1.Properties of electric charge 9. Define electric dipole 13.

Electric Field due to a Dipole along

Seema Elizabeth, HSST Physics
A pair of equal and opposite charges the Equatorial Line
q = q1 + q2 + q3 +.................. + qn MARM Govt HSS Saanthipuram
separated by a distance.
ii). Charge is conserved: 6.Electric field due to a point charge
The total charge of an isolated system
remains constant ---------------------------------------------
iii) Quantization of charge 10. Define Electric dipole moment.
q=± ne 1 qq0 It is the product of magnitude of one of
F= the charges and the distance between
where, n=1,2,3......... 4πε0 r2
1 qq0
e=1.602 x 10−19 F 4πε0 r2
the charges.
E= = P=q x 2a
---------------------------------------------------- q0 q0
𝟏 𝐪
𝐄= 1 q
2. How many electronic charges form 1 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫 𝟐 Unit – coulomb meter- Cm E+q =
C of charge? ---------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------- 4πε0 r 2 + a2
q=±ne, 7.The properties of electric field Lines 11.Differentiate polar molecules and 1 q
𝑞 E−q =
n= i)Electric Field lines tart from positive non polar molecules 4πε0 r 2 + a2
𝑒
1 charge, end at negative charge. Non polar moleccules
n= E =2E+q cosθ
1.602 x 10−19 ii)Electric field lines do not form closed • Centers of positive and negative
=6.25 x1018 loops. charges coincide
a
Cosθ= 1
---------------------------------------------------- (r2 +a2 ) ⁄2
iii)In a charge free region field lines are • Dipole moment is zero in the
3. Coulomb’s Law continuous. 𝟏 ⃗
𝐩
The force of attraction or repulsion
absence of electric field. ⃗ =
𝐄 [ ]
iv)Two field lines never intersect. • Eg:CO2 , CH4 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫 𝟑
between two stationery electric charges ----------------------------------------------------
is directly proportional to the product of 8.Draw the electric field lines of a ----------------------------------------------------
Polar molecules
the charges and inversely proportional Positive Charge Negative Charge 14.Torque on a Dipole in a Uniform
• Centers of positive and negative
to the square of the distance between External field
charges do not coincide
them.
𝟏 𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐 • Permanent dipole moment even
𝐅= in the absence of external field.
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫 𝟐
---------------------------------------------------- • Eg: H2O
4. Define intensity of electric field ----------------------------------------------------
Intensity of electric field at a point is the 12. Electric Field due to a Dipole along
force per unit charge. ---------------------------------------------------- the Axial Line Torque = Forces x perpendicular
𝐅 Two positive Charges distance
𝐄=
𝐪 τ = qE x 2a sinθ
Unit of electric field N/C or V/m τ =pE sinθ
----------------------------------------------------
⃗ =𝐏
𝛕 ⃗ ×𝐄⃗
5.Define electric flux. Write its unit.
Electric flux associated with a surface is 1 q ----------------------------------------------------
E+q = (r−a)2
the number of electric field lines passing ---------------------------------------------------- 4πε0 15. Linear charge density -
Dipole - Positive and Negative charge 1 q 𝒒
normal through a surface. E−q = 𝝀= Unit - C/m
4πε0 (r+a)2 𝒍
𝛟 = ∫ 𝐄 ⋅ ⅆ𝐒 Surface charge density-
1 𝑞 1 𝑞
Unit -Mm2C-1 𝐸= − 𝝈=
𝒒
Unit - C/𝑚2
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟−𝑎)2 4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟+𝑎)2 𝑺
𝟏 𝟐𝐩⃗ Volume charge density-
⃗ =
𝐄 [ ] 𝒒
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫 𝟑 𝛒= Unit - C/𝑚3
𝑽

16. State Gauss’ law in electrostatics 20. Define electrostatic potential. 24.Potential energy of a dipole placed in 29. Electrostatic shielding
Gauss’ law states that the total electric Electrostatic Potential at a point P in an an external field.
The electric field inside a cavity of any
flux through a closed surface is equal to electric field is the work done by an
1 conductor is zero. All charges reside
times the total charge enclosed by the external force in bringing a unit positive
𝜀0 only on the outer surface of a conductor
𝒒 charge from infinity to that point.
surface. 𝝓 = ∮ 𝑬 ⋅ ⅆ𝑺 = 𝐏 with cavity.
