Introduction to Syntaxpdf
Introduction to Syntaxpdf
to Syntax
introduction
From
the
study
of
words
internal
structure,
we
move
now
to
the
study
of
the
sequences
of
words
that
form
sentences.
This
is
the
study
of
syntax.
Morphology
and
Syntax
are
closely
related
fields
in
English
grammar.
Morphology
studies
the
formation
of
words,
while
syntax
studies
the
structure
of
sentences
.
However,
both
domains
must
interact
with
each
other
at
a
certain
level.
On
one
level,
the
morpheme
should
fit
a
syntactic
representation
or
syntactic
structure.
On
another
level,
the
morpheme
can
have
its
syntactic
representation.
This
course
begins
with
the
definition
of
syntax
and
a
brief
description
of
syntactic
theories.
Then,
the
class
of
words
is
discussed
before
the
sentence
types.
It
then
defines
the
notion
of
syntactic
constituent
and
phrase
structure
rule.
To
finish
we
will
cover
the
analysis
of
sentences.
I. Definition
Syntax
studies
how
words
are
combined
to
form
phrases
and
how
phrases
are
combined
to
give
clauses
or
sentences.
Therefore,
it
concerns
how
this
combination
is
made
and
the
set
of
rules
that
govern
the
formation
of
sentences,
which
make
some
sentences
acceptable
and
others
not
acceptable
within
a
given
language
(Richards
&
Schmidt,
2010).
Syntax
is
derived
from
the
Greek
word
“syntaxis”
which
means
“together”
or
“arrangement”.
Syntax
is
the
arrangement
of
words
and
phrases
to
create
well-‐formed
sentences
in
a
particular
language.
Some
people
also
use
the
term
Grammar
to
mean
the
same
as
syntax,
although
most
linguists
follow
the
more
recent
practice
whereby
the
grammar
of
a
language
includes
all
of
its
organising
principles:
information
about
the
sound
systems,
about
the
form
of
words,
how
we
adjust
language
according
to
context,
and
so
on;
syntax
is
only
one
part
of
grammar”
Tallerman
(1998:1)
According
to
Chomsky
(2002
p.27)
“
Syntax
is
the
study
of
the
principles
and
processes
by
which
sentences
are
constructed
in
particular
languages.
Syntactic
investigation
of
a
given
language
has
as
its
goal
the
construction
of
a
grammar
that
can
be
viewed
as
a
device
of
some
sort
for
producing
the
sentences
of
the
language
under
analysis”.
II.
SOME
SYNTACTIC
THEORIES
From
now
on,
we
will
consider
a
language
to
be
a
set
(finite
or
infinite)
of
sentences,
each
finite
in
length
and
constructed
out
of
a
finite
set
of
elements.
All
natural
languages
in
their
spoken
or
written
form
are
languages
in
this
sense
since
each
natural
language
has
a
finite
number
of
phonemes
(or
letters
in
its
alphabet),
and
each
sentence
is
representable
as
a
finite
sequence
of
these
phonemes
(or
letters),
though
there
are
infinitely
many
sentences.
Similarly,
the
set
of
'sentences'
of
some
formalised
system
of
mathematics
can
be
considered
a
language.
The
fundamental
aim
in
the
linguistic
analysis
of
a
language
L
is
to
separate
the
grammatical
sequences,
which
are
the
sentences
of
L,
from
the
ungrammatical
sequences,
which
are
not
sentences
of
L,
and
to
study
the
structure
of
the
grammatical
sequences.
The
grammar
of
L
will
thus
be
a
device
that
generates
all
of
the
grammatical
sequences
of
L
and
none
of
the
ungrammatical
ones.
One
way
to
test
the
adequacy
of
a
grammar
proposed
for
L
is
to
determine
whether
or
not
the
sequences
that
it
generates
are
actually
grammatical,
i.e.,
acceptable
to
a
native
speaker,
etc.
A
lot
of
works
on
grammar
were
published
long
before
modern
syntax.
‘Traditional
grammar’
was
developed
in
Ancient
India
and
Ancient
Greece.
These
books
approach
the
sophistication
of
a
modern
syntactic
theory.
For
centuries,
language
was
view
as
a
direct
reflection
of
thought
processes
and
therefore
as
a
single,
most
natural
way
to
express
a
thought.
However,
in
19th
century
linguists
began
to
realize
the
diversity
of
human
language
and
to
question
fundamental
assumptions
about
the
relationship
between
language
and
logic.
And
other
questions
were
also
raised
such
as:
‘what
is
grammaticality?’,
‘what
are
ungrammatical
sentences?’,
‘how
to
account
for
word
order
in
sentences’
and
‘how
to
devise
theories
for
it?.’
Grammaticality
refers
to
the
conformity
of
a
sentence
to
the
rules
defined
by
a
specific
grammar
of
a
language.
According
to
Richards
and
Schmidt
(2010:
251-‐252),
‘grammar
is
a
description
of
the
structure
of
a
language
and
the
way
in
which
linguistic
units
such
as
words
and
phrases
are
combined
to
produce
sentences
in
the
language.
It
usually
takes
into
account
of
the
meaning
and
the
functions
these
sentences
have
in
the
overall
system
of
the
language’.
Therefore,
a
phrase,
a
sentence
must
follow
the
grammar
rules
and
they
must
also
be
acceptable
in
the
language;
that
is,
they
must
be
judged
by
the
native
speakers
to
be
grammatical
correct,
or
socially
appropriate,
either
in
general
or
in
a
particular
community
or
context.
(Richards
&
Schmidt,
2010).
The
above
sentences
are
ungrammatical
because
they
do
not
follow
the
English
grammar
rules.
The
notion
"grammatical"
cannot
be
identified
with
"meaningful"
or
"significant"
in
any
semantic
sense.
Sentences
(I)
and
(2)
are
equally
nonsensical,
but
any
speaker
of
English
will
recognize
that
only
the
former
is
grammatical.
Grammatical
sentences
in
English
must
consider
not
only
the
possible
function
of
words
but
also
the
semantic
properties
they
have.
A
common
way
that
linguists
determine
whether
something
is
descriptively
grammatical
is
simply
by
asking
a
native
speaker
if
the
utterance
sounds
right
or
not.
In
almost
all
cases,
if
something
is
descriptively
ungrammatical,
it
is
also
prescriptively
ungrammatical.
That
is,
the
authors
of
traditional
grammar
books
would
object
to
it
too.
In
these
cases,
we
can
call
the
statement
ungrammatical
and
mark
it
with
an
asterisk.
But
often,
prescriptive
rules
do
not
represent
the
way
people
ordinarily
speak.
It
is
only
up
to
the
20th
century
that
‘syntactic
theory’
became
to
be
clear.
Since
then,
the
search
of
a
single
formal
model
of
syntax
has
been
the
central
debate
in
the
field.
A
number
of
theoretical
approaches
to
the
discipline
of
syntax
have
been
proposed
and
some
discarded.
According
to
this
theory,
to
understand
the
meaning
of
a
sentence,
we
must
divide
it
into
main
parts
or
constituents
which
must
be
hierarchically
arranged
to
show
their
relationship
to
each
other.
This
results
in
a
description
of
phrase,
clause
or
sentence
as
one
of
a
hierarchy
of
grammatical
categories.
For
example,
the
sentence
‘the
old
woman
speaks
English’
the
first
division
into
constituents
would
be:
‘the
old
woman’
and
‘speaks
English.’
The
immediate
constituents
of
‘the
old
woman’
are
‘the’
and
‘old
woman’
and
‘old
woman’
is
finally
divided
into
‘old’
and
‘woman.’
The
following
an
sample
IC
analysis.
Two
kinds
of
diagrams
can
be
used
here
to
represent
the
geometrical
structure
of
a
sentence:
the
structure
in
boxes
and
the
tree
diagram.
