50 
p 0  a 1   1

  39.8MPa
 
3  2h  3  2(6.25) 


Total forging load is, Load = stress X area = (39.8x106) x (150x10-3x100x10-3)

= 597kN
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 Open-Die Forging
• In open die forging, the metal is
compressed by repeated blows by a
mechanical hammer or manually.
• Deals with large, relatively simple shapes
that are formed between simple dies in a
large hydraulic press or power hammer.
Ex: propeller shafts, rings, gun tubes and
pressure vessels.
• Workpiece is larger than the tool.
• Chief mode of deformation is
compression, workpiece is spreading in
lateral directions.
• Simplest open-die forging operation is
cogging a billet between fat tools to
reduce the cross sectional area without
changing the final shape.
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Coefficient of spread S,
width _ elongation ln(w / w )
S  1 0
thickness _ contraction ln(h / h )
0 1
Width can be expressed as length by using
constant volume relationship,
hwl
1 1 1 1
h w l
0 00
ln(h / ho )  ln(w / wo )  ln(l / lo )  0 Fig.: Cogging operation. Shaded
1 1 1 are shows where contact
The coefficient of elongation, would occur between
length _ elongation ln(l / l ) workpiece and upper die.
1 S   1 0
thickness _ contraction ln(h / h )
0 1
If S=1, the workpiece spread
S=0, all the deformation go into elongation.

S can be expressed by bite ratio (b/wo), since b / wo

S
1 b / wo
S
  1 
 
The spread law,  where β=spread ratio = w1/w0
 
γ=squeeze ratio=h0/h1 56
Since only part of the surface is undergo deformation at a time, there is
possibility of surface laps. For a given geometry, the critical deformation
produce laps. Since,

• Squeeze ratio s h0/h1 should be ≤ 1.3 which make billet is deformed

through to the center
• Bite ratio b/w0 should be ≥ 1/3 to minimize inhomogeneous deformation.

The load required to forge a flat section in the open dies is,
P   AC
Where C is a constraint factor to allow for inhomogeneous deformation.

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 Closed Die Forging
• In closed die forging, the desired configuration is obtained by
squeezing the workpiece between two shaped and closed
dies.
• The deformation in closed die forging is very complex.
• The success of the forging operation requires the
understanding of
– Flow stress of the materials
– Frictional conditions
– Flow of the materials to fill the die

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• Special problems in it is, rapid cooling of the workpiece by the colder dies
results
– Raise of flow stress
– Raise of loads,
– Incomplete die fill and
– Loss of dimensional tolerance.
• To avoid this problem, isothermal forging is used. For forging aerospace
materials, the die which is made up of superalloy is heated for isothermal
forging.
• The design of a component, place important role in closed die forging. It
involves
– Workpiece volume and weight
– no. of preforming steps and their configuration
– Flash dimensions in preforming and finishing dies
– The load and energy requirements for each forging operation
Proper design assures, defect-free flow, complete die fill and minimum flash
loss. For that it is important to understand the metal flow.
• Classification of closed die forging are listed in diagram.

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60
61
Figure: Flow diagram for computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-
aided manufacturing (CAM) systems applied to closed die forging
N/C – numerically controlled machine
APT – specialized computer language describing geometric changes
produced in metal cutting which is hear of N/C machining

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 General considerations for preform design
• Area of each cross section = area in the finished cross section
+ flash.
• Concave radii of the preform > radii on the final forging part.
• Cross section of the preform should be higher and narrower
than the final cross section, so as to accentuate upsetting flow
and minimise extrusion flow.

Shape with thin and long

sections or projections (ribs
and webs) are more difficult to
process because they have
higher surface area per unit
volume increasing friction and
temperature effects.
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 General rules of closed-die design
• The die set should be designed for smooth metal flow – symmetry
dies (spherical or block like) are the easier than thin and long
section.
• Shape changes in section are to be avoided.
• Dies should be designed for the minimum flash to do the job.
• Generous fillet dimensions should be allowed, therefore, forging
dies must be tapered or drafted to facilitate removal of the finished
piece.
• Draft allowance is approximately 3-5o outside and 7-10o inside.
• Dies with inclined angles should have counterlock to prevent the
dies from sliding apart from each other due to side thrust.

64
 Forming textures
• Redistribution of metal structures occurring during forming
process involves two principle components;
– redistribution of inclusions and
– crystallographic orientation of the grains
1) The redistribution of inclusions

65
• Crystallographic orientation of the grains

Cast iron
Fibre structure in forged steels
Redistribution of grains in the
Mainly epitaxial, dendritic or working directions
equiaxed grains

66
 Effect of forging on microstructure

• The formation of a grain structure in forged parts is elongated

in the direction of the deformation.
• The metal flow during forging provides fibrous microstructure
(revealed by etching). This structure gives better mechanical
properties in the plane of maximum strain but (perhaps)
lower across the thickness.
• The workpiece often undergo recrystallisation, therefore,
provide finer grains compared to the cast dendritic structure
resulting in improved mechanical properties.
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 Powder Metallurgy Forging

• Now, P/M forging is in growing area

• Advantage:
– Improved materials utilisation through reduction or elimination of
machining
– Forming to final size in one forging stoke
– Uniformity of structure and reduced directionality of properties
relative to conventionally forged parts.
• Working in a sintered powdered parts preform introduces
new aspects to the mechanics of interconnected parts.

68
• Challenges:
– P/M parts contains dispersion of interconnected voids
– Work-piece volume is decreases during plastic
deformation as the elimination of porosity.
– Presence of voids decreases the local ductility which may
lead to fracture during forging. Forming limit concept has
to be applied to overcome this issue.
– Presence of voids increases the surface area which may
increases the oxidation and contamination reaction.

69
 • The basic plasticity mechanics of a porous powder metallurgy
preform described with the relationship of densification and
plastic Poisson ratio ‘ν’.
2

  0.5 
 t 
• Kuhn modified the von Mises’ yield criterion by considering
the porous materials densification with plastic deformation,

1/ 2
  1   2 2   2   3 2   3   1 2 
 o  ,      1  2  1 2   2 3   3 1 
 2 

70