𝜺𝟎 𝐕 = − ∫∞ 𝐄 . ⅆ𝐫 dW =τ dθ ----------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------- = pEsinθ dθ 30.Define capacitance. Write its unit.
17. Electric field due to a uniformly W=∫ pEsinθ dθ Capacitance is the ratio of charge to
charged infinitely long wire 21. Electrostatic Potential difference potential
=− pEcosθ 𝐐
between two points
W=−𝑝̅ ⋅ 𝐸̅ 𝐂=
Electrostatic Potential difference 𝐕
between two points in an electric field is U=−𝒑 ̅⋅𝑬̅ SI unit of capacitance is farad (F).
the work done by an external force in ---------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------
bringing a unit positive charge from one 25. Equipotential Surfaces 31. Obtain the equation for capacitance
point to other in that field. An equipotential surface is a surface of a parallel plate capacitor.
𝐏
𝐕𝐏 − 𝐕𝐑 = − ∫𝐑 𝐄 . ⅆ𝐫 with a constant value of potential at all
---------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------- points on the surface. Q
22. Electric field due to a point charge at C=
18. Electric field due to a uniformly V
---------------------------------------------------- 𝐐 = 𝛔𝐀
charged infinite plane sheet a dstance r.
σd
26.Properties of an equipotential surface V=Ed=
ε0
• Constant value of potential at all 𝛔𝐀
r points on the surface. C= σd
V = − ∫∞ E . dr ε0
r 𝟏 𝐪 • No work is required to move a test 𝛆𝟎 𝐀
= − ∫∞ . dr charge on the surface. 𝐂=
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫 𝟐 ⅆ
𝟏 𝐪 • Equipotential surface through a ----------------------------------------------------
𝑽=
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫 point is normal to the electric field
at that point. 32. What happens when a dielectric slab
---------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------- is placed between the plates of a parallel
23. Potential due to an electric dipole
19. Electric field due to a uniformly 27. The equipotential surfaces for a plate capacitor
Kε A
charged spherical shell single point charge Cmed = 0
d

𝐂𝐦𝐞ⅆ =K 𝐂𝐚𝐢𝐫
The capacitance increases
----------------------------------------------------
33. Define dielectric constant in terms of
capacitance.
-------------------------------------------------------- Kε0 A
Cmed d
28.The equipotential surfaces for a = ε0 A =K
Cair
d
uniform electric field.
𝐂𝐦𝐞ⅆ
K=
𝐂𝐚𝐢𝐫
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
− =
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟐 ---------------------------------------------
𝟏 𝐩 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
𝐕=
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫𝟐
34. Effective capacitance when 39. Ohm’s law 44. Drift velocity
capacitors are connected in series. At constant temperature , the current The average velocity attained by 48. Conductivity
flowing through a conductor is directly electrons in a conductor due to an Conductivity is the reciprocal of
proportional to the potential difference electric field is called Drift velocity. resistivity.
𝟏
between the ends of the conductor F = qE = −eE 𝝈=
𝐕 F −eE
𝛒
=R a= = Unit – Ω-1m-1
𝐈
V = V1 + V2 m m
Q Q Q Unit of resistance is Ω(ohm) Drift velocity, vd = a τ ----------------------------------------------------
= + ---------------------------------------------------- 49. Ohms law in vector form
C C1 C2 𝐞𝐄
40. Conductance 𝐯ⅆ = − 𝛕 ⃗
𝐣 = 𝛔𝐄
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝐦
= + The reciprocal of resistance is called ----------------------------------------------------
𝐂 𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐 ----------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------- Conductance. 45. Relation connecting drift velocity
35. Effective capacitance when 𝐂=
𝟏
and current 50. Limitations of Ohm’s Law
𝐑
capacitors are connected in parallel ▪ Some materials and devices used
Unit - ohm (Ω−1 ) or siemens
−1
in electric circuits do not obey
---------------------------------------------------- Ohm’s law and are called Non –
Ohmic conductors.
41. The factors on which the resistance Let n be the number of electrons per ▪ V-I graps of non – ohmic
of a conductor depends? unit volume conductors not linear.
i)The material of the conductor The number of electrons = n A vd Δt
Q = Q1 + Q 2 ▪ Eg:- Semi conductors, Diodes ,
CV = C1 V + ii)Length of the conductor , R ∝ 𝑙 Total charge , q= n e A vd Δt Transistors.