Box
A
[The
police
arrested
the
bad
students]
=
Box
A1
[The
police]
+
Box
A2
[arrested
the
bad
students]
Box A2 = Box B3 [arrested] + Box B4 [the bad students]
Transformational
Generative
Grammar
While
structuralism
took
into
account
the
form
(phoneme
&
morpheme
are
units
of
form
rather
than
meaning),
Transformational
Generative
grammar
considers
the
relation
between
form
and
meaning
as
crucial
in
the
generation
of
sentences
that
are
both
grammatical
and
meaningful.
To
get
the
surface
structure
of
a
sentence,
there
sometimes
some
underlying
transformations
which
lead
to
the
surface
level.
The
pioneer
of
transformational
syntax
or
generative
grammar
founded
his
theory
on
the
following
ideas:
a.
language
is
made
of
strings
of
words
arranged
according
to
certain
rules.
Strings
respecting
these
rules
are
well-‐formed
or
grammatical
and
strings
that
do
not
respect
these
rules
ungrammatical.
b. the set of rules in a certain language constitute the grammar of this language.
c.
there
are
two
sorts
of
grammars:
the
knowledge
of
the
native
speaker
which
makes
him/her
able
to
recognize
well-‐formed
sentences
and
the
rule
description
devised
by
the
linguist.
d.
grammar
can
be
prescriptive
(stating
what
is
grammatical
and
what
is
not)
or
descriptive
(accounting
for
the
native
speaker’s
knowledge).
e.
the
number
of
words
may
be
limited
in
a
language
but
the
number
of
combinations
between
them
(syntactic
structures,
sentences)
is
theoretically
unlimited.
f. There are two types of structures: deep structures & surface structures
g.
Transformational
rules
permit
to
account
for
the
passage
from
one
structure
to
another.
Examples
of
a
transformational
rule:
1. Polar questions:
a. Kernel sentence: Declarative sentence: Ben is going to school now.
Non-‐kernel
sentence:
Transformation:
Inversion
rule:
Is
Ben
going
to
school
now?
b.
Declarative
sentence:
Ben
goes
to
school
every
day.
2. Wh-‐questions For wh-‐questions, the model suggests three steps as follows:
-‐ Wh-‐substitution
-‐ Wh-‐fronting
Notes:
-‐
But
when
the
wh-‐word
replaces
the
subject
in
the
wh-‐question,
the
inversion
and
the
do
support
rules
are
not
used.
-‐
In
the
absence
of
an
auxiliary
in
the
sentence,
the
do-‐support
rule
is
used.
It
says:
support
the
tense
with
'do'
when
the
sentence
does
not
have
an
auxiliary,
and
it
is
moved
before
the
subject
NP
during
the
transformation
of
the
statement
into
a
question.
All
the
non-‐kernel
structures
can
be
derived
from
their
kernel
forms
using
some
transformations.
E.g.:
a
non-‐kernel
sentence
like:
where
did
she
go
last
week?
Can
derived
from
the
kernel
sentence:
she
went
somewhere
last
week
by
applying
some
transformations
Classifications
of
words
in
a
language
based
on
their
grammatical
behaviour
are
known
as
word
classes,
also
known
as
syntactic
categories,
form
classes,
and
parts
of
speech
in
some
contexts.
Because
school
grammar
has
inherited
a
set
of
word
classes
from
classical
grammar,
it
can
be
surprising
to
those
unfamiliar
with
linguistics
to
learn
that
linguists
invented
these
classes
and
are
not
a
natural
component
of
the
language.
So,
the
precise
criteria
used
to
delimit
a
particular
class
and
the
number
of
classes
required
to
categorise
the
words
present
in
any
given
language
remain
open
questions,
and
there
may
be
many
different
solutions
to
the
problem
as
a
result
of
these
considerations.
Some
elements
of
speech
allow
you
to
use
neologisms
creatively
(new
words).
It
reminds
us
of
how
the
word
Google
is
very
familiar
with
our
lives
nowadays.
Google
is
globally
known
as
a
search
engine
used
by
billions
of
people.
The
word
Google
here
is
a
noun
as
it
depicts
a
thing
used
to
search
via
the
internet.
The
word
Google
would
not
have
been
this
familiar
in
the
1960s
and
1970s
for
sure
since
the
internet
had
not
even
been
invented
at
that
time.
Imagine
a
context
where
we
want
to
know
about
an
interesting
topic,
and
our
friend
may
say,
“Just
google
it,
dude!”.
In
our
friend’s
utterance,
the
word
Google
is
not
again
a
noun,
but
it
becomes
a
verb.
From
this
example,
we
can
see
how
flexible
the
words
in
noun
and
verb
classes.
We
can
limitlessly
add
new
words
to
the
word
classes.
The
same
phenomena
also
occur
in
adjectives
and
adverbs.
The
creation
of
new
terms
is
permissible
at
any
time
if
they
are
considered
open
class
(e.g.,
fax,
internet,
grody).
On
the
other
hand,
there
are
some
portions
of
the
speech
that
do
not
allow
for
the
introduction
of
new
forms.
Consider
the
following
example:
I
wanted
to
represent
a
situation
where
one
arm
is
under
the
table,
and
another
is
over
the
table,
so
I
created
a
new
preposition
called
under:
My
arms
are
under
the
table.
It's
improbable
that
my
new
preposition,
no
matter
how
good
it
is,
will
be
absorbed
into
the
language,
despite
its
usefulness.
Parts
of
speech
that
are
open
to
new
members
are
referred
to
as
open
class
sections.
Those
that
do
not
(or
whose
coinages
are
extremely
rare)
are
classified
as
closed
classes
(Carnie,
2013).
1. Open
class
or
lexical
words
Noun
(N)–
Nouns
are
words
that
represent
people,
places,
things,
and
ideas.
Nouns
function
as
part
of
Noun
Phrases
to
act
as
the
subject
of
sentences
(though
they
can
also
be
objects
or
complements).
A
noun
can
also
be
replaced
by
a
pronoun
and
have
a
plural
form.
Verb
(V)–
This
category
is
also
called
main
verbs
or
lexical
verbs.
These
include
the
‘action’
verbs
but
not
all
indicate
actions
(other
indicate
situations
or
states
of
being).
Every
sentence
in
standardized
English
has
to
have
a
main
verb,
which
functions
as
the
head
of
the
Verb
Phrase
predicate.
Auxiliary
verbs
are
considered
a
different
category.
Adjective
(Adj)–
Adjectives
describe
(or
more
precisely,
modify)
nouns.
Adjectives
usually
appear
in
the
noun
phrase
before
a
noun
and
after
any
determiners.
(the
hungry
dog,
five
tired
students)
but
can
also
appear
in
the
predicate
after
a
linking
verb
(the
dog
is
hungry,
five
students
seem
tired.)
Adjectives
often
have
comparative
and
superlative
forms
(better,
best,
colder,
coldest).
Adjectives
do
not
describe
anything
that
isn’t
a
noun—if
a
word
is
describing
a
verb,
another
adjective,
or
an
adverb,
it’s
an
adverb
instead.
Examples
of
adjectives:
cool,
fun,
angry,
uglier,
nicest,
complicated,
sensible,
first,
unbelievable,
ridiculous,
running
(in
it’s
a
running
gag)
Adverb
(Adv)–
Adverbs
are
parallel
to
adjectives,
but
they
modify
(and
describe)
things
that
aren’t
nouns,
from
verbs,
adjectives,
and
other
adverbs,
all
the
way
up
to
entire
sentences.
Adverbs
are
kind
of
the
‘catch-‐all’
of
the
parts
of
speech,
and
it’s
pretty
much
impossible
to
give
a
concise
and
complete
definition
of
what
an
adverb
is,
because
different
adverbs
have
different
properties.
2. Closed class
Determiner
(D)–
Also
known
as
determinative.
Goes
with
a
noun
and
specifies
something
about
that
noun
(but
doesn’t
quite
describe
it
the
way
an
adjective
does.)
Articles
are
one
type
of
determiners
(a,
the,
an)
but
demonstratives
(this
cat,
these
shoes)
that
go
with
nouns,
possessive
‘pronouns’
like
my,
your,
her
(with
nouns),
possessive
nouns
like
‘Mike’s’,
quantifiers
with
nouns
(many,
most,
some),
numerals
with
nouns
(one
cat,
seventeen
cats,
zero
cat)
and
the
question
word
which
with
a
noun
are
all
also
determiners.
Determiners
are
always
part
of
noun
phrases
and
come
before
any
adjectives
describing
the
head
noun.
Examples
of
determiners:
a,
the,
seventeen,
my,
her,
many,
all,
most,
no
(in:
we
have
no
bananas),
John’s
Aux
Verb
(Aux)–
Auxiliary
verbs
or
helping
verbs
are
a
closed
class
in
English
(there’s
a
limited
number
of
them).
The
modal
verbs
are
can,
could,
may,
might,
shall,
should,
will,
would,
and
must.
Preposition
or
Particle
(P)–
Prepositions
express
a
relationship
between
(mostly)
nouns
and
noun
phrases
and
other
things
in
language.
Again,
this
is
one
of
the
messier
categories
to
define.
This
is
a
fairly
large
but
closed
class
of
words,
and
most
of
them
are
short
words.
They
can
express
relations
in
real
space
or
time
(before,
after,
to,
from,
in,
out,
over,
under)
or
more
metaphorical
relationships
between
words
(of,
for).
Complex
prepositions
can
be
multi-‐word
phrases
like
next
to
or
instead
of.
Particles
are
words
that
usually
look
like
prepositions,
but
that
actually
work
as
part
of
main
verbs.
An
example
is
up
in
run
up
a
bill
at
a
restaurant.
‘Up’
here
does
not
indicate
a
direction
but
changes
the
meaning
of
the
verb
run.
In
‘run
up’
a
tree
at
a
park,
up
is
functioning
as
a
preposition,
as
it
doesn’t
change
the
meaning
of
the
verb
and
relates
to
the
tree.
Coordinator
(Co)–
Also
known
as
coordinating
conjunctions,
these
words
combine
two
equal
categories,
like
nouns,
verbs,
noun
phrases,
verb
phrases,
or
clauses.
Coordinators
are
a
closed
class
that
is
fairly
easy
to
remember.
And,
but,
and
or/nor
are
the
most
common
coordinators
and
are
always
coordinating
conjunctions.
For,
yet,
and
so
can
also
be
coordinators
but
might
be
functioning
in
other
categories
as
well.
There
are
also
complex
coordinators
that
consist
of
multiple
words
like
‘as
much
…
as’
and
‘neither
…
nor’.
Interjection
(Int)–
These
are
words
like
hello,
wow,
and
yeah,
that
don’t
really
participate
in
syntax.
They
are
not
a
main
focus
of
the
course,
as
they
don’t
generally
enter
into
relationships
with
other
words,
syntactically.
A
simple
sentence
contains
a
single
subject
and
predicate.
It
describes
only
one
thing,
idea
or
question,
and
has
only
one
verb
-‐
it
contains
only
an
independent
(main)
clause.
Any
independent
clause
can
stand
alone
as
a
sentence.
It
has
a
subject
and
a
verb
and
expresses
a
complete
thought.
Even
the
addition
of
adjectives,
adverbs,
and
prepositional
phrases
to
a
simple
sentence
does
not
change
it
into
a
complex
sentence.
For example: The brown dog with the red collar always barks loudly in the night.
Even
if
you
join
several
nouns
with
a
conjunction,
or
several
verbs
with
a
conjunction,
it
remains
a
simple
sentence.
For
example:
The
dog
barked
and
growled
loudly.
2. COMPOUND SENTENCES
Compound
sentences
are
two
or
more
simple
sentences
combined
using
a
conjunction
such
as
and,
or,
but.
They
comprise
more
than
one
independent
clause
joined
together
with
a
co-‐
ordinating
conjunction.
For
example:
"The
sun
was
setting
in
the
west
and
the
moon
was
just
rising
in
the
East."
Each
clause
can
stand
alone
as
a
sentence.
For
example:
"The
sun
was
setting
in
the
west.
The
moon
was
just
rising
in
the
East."
A
coordinating
conjunction
goes
in
the
middle
of
the
sentence,
it
is
the
word
that
joins
the
two
clauses
together,
the
most
common
are
(and,
or,
but)
For
example:
I
walked
to
the
shops,
but
my
husband
drove.
I
might
watch
the
film,
or
I
might
visit
my
friends.
My
friend
enjoyed
the
film,
but
she
didn't
like
the
actor.
3. COMPLEX SENTENCES
Complex
sentences
describe
more
than
one
thing
or
idea
and
have
more
than
one
verb
in
them.
They
are
made
up
of
more
than
one
clause,
an
independent
clause
(that
can
stand
by
itself)
and
a
dependent
(subordinate)
clause
(which
cannot
stand
by
itself).
Example:
"My
mother
likes
dogs
that
don't
bark."
4. The
utterance
An
utterance
is
“the
smallest
institutional
unit
of
language
activity,
a
word
or
expression
that
conveys
meaning”
Seaton
(1982:179).
An
utterance
may
not
have
a
subject
or
a
predicate.
All
sentences
are
utterances
but
some
utterances
are
not
full
sentences
Examples:
5. The clause
“Sentences
that
are
embedded
in
the
structure
of
other
sentences
or
in
the
structure
of
phrases
are
called
clauses.
Clauses
can
have
other
clauses
embedded
in
them”.
Aarts
and
Aarts
(1982:80)
A
finite
clause
contains
a
finite
verb
(a
verb
that
is
inflected
for
person
(1st
/
2nd
/
3rd),
tense
(past
/
present),
aspect
(progressive
/
perfective),
mood
(imperative
/
modal
past),or
number
(sg
/
pl).
The verbs of non-‐finite clauses are typically infinitives, gerunds and participles.
-‐haven got the average, the students celebrate it with their teacher
Declarative
sentence:
It
is
the
most
basic
sentence
in
English
in
terms
of
word
order
[
S
P
O
A
]
(when
it
is
unmarked).
It
is
generally
used
to
make
statements.
It
can
be
positive
/
negative,
active
/
passive.
-‐ His parents punished him because of his bad behaviour .
A
declarative
sentence
expresses
a
statement
which
describes
a
state
of
facts
with
no
particular
commitment
on
the
part
of
the
speaker.
Statements
are
often
(but
not
always)
expressed
by
declarative
sentences.
Interrogative
sentences:
There
are
four
types
of
interrogative
sentences
Yes
/No
interrogative
sentences
Questions are often (but not exclusively) expressed by interrogative sentences.
Imperative
sentences
.The
subject
of
an
imperative
sentence
is
understood
to
be
(you,we).
It
does
not
have
a
finite
verb,
it’s
main
verb
takes
the
V+o
form
-‐ Be quiet ! write quickly ! -‐ * Are quiet ! -‐ * Wrote quickly !
They expresses a directive, used to get someone to do something, e.g. imperative sentences
Exclamative
sentences:
They
express
an
exclamation
often
expresses
surprise,
anger,
admiration
This
is
an
open
class
of
sub-‐categories
referring
to
the
actual
/
true
/
real
meaning
of
the
sentence
within
the
communication
context.
A
few
examples
of
illocutionary
forces
that
sentences
can
take:
-‐
Informing
;
Requesting;
-‐ Apologizing;
-‐ Promising ;
-‐ Warning;
-‐ Commanding ;
-‐ Congratulating;
-‐ Wishing;
-‐ Threatening;
-‐ Conditional;
-‐ Performative (e.g. I declare you husband and wife); -‐ Etc.
VI. Phrases
A
phrase
is
a
word
or
string
of
words
that
function
as
a
unit.
A
phrase
is
built
around
a
number
of
words
with
one
category
being
the
head.
The
head
of
a
phrase
is
the
element
that
the
phrase
is
centred
on.
It
is
the
one
essential
–
or
obligatory
–
element
in
that
phrase.
If
you
think
of
the
phrase
as
a
solar
system,
then
the
head
is
the
sun.
Everything
else
in
the
phrase
revolves
around
and
depends
on
the
head.
Just
as
a
system
is
a
solar
system
because
it’s
centred
on
a
sun,
so
a
phrase
is
Noun
Phrase
because
it’s
centred
on
a
Noun.