C = 𝐂𝟏 + 𝐂𝟐 iii) The area of cross section of the ----------------------------------------------------
1 q
---------------------------------------------------- conductor, R ∝ Current I = 51. Differentiate Ohmic and non ohmic
A Δt
36. Energy stored in a capacitor n e A vd Δt Conductors
dW= V dq --------------------------------------------------- I= Ohmic Conductors
Δt
dW= dq
𝑞
42. Resistivity of a conductor. Write its I= n e A 𝐯ⅆ Conductors which obey Ohm’s law are
𝐶 called Ohmic conductors. The Voltage –
𝑄 unit. ---------------------------------------------
𝑊=∫
𝑞
ⅆ𝑞 The resistance of a conductor is directly 46. Mobility . Current graph of such conductors will be
0
𝑐
proportional to length 𝑙 of the conductor Mobility µ defined as the magnitude of linear . Eg:- metals ,Nichrome
𝐐𝟐
W= and inversely proportional to the cross-
𝟐𝐂
sectional area, A. the drift velocity per unit electric field. Non - Ohmic Conductors
𝐐𝟐 The materials and devices which do not
𝐔= 𝐑=
𝛒𝒍 eE
τ
𝟐𝐂 𝐯ⅆ obey Ohm’s law are called Non – Ohmic
----------------------------------------------------
𝐀 𝛍= = m
𝐄 E conductors. So V-I grapis not linear.
𝐑𝐀
37. Energy stored in a capacitor 𝛒= 𝐞 Eg:- Semi conductors, Diodes ,
𝐐𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝒍 𝛍= 𝛕
𝐔= or 𝐔 = 𝐂𝐕 𝟐 or 𝐔 = 𝐐𝐕 𝐦 Transistors.
𝟐𝐂 𝟐 𝟐 Unit of resistivity is Ωm.
---------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------
Resistivity depends on the material of 52. Temperature co-efficient of
38. Energy density of a capacitor the conductor but not on its dimensions. 47. Current density. Write its unit. resistivity. Write its unit and dimension.
𝛒𝐓 −𝛒𝟎
Energy
1
𝐶V2 ----------------------------------------------------
Current per unit area ,taken normal to 𝛂=
Energy density = =2 the current is called current density. 𝛒𝐨 (𝐓−𝐓𝟎 )
Volume Ad
43. Relaxation time 𝐈
1 ε0 A
( )(E d)2 The average time interval between two J= The dimension of α is
2 d 𝐀
u= successive collisions of free electrons is Unit - A/m2 [Temperature]−1 and unit is K −1 .
Ad
𝟏
called relaxation time(τ) ---------------------------------------------
𝐮 = 𝛆𝟎 𝐄 𝟐
𝟐

53. For metals 𝛂 is positive, i.e.,when 56. Relation connecting emf and 61. Magnetic force on a current-carrying 64. State Ampere's Circuital theorem.
temp increases, the resistivity increases terminal potential difference conductor The line integral of magnetic field over
V = ε – Ir F = I( 𝒍× B ) a closed loop is equal to 𝜇0 times the
total current passing through the
---------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------
surface.
62. Biot-Savart Law
57. Kirchhoff’s junction rule or current ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝝁𝟎 𝑰
𝑩. ⅆ𝒍
For semiconductors and insulators law. ----------------------------------------------------
𝛂 is negative, i.e.,when temp increases, At any junction, the sum of the currents
the resistivity decreases. 65. Magnetic field due to a straight
entering the junction is equal to the sum
infinite current-carrying wire .
of currents leaving the junction .
∑I = 0 By Ampere's Circuital Law
---------------------------------------------------- ∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. ⅆ𝑙 = μ0 I
58. Kirchhoff’s loop rule or voltage law. ∮ Bd𝑙 cos 0 = μ0 I
The algebraic sum of changes in The magnetic field at a point due to a B∮ d𝑙 = μ0 I
For Nichrome, Constantan and potential around any closed loop is small element of a current carrying
B x 2πr = μ0 I
Manganin 𝛂 ≈ 𝟎,i.e., resistivity does not zero. ∑ ΔV = 0 conductor is directly proportional to the 𝛍𝟎 𝐈
*vary considerably with temperature. So current (I) ,the length of the element ⅆ𝑙 , 𝐁=
𝟐𝛑𝐫
these materials are are used as standard ---------------------------------------------------- sine of the angle between r and ⅆ𝑙 and
resistors. 59. Wheatstone bridge principle. inversely proportional to the square of
the distance r. ----------------------------------------------------------
𝝁𝟎 𝑰 ⅆ𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 66. Mangnetic field due to a solenoid.
ⅆ𝑩 =
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐
----------------------------------------------------
63. Magnetic Field on the Axis of a
---------------------------------------------------- Circular Current Loop.
54. Internal resistance of a cell
Resistance offered by the electrolytes to ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⅆ𝑙+∮ B.
B. ⅆ𝑙 =∮ B. ⃗⃗⃗ ⅆ𝑙 +∮ B.
⃗⃗⃗ ⅆ𝑙+∮ B.
⃗⃗⃗ ⅆ𝑙
abcd ab bc cd da
the flow of current through it is called
internal resistance of the cell. ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ ⅆ𝑙 = B𝑙 + 0 + 0 + 0
B.
abcd

---------------------------------------------------- For a balanced Wheatstone’s bridge, ⃗⃗⃗ ⅆ𝑙 = B𝑙 -----------------(1)

∮ B.
Ig = 0.
55. Differentiate emf and terminal
I2 = I4 -------------(1) ⃗⃗⃗ ⅆ𝑙 = μ0 NI ---------------(2)
But, ∮ B.
voltage of a cell
I1 = I3 -------------(2) 𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 90 B𝑙 =μ0 NI
emf
I1 R1 = I2 R 2 ----------------(3) ⅆ𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟2
The emf ε is the potential difference 𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 B=
μ0 NI
I3 R 3 = I4 R 4 ---------------(4) ⅆ𝐵 = 𝑙
between the positive and negative 4𝜋 𝑟2
R1 R2 𝐍
electrodes of a cell in an open circuit, i.e., = Total field B =∫ ⅆ𝐵 cos 𝜃 𝐁 =𝛍𝟎 𝐧𝐈 , where n=
R3 R4 𝑙
when no current is flowing through the 𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑅2
cell. 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟒 ----------------------------------------------------
= cos 𝜃 =
𝑅
= (𝑥 2
𝑅
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟑 𝑟 +𝑅 2)1/2
Terminal voltage
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑅
--------------------------------------------- B =∫
4𝜋 𝑥 2 +𝑅 2 (𝑥 2 +𝑅 2 )1/2
The terminal voltage (V) is the potential
60. Lorentz force equation. 𝝁𝟎 𝑰𝑹𝟐
difference between the positive and
B= 𝟐 𝟑/𝟐
negative electrodes of a cell in a closed F = qE + q(v x B) 𝟐
𝟐(𝒙 +𝑹 )
circuit, i.e., when current is flowing Electric Lorentz force =qE 𝝁𝟎 𝑰
through the cell. Magnetic Lorentz force=q(vxB) At the centre x=0, B=
𝟐𝑹
67. Force between two parallel current 70.Current sensitivity of galvanometer 75. Magnetisation(M). Write its unit and 81.Properties of paramagnetic materials
carrying condutors. Current sensitivity of the galvanometer dimension.
is defined as the deflection per unit The net magnetic dipole moment
current. developed per unit volume of a material
𝛟 𝐍 𝐀𝐁 is called Magnetisation(M).
=( ) 𝒎𝒏𝒆𝒕
𝐈 𝐤 𝑴=
𝑽
----------------------------------------------------
71. Voltage sensitivity of the unit - Am−1
F=I 𝑙 𝐵
galvanometer dimensions- AL−1
Fba = Ib 𝑙 Ba Voltage sensitivity of the galvanometer ---------------------------------------------------
μ I
Fba = Ib 𝑙 0 a is defined as the deflection per unit 76. Magnetic intensity (H). Write its unit
2πd
μ0 Ia Ib 𝑙 voltage. and dimension.
Fba = 𝚽 𝐍 𝐀𝐁 𝟏 B
2πd
=( )𝐑 H= −M
The force per unit length, 𝐕 𝐤 μ0
𝛍 𝟎 𝐈𝐚 𝐈𝐛 Unit - Am−1 ,
𝐟𝐛𝐚 = ---------------------------------------------------- dimensions - AL−1
𝟐𝛑ⅆ ---------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------- 72. Convertion of galvanometer to ---------------------------------------------------- 82.Properties of ferromagnetic materials
68.Torque acting on a rectangular ammeter 77. Magnetic Susceptibilit
current loop in a uniform magnetic field. 𝑴
A Galvanometer can be converted to an 𝝌=
𝑯
Ammeter by connecting a small (no unit and dimension)
resistance parallel to the galvanometer ----------------------------------------------------
coil. 78.Define magnetic permeability
B
μ=
Ig G = (I − Ig )S H
Torque =Force x perpendicular distance ---------------------------------------------