Similarly
for
Verb
Phrase.
So,
it
is
the
category
of
the
head
of
a
phrase
that
determines
the
category
of
the
phrase.
The
other
element
within
the
phrase
are
considered
to
be
the
modifiers.
e.g. the laughing girl = noun phrase (head is the girl)
The
big
difference
between
modifiers
and
heads,
then,
is
this:
in
the
structure
of
a
phrase,
modifiers
are
optional;
the
head
is
the
obligatory
element.
A
modifier-‐head
relation
also
holds,
at
the
next
(higher)
level
of
structure.
In
the
sentence”
their
dubious
jokes”,
dubious
specifies
the
character
of
the
jokes.
Again,
dubious
as
a
whole
is
a
dependent
modifier
of
jokes
but
not
vice-‐versa.
Rather
dubious
is
optional
since
it
could
be
omitted
(their
jokes),
but
jokes
–
the
head
of
the
phrase
–
could
not
be
omitted
(*their
dubious)
(1) (a) NP: [NP those three beautiful houses of mine with tall chimney ]
(b) AP: (a man) [AP very proud of his son ]
The
arrangement
of
words
into
phrases
and
phrases
into
clauses
may
seem
self-‐evident
from
the
above
discussion,
particularly
if
you
are
a
native
speaker
of
English
or
a
non-‐native
speaker
who
knows
English
well.
In
fact,
it
is
not
always
clear
how
the
words
in
a
given
phrase
are
arranged
or
how
the
phrases
are
arranged
in
a
given
clause.
Fortunately,
tests
have
been
developed
to
help
analysts.
Transposition/movement
Many
sequences
of
words
can
be
moved
together
into
different
slots
in
a
clause;
this
is
evidence
that
the
words
form
a
phrase.
Let
us
consider
3a)“Jeeves
shimmered
into
the
room”.
We
can
think
of
“into
the
room,
Jeeves
shimmered”
as
being
converted
by
the
words
3b)“into
the
room”
being
moved,
or
transposed,
to
the
front
of
the
clause.
This
transposition
indicates
that
the
three
separate
words
combine
into
a
larger
block,
a
phrase.
Transposition
also
applies
to
phrases
without
prepositions.
The
words
the
results
in
“Barbara
handed
the
results
to
Alan
on
Tuesday
can
be
moved
to
the
front
of
the
clause
to
give
“the
results
Barbara
handed
to
Alan
on
Tuesday”,
a
clause
that
is
appropriate
if
the
speaker
or
writer
continues,
for
example,
The
actual
scripts
she
kept
until
Friday.
The
above
examples
of
transposition
have
to
do
with
a
sequence
of
words
being
moved
from
one
position
in
a
clause
to
another
position
without
any
other
changes
in
the
clause.
Transposition
is
one
of
the
tests
that
reveal
whether
a
given
sequence
of
words
make
up
a
phrase
or
are
just
words
that
happen
to
come
one
after
the
other.
If
you
know
English
well,
you
may
be
tempted
to
think
that
such
a
test
is
unnecessary;
but
two
facts
speak
against
this
temptation.
One
is
that
in
spite
of
the
vast
amount
of
research
on
English
syntax
in
the
twentieth
century
we
still
come
across
examples
whose
structure
is
not
obvious.
The
second
fact
is
that
many
linguists
work
not
just
on
languages
other
than
English
but
on
languages
which
have
been
little
studied
or
not
studied
at
all.
In
these
circumstances,
tests
such
as
transposition
are
essential.
The
test
of
transposition
is
also
applied
in
a
slightly
different
fashion.
Consider
the
active
clause
in
(6a)
and
the
passive
clause
in
(6b).
(6)
a. The pupils in this maths class gave cakes to Margaret every Friday.
b.
Cakes
were
given
to
Margaret
every
Friday
by
the
pupils
in
this
maths
class.
The
phrase
the
pupils
in
this
maths
classis
at
the
beginning
of
the
clause
in
(6a)
and
refers
to
the
people
doing
the
giving.
The
same
sequence
is
at
the
end
of
the
clause
in
(6b)
and
is
the
complement
of
the
preposition
by.
In
contrast
with
(3a)
and
(3b),
the
differences
between
(6a)
and
(6b)
consist
of
more
than
just
a
group
of
words
being
moved
from
one
position
to
another.
Example
(6a)
contains
gave,
while
(6b)
contains
the
words
were
and
given.
Example
(6b)
also
contains
the
prepositional
phrase
by
the
pupils
in
this
maths
class,
whereas
(6a)
has
no
prepositional
phrase.
When
we
use
‘transposition’
with
respect
to
examples
such
as
(6a)
and
(6b),
we
are
talking
about
sequences
of
words
that
turn
up
in
a
particular
order
in
one
position
in
one
construction
and
about
the
same
sequences
of
words
turning
up
in
the
same
order
in
another
construction.
The
sequence
the
pupils
in
this
maths
class
occurs
in
the
different
constructions
in
(6a)
and
(6b).
The
test
of
transposition
applies
to
other
sequences
of
words,
as
shown
by
(7).
(7)
a.
This
parcel
is
very
heavy.
b.
This
very
heavy
parcel
was
delivered
yesterday.
c.
Very
heavy,
this
parcel!
d.
What
this
parcel
is,
is
very
heavy.
In
(7a),
the
sequence
of
words/the
phrase
very
heavy
is
the
complement
of
is;
in
(7b)
it
is
the
modifier
of
parcel.
It
turns
up
at
the
beginning
of
the
spoken
construction
in
(7c).
In
(7d)
it
is
also
the
complement
of
is,
but
in
a
special
emphatic
construction.
Very
can
be
replaced
by
words
such
as
astonishingly,
and
the
sequence
can
be
made
longer
–
astonishingly
and
frighteningly
heavy
–
but
can
still
be
transposed,
as
shown
in
This
parcel
is
astonishingly
and
frighteningly
heavy,this
astonishingly
and
frighteningly
heavy
parcel
was
delivered
yesterday,
What
this
parcel
is
‘is
astonishingly
and
frighteningly
heavy.’
Examples
(3a)
and
(3c)
show
that
a
sequence
of
words
introduced
by
a
preposition
–
into
the
room
–
can
be
transposed.
Another
example
is
given
in
(8).
(8)
a.
We
felled
the
laburnum
with
this
chainsaw.
b.
With
this
chainsaw
we
felled
the
laburnum.
Substitution
The
essential
idea
behind
this
test
is
that
a
single
word
can
substitute
for
a
number
of
words
hanging
together
as
a
phrase.
This
is
demonstrated
in
(9).
(9)
a.
Barbara
handed
the
intriguing
results
of
the
latest
examination
to
Alan
on
Tuesday.
9b.
Barbara
handed
them
to
Alan
on
Tuesday.
Them
in
(9b)
substitutes
for
the
intriguing
results
of
the
latest
examination
in
(9a).
Similarly,
in
(6a)
and
(6b)
David
can
be
substituted
for
the
pupils
in
this
maths
class:
David
baked
cakes
for
Margaret
every
Friday
and
Cakes
were
baked
for
Margaret
every
Friday
by
David.
The
test
of
substitution
applies
to
sequences
of
words
with
adjectives,
such
as
those
in
(7);
This
parcel
is
very
heavy,
This
parcel
is
astonishingly
and
frighteningly
heavy
or
simply
This
parcel
is
heavy.
The
single
adjective
heavy
substitutes
for
the
sequences
very
heavy
and
astonishingly
and
frighteningly
heavy
but
another
type
of
substitution
is
possible,
using
the
specialised
substitution
word
‘so’.
Consider
the
dialogue
in
(10).
(Here
capital
letters
represent
different
speakers.)
(10)
A.
This
large
parcel
is
very
heavy.
B.
No
it’s
not.
C.
It
is
so.
The
test
of
so-‐substitution
exemplified
in
(10)
is
straightforward
in
that
the
sequence
very
heavy
is
removed
and
so
is
dropped
into
the
empty
slot.
Another
type
of
so-‐substitution
is
rather
indirect.