𝐈𝐠 𝐆
τ = IbB x asin θ S= 79. Relation connecting relative
𝐈−𝐈𝐠
τ = IAB sinθ permeability and magnetic
𝜏 = mB sinθ ---------------------------------------------------
73. Convertion of galvanometer to susceptibility.
𝝉 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑩
⃗ = ⃗𝒎 ⃗
voltmeter
𝛘 = 𝛍𝐫 − 𝟏
(Magnetic dipole moment m=IA) ----------------------------------------------------
A Galvanometer can be converted to a
---------------------------------------------------- 80.Properties of diamagnetic materials
69.Principleof moving coil galvanometer voltmeter by connecting a high
resistance in series with the ----------------------------------------------------
galvanometer coil. 83. Faraday’s Law of Induction
The magnitude of the induced emf in a
V = Ig (R + G) circuit is equal to the time rate of change
V
of magnetic flux through the circuit.
R+G= − ⅆ𝛟
The deflection produced in the coil is Ig 𝛆=
directly proportional to the current 𝐕 ⅆ𝐭
R = –G ----------------------------------------------------
through the coil. 𝐈𝐠
84. Lenz’s law
τ = NI AB--------------(1) ----------------------------------------------------
The polarity of induced emf is such that
τ = kϕ -----------------(2) 74. Gauss’s Law in magnetism.
it tends to produce a current which
In equilibrium, kϕ = NI AB Gauss’s law for magnetism states that
opposes the change in magnetic flux that
𝐍 𝐀𝐁 the net magnetic flux through any closed
𝛟=( )𝐈 surface is zero.
produced it.
𝐤 ⅆ𝛟
𝛟 ∝I 𝝓 = ∮𝑩 ⃗⃗ ⋅ ⅆ𝒔
⃗ =𝟎 𝛆=−
ⅆ𝐭

85. Motional emf (Motional 89. Energy stored in an inductor 92. AC voltage applied to an inductor 95.Inductive reactance
Electromotive Force) dW =LI dI 𝐗 𝐋 = 𝛚L =𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐋
When a conducting rod is moved I
W =∫0 LI dI Capacitive reactance
through a constant magnetic field, an 1 𝟏 𝟏
emf is developed between the ends of W = LI 2 𝐗𝐂 = =
2
𝛚𝐂 𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐂
the rod. This emf is known as Motional This work is stored in the magnetic field
as energy in an inductor ---------------------------------------------
Emf.
𝟏 96. AC voltage applied to a series LCR
U = 𝐋𝐈 𝟐 di
𝟐
vm sin ωt= L circuit
--------------------------------------------------- dt
vm
di= sin ωt dt
90. ac generator L
vm
i= ∫ sin ωt dt
L
v
ϕ = 𝐵𝑙𝑥 i = − m cos ωt
ⅆ𝛟 ωL
𝜺=− i = −im cos ωt
ⅆ𝐭
ⅆ 𝛑
𝜺 =− (𝑩𝒍𝒙) 𝐢 = 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 − )
ⅆ𝐭 𝟐
− ⅆ𝐱 𝐯
𝜺 = 𝑩𝒍𝒗 (𝐯= ) where 𝐢𝐦 = 𝐦
ⅆ𝐭 𝛚𝐋
---------------------------------------------------- Current lags the voltage by π/2
86. Self induction ----------------------------------------------------
The phenomenon of production of 93. AC voltage applied to an capacitor
induced emf in an isolated coil by
varying current through the same coil is
called self-induction. ϕ = BA cos ωt
ϕαI 𝜀 = −𝑁
𝑑𝜙 Current leads the voltage by an angle ϕ
𝛟=LI 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝐢 = 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 + 𝛟)
L = self-inductance 𝜀 = −𝑁 BA cos ωt 𝐯𝐦
𝑑𝑡 Where 𝐢𝐦 =
Unit of inductance-Henry(H) ε = NBAω sinω t 𝐙
q
---------------------------------------------------- ε = 𝛆𝟎 sin𝛚 t vm sin ωt = Z=√(𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐
C
87. mutual induction where ε0 =NBAω q = C vm sin ωt Z is called impedance of LCR circuit.
The phenomenon of production of --------------------------------------------------- dq d
induced emf in a coil by varying the 91. AC voltage applied to a resistor i = = (C vm sin ωt) ----------------------------------------------------
dt dt
current through a neighbouring coil is i = ωC vm cos ωt 97. Power dissipation in a series LCR
called mutual-induction.
i = im cos ωt circuit
ϕαI 𝛑 p= v i
𝛟=MI 𝐢 = 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 + ) p= vm sin ωt im sin(ωt + ɸ)
𝟐
M = mutual-inductance where 𝐢𝐦 = 𝛚𝐂 𝐯𝐦 v i
Unit of inductance-Henry(H) P= m m ⟨cos ɸ − cos(2ωt + ɸ)⟩
Current leads the voltage by π/2 2
---------------------------------------------------- v m im
---------------------------------------------------- P= cos ɸ
2
88. Self inductance of a long solenoid vm sin ωt= iR 94. Expression for rms current v m im
𝜙 = 𝑁𝐵 𝐴 v P= cos ɸ
i = m sin ωt 𝐢𝐦 √2 √2
𝜙 = 𝑛𝑙 (𝜇0 n I ) 𝐴 R 𝐈= = 0.707 𝐢𝐦 P= 𝐕 𝐈 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ɸ
√𝟐
𝜙 = 𝜇0 n2 A𝑙I ------------(1) 𝐢 = 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 Expression for rms voltage
𝐯𝐦 The quantity cosɸ is called the power
But, 𝜙 = LI -----------------(2) where 𝐢𝐦 = 𝒗𝒎
𝐑
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = = 0.707 𝒗𝒎 factor.
LI = 𝜇0 n2 A𝑙I Current and voltage are in phase . √𝟐
L= 𝝁𝟎 𝐧𝟐 𝐀𝒍
98. Power factor using Impedance 102. Step-up transformer 108. Properties of e . m. waves 109.The equation for electric and
diagram(impedance triangle) • In an e.m wave electric field, magnetic fields
magnetic field and direction of
propagation are mutually
perpendicular.
• The speed of e.m.wave in vacuum
𝟏
Power factor , 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟 =
𝐑 ▪ Ns > NP is, 𝐜 =
𝐙 √𝛍𝟎 𝛆𝟎
▪ Vs > VP • The speed of of e.m.wave in a
---------------------------------------------
▪ Is < IP 𝟏
99. Condition for resonance in a series material medium is , 𝐯 = Ex = E0 sin (k z– ωt)
LCR circuit 𝐗𝐂 = 𝐗𝐋 √𝛍𝛆 By = B0 sin (k z– ωt)
1
--------------------------------------------- • The ratio of electric and the 2π
=ωL 103. Step-down transformer 𝐄𝟎 Propagation constant, k=
ωC magnetic fields, =c λ
The principle behind tuning of radio or 𝐁𝟎 Angular frequency, ω =2𝜋𝑣
TV is Resonance. • No material medium is required ----------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------- for the propagation of e.m.wave. 110. Electromagnetic waves in the
𝑼
100.Obtain the expression for resonant • Total momentum p = where increasing order of wavelength(or
𝑪
frequency U is the energy. decreasing order of frequency.
At resonance ,XC = XL ---------------------------------------------------- Gamma rays . X-rays , Ultraviolet rays,
1 Visible rays, Infrared waves ,
=ωL 111. Why IR waves are called heat
ωC ▪ Ns ˂ NP Microwaves, Radio waves
1 waves?
𝜔2 = ▪ Vs < VP
LC The water molecules present in most
𝟏
𝛚= ▪ Is > IP materials readily absorb infrared waves
√𝐋𝐂
𝟏 After absorption, their thermal motion
----------------------------------------------------
𝐟= increases, that is, they heat up and heat
𝟐𝝅√𝐋𝐂 104. Energy losses in a transformer their surroundings. So IR waves are
---------------------------------------------------- (i)Flux Leakage called heat waves.