Consider
(11).
(11)
This
large
parcel
is
very
heavy
and
so
is
this
small
packet.
There
is
no
doubt
that
so
‘stands
for’
very
heavy.
The
reason
for
calling
this
substitution
‘indirect’
is
that
so
has
not
simply
been
dropped
into
the
slot
occupied
by
very
heavy
but
has
been
moved
to
the
front
of
the
clause.
Nonetheless,
so-‐
substitution
is
a
good
indication
that
sequences
such
as
very
heavy
form
a
larger
unit.
Substitution
can
be
applied
to
sequences
introduced
by
prepositions,
as
in
(12)
and
(13).
(12)
a.
Vera
is
crocheting
in
the
lounge.
b.
Vera
is
crocheting
there.
(13)
a.
Grandma
is
coming
to
Mr
Chalky’s
school
tomorrow.
b.
Grandma
is
coming
here
tomorrow.
There
in
(12b)
substitutes
for
in
the
lounge
in
(12a),
and
here
in
(13b)
substitutes
for
to
Mr
Chalky’s
school
in
(13a).
Examples
in
which
a
single
preposition
substitutes
for
a
whole
sequence
are
difficult
to
find.
This
is
mainly
because
prepositions
typically
require
a
complement,
but
also
because
in
standard
written
English
there
is
a
contrast
between
in
for
location
and
into
for
movement,
and
for
many
speakers
there
is
a
contrast
between
out
of
for
movement
and
out
for
location,
as
in
(14).
(14)
a.
The
cat
was
sleeping
in
the
kitchen.
b.
The
cat
trotted
into
the
kitchen.
c.
The
mouse
jumped
out
of
the
cheese-‐box.
d.
The
mouse
was
out
the
cheese-‐box.
In
informal
spoken
English,
and
certainly
in
non-‐standard
varieties
of
English,
in
and
out
express
both
location
and
movement,
and
(14b,
c)
can
be
expressed
as
(15a,
b).
(15)
a.
The
cat
trotted
in
the
kitchen.
b.
The
mouse
jumped
out
the
cheese-‐box.
These
examples
can
be
shortened
to
those
in
(16).
(16)
a.
The
cat
trotted
in.
b.
The
mouse
jumped
out.
In
these
examples,
in
and
out
can
be
treated
as
single
words
substituting
for
the
longer
phrases
in
the
kitchen
and
out
the
cheese-‐box.
However,
for
the
large
majority
of
prepositions,
the
substitution
of
a
preposition
for
preposition
plus
noun
phrase
does
not
work,
whether
in
writing
or
informal
speech,
in
standard
or
non-‐standard
English.
Finally
in
this
section,
let
us
note
that
all
the
above
examples
show
a
sequence
of
words
being
replaced
by
one
word.
The
converse
is
that
a
single
word
can
be
replaced
by
a
sequence
of
words:
Cheese
is
good
can
be
changed
to
That
French
cheese
with
the
blue
veins
is
good.
The
latter
example
is
occasionally
described
in
terms
of
cheese
being
expanded
to
that
French
cheese
with
the
blue
veins,
but
it
is
treated
here
as
a
type
of
substitution.
Ellipsis
Consider
the
examples
in
(17).
(17)
a.
The
terrier
attacked
the
burglar.
The
terrier
savaged
the
burglar’s
ankles.
b.
The
terrier
attacked
the
burglar
and
the
terrier
savaged
the
burglar’s
ankles.
c.
The
terrier
attacked
the
burglar
and
[
]
savaged
the
burglar’s
ankles.
Example
(17a)
contains
two
separate
clauses.
In
(17b),
the
clauses
are
conjoined
by
and;
this
gives
a
single
sentence
consisting
of
two
clauses,
each
beginning
with
the
terrier.
Example
(17c)
is
produced
by
deleting
the
second
occurrence
of
the
terrier.
The
square
brackets
in
(17c)
mark
the
site
of
the
missing
words,
which
are
said
to
have
been
ellipted.
Example
(17c)
is
an
example
of
ellipsis.
The
important
point
about
this
type
of
ellipsis
is
that
it
applies
only
to
complete
phrases.
Sentences
such
as
*The
fierce
terrier
attacked
the
burglar
and
terrier
savaged
the
burglar’s
ankles
are
incorrect,
because
terrier
must
be
preceded
by
the.
Example
(17b)
is
peculiar
because
speakers
and
writers
of
English
do
not
repeat
phrases
in
this
manner
but
either
ellipt
the
second
occurrence
of
the
phrase
as
in
(17c)
or
use
a
substitute
such
as
he,
she
or
it.
The
burglar
occurs
twice,
once
as
the
phrase
at
the
beginning
of
(17b)
and
again
in
the
bigger
phrase
the
burglar’s
ankles.
In
the
latter
phrase
the
burglar,
or
rather
the
burglar
plus
the
possessive
suffix
’s,
is
replaced
by
his:
The
terrier
attacked
the
burglar
and
she
savaged
his
ankles.
The
concept
of
structure
is
fundamental
to
the
study
of
syntax.
Sentences
are
used
as
a
daily
tool
for
everybody
in
doing
a
conversation
with
others.
From
those
created
every
day,
the
correctness
is
the
thing
to
be
maintained.
To
know
whether
a
sentence
is
correct
or
incorrect,
we
need
to
analyze
it.
Analyzing
a
sentence
can
be
done
in
various
ways.
We
have
to
know
how
the
theory
works
first
before
we
realize
the
strengths
and
weaknesses
of
it.
The
result
can
be
very
useful
to
understand
how
good
the
sentence
is.
In
the
following,
we
will
try
to
explain
the
analysis
using
traditional
grammar,
IC-‐analysis,
Phrase
Structure
Grammar
and
X-‐bar
theory
1. TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR
Traditional
grammar
states
the
reason
why
certain
grammatical
features
of
a
language
occur
and
to
explain
how
important
the
features
are.
This
leads
to
the
positive
idea
that
traditional
grammar
gives
a
good
explanation
of
the
language.
The
traditional
understanding
of
a
sentence
division
is
as
subject
and
predicate.
TG
considered
the
function
of
sentence
patterns
in
the
analysis
of
syntactic
structure.
Subject
(S):
He
is
not
happy
when
his
wife
travels.
That
he
fled
was
unbelievable.
The
man
who
is
talking
must
have
been
corrupted.
Predicate
(P):
He
built
many
new
roads
when
he
was
mayor.
Predicator
(Pred):
He
built
many
new
roads
when
he
was
mayor.
Direct Object (Od): He built many new roads when he was mayor.
Indirect Object (Oi): He gave whoever came to the house a present.
Object Complement (Co) : They elected him chairperson at the last congress.
Adjunct
(Adjct):
They
elected
him
chairperson
at
the
last
congress.
He
built
many
new
roads
when
he
was
mayor.
Modifier
(M):
He
built
many
new
roads
when
he
was
mayor.
Head
(H):
He
built
many
new
roads
when
he
was
mayor.
The
subject
and
predicate
are
also
termed
noun
phrase
(NP)
and
verb
phrase
(VP).
The
subject
being
very
often
a
noun
phrase
and
the
predicate
the
verb
and
modifiers.
One
way
to
analyze
sentence
structure
is
to
think
in
terms
of
form
and
function.
Form
refers
to
a
word
class
such
as
noun,
verb,
adjective,
adverb,
and
preposition
as
well
as
types
of
phrases,
such
as
prepositional
phrase,
nominal
clause,
and
adverbial
clause.
Function
word
refers
to
a
word
that
is
important
in
grammar
rather
than
its
meaning
in
a
sentence.
There
are
few
forms
of
subject
as
a
noun
phrase
in
the
sentence
such
as
a
bare
noun
phrase
such
as
singular
or
plural
noun
phrases
and
a
mass
noun
as
in
“Students
are
at
work”,
a
determiner
phrase,
a
noun
phrase
which
is
preceded
by
a
determiner
(determiner
+
noun
phrase)
as
in
“The
teacher’s
car
stopped
outside
our
classroom”,
a
gerund,
a
phrase
without
a
determiner.