101. Explain the principle behind the (ii)Resistance of the windings
working of transformer (iii)Eddy currents loss 112).Type Production Uses
Working principle-Mutual Induction (iv)Hysteresis loss Radio waves Accelerated motion of 1.Radio and television communication
---------------------------------------------------- charges in conducting wires. 2.Cellular phones
105.Displacement Current? Micro waves By special vacuum tubes 1.Radar systems, aircraft navigation
The current due to changing electric called Klystrons ,Magnetrons 2. in speed guns
field or electric flux is called called and Gunn diodes 3. in microwave ovens
dϕ displacement current. Infrared waves By hot bodies and molecules 1.Physical therapy
VP = −NP
dt ⅆ𝛟 2. Greenhouse effect
Vs = −Ns
dϕ 𝐢ⅆ = 𝛆 𝟎 𝐄
ⅆ𝐭 3. Infrared detectors in earth satellite
dt
𝐕𝐬
=
𝐍𝐬
------------------- (1)
--------------------------------------------- 4. Remote switches in TV
𝐕𝐏 𝐍𝐏 106.Maxwell’s mlodification to Ampere’s Visible light When electrons move from
If the transformer is 100% efficient circuital theorem. higher energy level to lower
Power input= power output ⅆ𝛟
∮ 𝑩 ⋅ ⅆ𝒍 = 𝝁𝟎 𝐢𝐜 + 𝝁𝟎 𝛆𝟎 𝐄 energy level
ⅆ𝐭
IPVP=ISVS Ultraviolet rays By special lamps and very hot 1.In elastic eye surgery .
𝐈𝐏 𝐕 ---------------------------------------------------- bodies like sun. 2. To kill germs to water purifiers
= 𝐬 ------------------ (2)
𝐈𝐒 𝐕𝐏 X rays When high energy electrons 1.In elastic eye surgery
From eq(1) and (2) 107.Source of electromagnetic waves.
An oscillating charge (accelerating bombard a metal target 2.To kill germs to water purifiers
𝐈𝐏 𝐕𝐬 𝐍𝐬
= = charge) Gamma rays In nuclear reactors and in 1.In medicine to destroy cancer cells
𝐈𝐒 𝐕𝐏 𝐍𝐏
radioactive decay of nuclei

113.The laws of reflection 116.The mirror equation 120. Conditions for total internal 124.Lens maker’s formula
1)The angle of incidence is equal to the reflection
angle of reflection(i=r). 1)Light should enter from a denser
2)The incident ray, reflected ray and the medium to a rarer medium.
normal to the reflecting surface at the 2)The angle of incidence should be
point of incidence lie in the same plane. greater than the critical angle .
---------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------
n2 n1 n2 −n1
114.Cartesian sign convention to 121. Critical Angle. − = ----------(1)
v′ u R1
measure distances. The angle of incidence in the denser n1 n2 n1 −n2
1)All distances are measured from the medium, for which the angle of − = -------------(2)
v v′ R2
pole of the mirror or the optical centre A′ B′ B′ F refraction becomes 90º, is called the
= ------------(1) Eqns (1) + (2)
AB FP
of the lens. critical angle . n1 n1 1 1
A′ B′ B′ P − = (n2 − n1 )( - )
2)The distances measured in the same = ------------(2) ---------------------------------------------------- v u R1 R2
AB BP
direction as the incident light are taken From eqns(1) and (2) 122.The relation connecting critical Dividing throughout by n1
as positive and in opposite direction are angle and refractive index 1 1 n2 1 1
B′ F B′ P − =( − 1)( - )
taken as negative. = 𝟏 v u n1 R1 R2
FP BP n= 1 1 1 1
30)The heights upwards to principal v− f v 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐢𝐜 − = (𝑛 − 1)( - )
= ---------------------------------------------------- v u R1 R2
axis are taken as positive and f u
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
downwards negative. + = 123. Refraction at a spherical surface. = (𝐧 − 𝟏)( - )
𝐮 𝐯 𝐟 𝐟 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐
--------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------
115.The relation between Focal Length 125.Power of a lens. Write its unit.
117.Laws of refraction
and Radius of Curvature
1)The incident ray, the refracted ray and Power of a lens is the reciprocal of focal
the normal to the interface at the point length expressed in metre
of incidence, all lie in the same plane. 𝟏
𝒑=
𝒇
𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
2)The ratio of the sine of the angle of 𝛼= 𝛽= 𝛾= unit for power of a lens is diopter (D).