This
gerund
behaves
like
a
noun
phrase
as
in
“Watching
movie
is
a
pleasure”,
an
infinitive
which
is
preceded
by
question
words,
who,
what,
why,
when,
where,
and
how,
as
an
embedded
clause
as
in
“To
speak
is
easier
than
to
do”
and
“What
to
do
is
a
start
for
everything
new”,
a
full
clause
which
is
introduced
by
a
complementizer
as
in
“That
the
students
do
not
understand
the
lesson
is
not
important”,
a
direct
quotation
as
in
“I
like
you
is
what
she
wants
to
hear
from
me”,
imperative
mood
which
states
“you”
as
the
subject
recipient
as
in
“Submit
the
paper
immediately!”,
the
words
like
it
or
there
which
do
not
refer
to
anything
or
place
“It’s
dangerous
and
There
is
a
student
in
the
room”,
and
the
word
it
which
is
used
as
co-‐referent
with
a
subordinate
clause
that
comes
after
it
as
in
“It
is
known
by
his
friends
that
he
never
cheats
in
every
test”.
This
predicate
is
one
of
the
two
main
parts
of
a
sentence.
It
must
contain
a
verb
as
in
“She
sings”
and
other
sentence
elements
that
can
make
the
predicate
complete.
They
can
be
as
direct
objects
(She
reads
the
syntax
book),
indirect
objects
(She
gave
me
a
book),
or
object
of
preposition
(She
watches
to
the
movie),
noun
predicative
(Jakarta
elected
him
governor),
and
adjuncts
(She
met
me
in
the
library).
These
predicates
provide
information
about
the
subject,
such
as
what
the
subject
is,
what
the
subject
is
doing,
or
what
the
subject
is
like.
There
are
forms
of
subject
and
predicative,
which
must
be
connected
by
a
linking
verb.
A
predicative
nominal
such
as
Pak
Dwi
is
the
lecture
of
Syntax
is
the
first
form.
“the
lecture
of
syntax”
here
is
a
predicative
nominal.
It
is
a
noun
phrase
that
functions
as
the
main
predicate
of
the
sentence.
A
predicative
adjective
as
in
This
lesson
is
attractive
is
the
second
form.
“Attractive”
is
the
predicate
adjective
which
functions
as
a
predicate
of
the
sentence.
Objects
fall
into
three
classes.
They
are
direct
objects,
indirect
objects,
and
objects
preceded
by
a
preposition.
A
direct
object
must
be
placed
in
a
sentence
when
there
is
an
indirect
object
in
it.
A
direct
object
answers
the
question
"What?"
as
in
"The
students
watched
The
Dark
Night
Rises",
while
an
indirect
object
which
functions
as
the
recipient
of
the
direct
object
answers
the
question
"To
whom?"
or
"For
whom?"
as
in
"The
students
sent
the
lecturer
a
ticket",
and
in
"The
students
listen
to
the
radio",
radio
is
the
object
of
the
preposition
to,
and
the
prepositional
object
of
the
verb
listen.
An
object
is
nominal
which
can
take
a
number
of
forms.
They
are
as
a
noun
or
noun
phrase,
as
in
“The
student
knows
his
number”,
an
infinitive,
as
in
“The
student
likes
to
learn”,
a
gerund,
as
in
“The
student
loves
doing
the
test”,
and
a
noun
clause,
as
in
“The
student
does
not
know
that
the
paper
is
typed.”
In
English,
adverbials
most
commonly
take
the
form
of
adverbs
(The
students
leave
hurriedly),
temporal
noun
phrases
(The
students
were
tested
this
morning)
or
prepositional
phrases
(The
students
presented
in
English),
or
clauses
of
time,
cause
(The
students
asked
and
answered
in
English
because
they
were
in
English
study
class),
condition,
manner,
place,
and
contrast.
An
adverbial
is
a
construction
that
modifies,
or
describes,
verbs.
When
an
adverbial
modifies
a
verb,
it
changes
the
meaning
of
that
verb.
Word
groups
that
are
also
considered
to
be
adverbials
can
also
modify
verbs:
for
example,
a
prepositional
phrase,
a
noun
phrase,
a
finite
clause
or
a
non-‐finite
clause.
In
every
sentence
pattern,
the
adverbial
is
a
clause
element
that
tells
where,
when,
why,
or
how.
There
can
be
more
than
one
adverbial
in
a
sentence.
In
addition,
the
same
adverbial
can
be
moved
to
different
positions
in
a
sentence.
Adverbials
are
typically
divided
into
four
classes;
adverbial
complements,
adjuncts,
conjuncts,
and
disjuncts.
Adverbial
complements
are
adverbial
that
can
make
a
sentence
meaningless
if
removed
as
in
“The
student
presents
the
paper
in
the
class.”
Adjuncts
are
part
of
a
sentence.
They
are
not
too
important
because
if
they
are
omitted,
the
sentence
is
still
meaningful
as
in
“One
of
the
students
helped
me
with
an
idea.”
Conjuncts
are
words
that
link
two
sentences
together
such
as
“She
helped
me,
therefore
I
can
do
my
thesis.”
Disjuncts
are
words
that
make
comments
on
the
meaning
of
the
rest
of
the
sentence,
for
example
“Suddenly,
We
passed
all
of
the
exams.”
The
purpose
of
traditional
grammar
is
to
prescribe
the
way
people
speak,
or
simply,
to
tell
people
how
to
speak
and
let
people
know
the
correct
way
of
their
speaking.
That
is
why
traditional
grammar
is
said
to
be
prescriptive.
Traditional
grammar
is
normative
as
the
different
usage
from
the
rules
is
said
to
be
ungrammatical.
It
is
different
with
modern
linguistic
which
is
said
to
be
descriptive,
to
describe
the
way
people
speak,
which
deals
with
pragmatics,
sociolinguistics,
etc.
Traditional
grammar
cannot
resolve
the
ambiguity
existing
in
the
grammatical
forms.
Its
methods
are
inaccurate,
incomplete
and
inconsistent,
and
the
descriptions
are
inexplicit
and
intuitive.
The
sentence
On
Friday
(adjunct),
the
students
(the
subject
argument)
did
(the
predicate)
the
test
(the
object
argument)
in
Palem
room
(adjunct)
uses
adjuncts
of
time
and
place.
The
adjunct
in
Palem
room
modifies
the
verb
did
in
which
case
it
is
“The
student
who
did
the
test
while
the
student
in
Palem
room”
or
the
noun
phrase
the
test
in
which
case
it
is
“the
test
w
3+2hich is in Palem room”. It means that the adjunct in Palem room is ambiguous.
Carni
(2006)
gave
a
definition
of
constituent
as
a
syntactically
unit
combined
with
other
syntactically
unit
to
form
a
construction.
He
mentioned
that
each
constituent
can
be
classified
based
on
its
arrangement
of
internal
constituent
itself
and
with
the
grammatical
function
related
with
other
constituent.
It
is
clear
that
constituent
is
a
part
or
component
of
a
construction.
Constituent
Analysis
is
a
sentence
analysis
by
cutting
into
smaller
units.
To
know
whether
a
structure
is
constituent
or
not
we
need
to
have
a
constituency
test.
This
test
can
be
done
with
topicalization
(...the
student
is
doing
the
test),
clefting
(It
is
the
student
who
is
doing
the
test),
pseudoclefting
(The
one
who
is
doing
the
test
is
the
student),
pro-‐form
substitution
(She
is
doing
the
test),
and
answer
ellipsis
(Who
is
doing
the
test?
-‐the
student).
One
can
safely
assume
that
the
noun
phrase
The
student
in
the
example
sentence
is
a
constituent.
Immediate
constituent
analysis
or
IC
analysis
is
a
sentence
analysis
method
that
was
first
mentioned
by
Leonard
Bloomfield.
He
did
not
divide
a
sentence
into
“subject”
and
“predicate”,
but
he
replaced
them
with
the
terms
“actor”
and
“action”
because
he
did
not
create
a
terminology
for
phrasal
categories
IC
analysis
is
a
very
important
tool
for
syntactically
analysis.
The
technique
applies
that
a
sentence
must
be
analyzed
into
immediate
constituents
actor
and
action.
The
construction
inside
the
immediate
constituents
must
be
further
analyzed
until
the
final
constituents
are
reached
that
is
a
word.
Firstly,
a
sentence
is
divided
into
major
parts
or
immediate
constituents.
These
constituents
are
divided
into
further
immediate
constituents.
This
continues
until
each
constituent
consists
of
only
one
meaningful
part
of
a
word.
All
is
presented
in
a
diagram,
usually
in
trees
form,
that
reveals
the
hierarchical
immediate
constituent
structure.
The
manner
in
which
the
entire
sentence
is
divided
is
as
follows.
First,
it
is
split
into
the
two
immediate
constituents
the
lecturer
and
presented
the
IC
course
clearly.
These
two
constituents
are
further
divided
into
the
immediate
constituents
the
and
lecturer
and
presented
the
IC
course
and
clearly.
Then
presented
and
the
IC
course.
The
last
one
is
the
and
IC
course.
Each
individual
word
is
a
constituent
by
definition.
This
is
a
significant
aspect
of
IC
analysis
is
phrase
structure
grammar.
A
word
as
the
smallest
constituent
is
the
final
process
of
IC-‐analysis.
A
different
process
happens
in
a
dependency
grammar
where
individual
words
are
not
as
the
final
result
of
constituents.
The
finite
verb
functions
as
the
root
of
all
sentence
structure.
There
is
no
initial
binary
actor-‐action
division
of
the
clause.
A
finite
verb
phrase
(VP)
constituent
and
many
individual
words
are
not
qualified
as
constituents
in
the
IC-‐analysis
as
in
the
sample
below.
The
structures
that
IC-‐analysis
identifies
for
dependency
and
constituency
grammars
differ
in
significant
ways.
Immediate
constituent
produces
the
preference
for
binary
analyses.
Breaking
down
sentences
into
two
and
only
two
immediate
constituents
is
possible.
We
can
make
components
in
first
cutting
in
constituent
analysis
as
in
The
teacher
teaches
a
lesson.
This
sentence
has
two
immediate
constituents,
i.e.
The
teacher
and
teaches
a
lesson.
The
word
order
in
IC-‐analysis
cannot
be
disturbed.
This
can
be
seen
when
a
sentence
composed
of
the
same
words
is
in
different
word
order
as
in:
1.
The
students
played
card
games
on
the
floor
(the
prepositional
phrase
“on
the
floor”
modifies
the
verb
phrase)
(the prepositional phrase “on the floor” modifies the noun phrase)
3.
On
the
floor
the
students
played
card
games
(the
prepositional
phrase
“on
the
floor”
modifies
the
rest
of
the
sentence)
Unlike
the
traditional
grammar,
the
IC-‐analysis
can
account
for
ambiguities
and
distinguish
them.
“good
boy
and
girl”
can
be
paraphrased
in
two
ways.
It
can
be
“good
boy
and
girl
of
all
ages”.
It
can
also
be
“good
boy
and
good
girl”.
The
expansion
of
“good
boy”
is
as
a
single
morpheme
or
“boy
and
girl”
as
a
single
morpheme.
The
recognition
of
two
different
IC
analysis
shown
by
the
tree
diagram:
P
P
AP conj NP
The
IC-‐analysis
cannot
make
a
binary
division
when
the
elements
in
the
sentence
are
separated
in
the
sequence
or
discontinuous.
In
a
“Never
did
I
cheat
in
a
test”
the
word
“did”
is
nearer
to
“cheat”
than
to
“I”.
IC-‐analysis
should
be
based
on
a
linear
string.
The
sequences
of
single
morpheme
in
a
sentence
are
broken
when
it
is
discontinuous.
Permitting
the
discontinuity
makes
it
nonlinear.
The
IC-‐analysis
cannot
analyze
the
phrase
further
than
just
a
level
of
words.
The
phrase
like
“civil
law”
which
in
practice
means
law
that
deals
with
the
rights
of
private
citizens
rather
than
with
crime
cannot
go
further
into
a
meaningful
way
when
it
is
analyzed
in
IC-‐
analysis.
The
phrase
comes
out
in
meaning
clearly
when
it
is
cut
in
the
way
like
“civil-‐law”.
In
brief,
I.C.
Analysis
–
Definition:
is
an
implicit
assumption
that
linguistic
structure,
especially
syntactic
structures
are
layered
structures
amenable
to
analysis
by
progressive
dichotomous
cutting.
In
another
word
I.C.
Analysis
is
that
system
of
grammatical
analysis
that
breakup
sentences
into
sequential
layers,
or
constituents
until
in
the
final
layer,
and
every
constituent
consists
of
only
a
word
or
meaningful
part
of
a
word.
Approach
of
I.C.
Analysis:
The
initial
emphasis
was
upon
pure
segmentation,
simply
breakup
the
sentence
into
its
constituent
parts
without,
at
first,
knowing
what
these
parts
were:
Generally
the
section
is
binary
except
in
some
cases
where
section
into
three
or
more
points
is
allowed.
A.
Identification
of
the
layers
of
relationship
in
a
construction:
IC
analysis
discovers
the
layers
of
relationship
in
a
construction.
English
syntax
is
based
on
this
ability
of
structures
to
function
within
larger
structures,
which
are,
in
turn,
serving
other
functions
in
still
larger,
more
complex
structures(sentences).
Composing
a
more
complex
sentence
such
as:
The pretty girl put on her red and blue coat kissed her mother and left.
demonstrates
the
nature
of
relationship
that
must
be
negotiated
if
a
hearer
or
a
reader
is
to
understand
such
a
sentence.
Actually,
anyone
who
is
capable
of
understanding
the
meaning
of
the
sentence
obviously
has
the
mental
capacity
to
keep
all
those
relationships
afloat
as
he
hears
or
reads
the
sentence.
In
IC
analysis
the
word
order
is
not
disturbed
in
any
way.
This
advantage
is
best
demonstrated
by
sorting
the
relationship
found
in
the
following
sentences
which
are
composed
of
the
same
words
but
which
are
different
in
word
order:
These
sentences
may
be
said
to
be
stylistically
different.
In
the
first,
the
prepositional
phrase
"on
his
knees"
modifies
the
verb
phrase;
in
the
second,
it
modifies
the
noun
phrase;
in
the
third
it
modifies
all
the
rest
of
the
sentence.
Yet
in
the
word
order
within
the
structure
"on
his
knees"
does
not
change.
C.
To
account
for
ambiguities
and
distinguish
them:
A
famous
example
'old
men
and
women'
can
be
paraphrased
in
two
ways;
it
is
either
"old
men
and
women
of
all
ages"
or
"old
men
and
old
women".
The
principle
of
expansion
here
allows
us
two
interpretations
(A)
Immediate
constituent
analysis
has
its
limitations:
It
cannot
analyse
discontinuous
constituents,
for
example:
She
is
taller
than
her
sister.
In
this
sentence,
the
sequence
–er
than
cannot
be
covered
by
ICA.
(B)
ICA
stops
at
the
level
of
words:
In
ICA,
it
is
tacitly
assumed
that
there
will
be
no
division
into
pieces
smaller
than
words
(morphemes).
(C)
Unbalanced
Bracketing:
IC
analysis
does
not
refer
to
our
grammatical
knowledge.
So
it
does
not
take
us
very
far
and
without
the
help
of
labeled
bracketing
we
cannot
point
out
the
source
of
ambiguity
in
many
sentences.
The
labeled
bracketing
can
be
used
to
differentiate
the
two
possibilities
in
an
example
that
is
often
against
IC
analysis.
Flying
planes
can
be
dangerous.
Here,
in
one
case
‘flying’
is
the
head
of
the
noun
phrase
while
on
the
other
hand
is
‘planes’.
It
cannot
help
explain
the
ambiguity
that
exist
in
those
sentences
(see
the
difference
between
lexical
ambiguity
and
structural
ambiguity)
as
ICA
does
not
use
grammatical
labels
on
the
tree
nodes
of
the
brackets.
Now,
we
shall
concentrate
on
English
phrase
structure
rules
and
their
application
to
the
structure
of
English.
Examples
from
other
languages
are
also
interesting.
Phrase
structure
rules
account
for
the
linear
order
of
elements
in
a
sentence
in
deep
structure,
as
well
as
for
the
hierarchical
arrangement
of
sentence
structure.
They
can
also
account
for
the
infinite
generating
capacity
of
language.
To
understand
the
properties
of
modern
phrase
structure
grammars,
it
is
useful
to
place
their
development
in
a
wider
formal
and
historical
context.
Phrase
structure
grammars
and
associated
notions
of
phrase
structure
analysis
have
their
proximate
origins
in
models
of
Immediate
Constituent
(IC)
analysis.
Although
inspired
by
the
programmatic
syntactic
remarks
in
Bloomfield,
these
models
were
principally
developed
by
Bloomfield’s
successors,
most
actively
in
the
decade
between
the
publication
of
Wells
and
the
advent
of
transformational
analyses
in
Harris
and
Chomsky.
The
central
intuition
underlying
models
of
IC
analysis
was
that
the
structure
of
an
expression
could
be
exhibited
by
dividing
the
expression
into
parts
(its
immediate
constituents),
further
subdividing
these
parts,
and
continuing
until
syntactically
indivisible
units
were
obtained.
This
style
of
analysis
was
motivated
in
part
by
a
belief
in
the
syntactic
relations,
in
particular
the
view
that
the
most
important
relations
held
between
immediate
constituents.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this section, you should be able to:
-‐how they apply in the derivation of English sentence structure
We
can
best
begin
the
description
of
English
phrase
structure
rules
by
taking
a
very
simple
example
of
a
phrase
structure
of
grammar,
such
as
is
given
in
(1)
below:
This
grammar
consists
of
six
phrase
structure
rules.
(‘Phrase
structure’
will
henceforth
be
abbreviated
‘PS’).
-‐Each
rule
is
an
instruction
to
‘rewrite’
the
symbol
on
the
left
of
the
arrow
as
the
string
of
one
or
more
symbols
given
on
the
right.
The
symbols
used
in
the
grammar
are
divided
into
two
discrete
sets
(apart
from
the
arrow):
non-‐terminal
symbols
occur
on
the
left
of
some
rule
or
rules,
terminal
ones
do
not.
Such
rules
permit
the
construction
of
sentences
in
a
purely
mechanical
way
in
accordance
with
our
goal
of
complete
explicitness.
The
procedure
where
the
succession
of
‘strings’
of
symbols
constitutes
what
is
called
a
PS
derivation.
(i) #S#
(ii) #
NP
VP#
(iii) #NP
V
NP#
S
is
designated
as
the
initial
symbol
of
the
grammar,
reflecting
the
fact
that
we
are
concerned
with
devising
a
grammar
to
generate
sentences.
Thus
all
PS
derivations
generated
by
this
grammar
(and
others
we
shall
consider)
have
#S#
as
the
first
line.
Each
subsequent
line
in
a
derivation
derives
from
the
one
preceding
it
by
one
application
of
a
PS
rule.
The
second
line
is
derived
from
the
first,
then
the
third
from
the
second,
the
fourth
from
the
third
and
the
fifth
from
the
fourth.
The
straws
use
to
represent
the
tree
are
called
Phrase
Markers.
The
phrase
marker
is
a
set
of
strings
that
assigns
a
phrase
structure
interpretation
to
a
terminal
string
(the
string
of
lexical
categories
that
terminates
the
phrase
structure
derivation).
The following are the phrase structure rules for English which we have established so far:
S→NP+ VP
labeled bracketing:
Apart
from
using
a
tree
diagram,
phrase
markers
can
be
represented
using
labeled
bracketing.
Such
constituents
are
labeled
according
to
the
name
of
the
constituent
in
which
they
are
enclosed.
It
should
be
noted
that
once
a
bracket
is
opened,
it
must
be
closed
otherwise
the
analysis
will
be
incorrect.
Det N V Det N
The rule given above cannot account for all sentences like in these examples:
So, we need to create a new rule that can generate these sentences
S
=
sentence,
NP
=
noun
phrase,
INFL
=
inflection
(this
is
the
same
as
Aux
=
auxiliary
used
in
some
texts),
VP
=
verb
phrase
S
NP Infl VP
Dominance Relations
Before
we
consider
how
lexical
items
are
introduced
into
phrase
markers,
it
will
be
useful
to
discuss
the
relations
between
the
elements
in
phrase
markers.
-‐The
relation
between
a
category
and
its
constituents
is
called
dominance.
That
is,
a
category
dominates
all
of
its
constituents.
-‐For example, the category VP in (3) dominates the category V, NP, Det and N.
-‐However,
the
relation
between
VP
and
NP
is
different
from
the
relation
between
VP
and
N.
-‐VP
immediately
dominates
NP,
but
it
does
not
immediately
dominate
N
since
another
category,
NP,
intervenes
between
VP
and
N.
We
may
say
that
a
category
X
immediately
dominates
a
category
Y
when
X
dominates
Y
and
every
other
category
dominating
Y
dominates
X.
When
X
immediately
dominates
Y,
then
Y
is
an
immediate
constituent
of
X.
In
the
example
(the
cat
caught
the
mouse),
both
NP
and
N
are
constituents
of
VP,
but
only
NP
is
an
immediate
constituent
of
VP.
-‐Precedence
relations
determine
the
linear
(left-‐to-‐right)
ordering
of
elements
in
the
phrase
marker
and
hence
determine
the
linear
structure
of
sentences.
A
tree
diagram
can
have
a
unary
branching
(where
a
category
immediately
dominates
only
one
constituent)
and
binary
branching
(where
a
category
has
two
or
more
immediate
constituents).
A
node
is
a
point
on
the
phrase
marker
where
there
is
a
category
label.
This
category
label
can
be
phrasal
(e.g.
NP,
VP)
or
lexical
(e.g.
N,
V,
Adj.).
A
path
is
the
line
that
links
a
node
to
the
other.
In
(3)
the
line
from
NP
to
N
is
a
path,
and
so
is
VP
to
V
or
VP
to
NP.
4. X – BAR THEORY
X-‐bar
theory
is
discussed
in
almost
all
modern
textbooks
of
syntax.
It
attempts
to
identify
syntactic
features.
It
claims
that
among
their
phrasal
categories,
all
those
languages
share
certain
structural
similarity
that
does
not
appear
in
traditional
grammar
for
English.
X-‐bar
theory
was
first
proposed
by
Noam
Chomsky
in
1970
and
further
developed
by
Ray
Jackendoff
in
1977.
An
X-‐bar
theoretic
understanding
of
sentence
structure
is
possible
in
a
constituency-‐based
grammar
only.
It
is
not
possible
in
a
dependency-‐
based
grammar.
The
letter
X
is
used
to
signify
part
of
speeches;
when
analyzing
a
specific
utterance,
specific
categories
are
assigned.
Thus,
the
X
may
become
an
N
for
noun,
a
V
for
verb,
an
A
for
adjective,
or
a
P
for
preposition.
The
term
X-‐bar
is
derived
from
the
notation
representing
this
new
structure.
Certain
structures
are
represented
by
X
(an
X
with
an
over
bar).
Because
this
is
difficult
to
typeset,
this
is
often
written
as
Xʹ′.
In
English,
however,
this
is
still
read
as
"X
bar".
The
notation
XP
stands
for
X
Phrase,
and
is
equivalent
to
X-‐
bar-‐bar
(X
with
a
double
over
bar),
written
Xʺ″,
usually
read
aloud
as
X
double
bar.
Three
level
structures
are
needed
to
express
the
relationship
between
head
and
their
complements.
Under
the
highest
node
of
any
phrase
(XP)
will
be
a
specifier,
which
is
optional,
to
the
left
which
modifies
everything
generated
under
X’
on
the
right.
e.g.
XP
Specifier X’
X (head) complement