𝑂𝑀 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐼
incidence to the sine of angle of i = 𝛼 + 𝛽--------------(1) ----------------------------------------------------
refraction is constant.(Snell’s Law) 𝑟 = 𝛽 – 𝛾---------------(2) 126.Effective focal length when two thin
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 lenses are kept in contact
MD
= 𝒏𝟐𝟏 From Snell’s law
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
θ= ------(1) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑛2
R --------------------------------------------- =
MD 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 𝑛1
2θ = -----(2) 118. Some applications of refraction
f 1. Lateral shift 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟
MD MD 2. Apparent depth 𝑛1 𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑟
2 = real depth 𝑛1 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑛2 (𝛽 – 𝛾)
R f Apparent depth =
2 1 Refractive Index
= 𝑛1 (
𝑀𝑁
+
𝑀𝑁
) = 𝑛2 (
𝑀𝑁
–
𝑀𝑁
) 1 1 1
R f 𝐡𝟐 𝑀𝑂 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐼 − = -----------(1)
f=
𝐑 𝐡𝟏 = 𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2
v′ u f1
𝐧 + = – 1 1 1
𝟐
---------------------------------------------------- 𝑀𝑂 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐼 − = -----------(2)
---------------------------------------------------- v v′ f2
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑛1 Eqn (1) +(2)
119. Total Internal Reflection + = – 1 1 1 1
𝑀𝑂 𝑀𝐼 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐶
When light enters from a denser − = + -----------(3)
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 −𝑛1 v u f1 f2
medium to a rarer medium, if the + = If the two lenses are replaced by a single
𝑀𝑂 𝑀𝐼 𝑀𝐶
angle of incidence is greater than the 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 −𝑛1 lens of focal length f,
critical angle (ic ) the incident ray is + = 1 1 1
−𝑢 𝑣 𝑅
− = ---------------(4)
totally reflected. This is called total 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 −𝒏𝟏 v u f
internal reflection. − = From eqn (3) and (4)
𝟏
=
𝟏
+
𝟏
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹 𝐟 𝐟𝟏 𝐟𝟐
127.Refraction through a prism. 129.Compound microscope- Image 131.Wavefront 136.Reflection of a plane wave using
formation. Wavefront is the locus of points, which Huygen’s theory .
oscillate in phase or a wavefront is
defined as a surface of constant phase.
----------------------------------------------------
132.Spherical wavefront

The wavefronts very

∠A + ∠N = 180º near to a point source
r1 + r2 + ∠N = 180º will be spherical .
𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 = A -------------(1)
----------------------------------------------------
The total deviation ,
133.Plane wavefront. AE = BC = v𝜏
d = i + e –( r1 + r2 ) The image is highly magnified virtual Wavefronts at large AC = AC (common side)
d = i + e – A -----------------(2) and inverted. distance from a Triangles EAC and BAC are congruent .
At the minimum deviation source will be plane Therefore . i =r
d=D , i=e, r1 = r2 =r Magnifiction, m= mo x me Wavefronts Angle of incidence=Angle of reflection
𝑨
r= -------------(3) 𝐋 𝐃 This is the law of reflection.
𝟐
𝐀+𝐃
m= ( 𝟏 + ) (when image at ---------------------------------------------------
𝐟𝟎 𝐟𝐞
i= ----------(4) 134.Explain Huygens Principle ----------------------------------------------------
𝟐 near point D)
sin 𝑖 L D *Each point of the wavefront acts as a 137.Coherent sources
𝑛 = m= x
f0 fe
(when image is at infinity)
source secondary wavelets
sin 𝑟 Two sources are said to be coherent if
𝐀+𝐃 *Common tangent to all these secondary
𝐬𝐢𝐧 D= near point =25cm they emit light waves of same frequency
𝒏 = 𝟐
𝑨 f0 = focal length of objective wavelets, gives the position of the and same phase or constant phase
𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝟐 wavefront at a later time.
fe = focal length of eyepiece difference.
i-d curve --------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------
L= The tube length of the
compound microscope 135.Refraction of a plane wave using 138.Interference.
Huygen’s principle. Interference is the phenomenon in
For large magnification for a compound which two waves superpose to form a
microscope the objective and eyepiece resultant wave of greater or lower
should have small focal lengths. amplitude.
---------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------
128.Simple microscope-image formation 130.Refracting Telescope 139.The Condition for constructive
interference
The path difference should be an
integral multiple of λ,
S2P – S1P = n λ where,(n = 0, 1, 2,....)
𝑣1 𝜏 ----------------------------------------------------
sin i =
𝐴𝐶 140.The condition for destructive
𝑣2 𝜏
sin r = interference
𝐴𝐶
The image is magnified ,virtual and sin 𝑖 𝑣1 The path difference should be an odd
erect. 𝐟𝟎 = integral multiple of λ/2 ,
Magnification, 𝐦 = sin 𝑟 𝑣2
Magnification 𝐟𝐞 𝑛2 𝑣1 𝟏
But, = S2 – S1P = = (n+ ) λ
𝐃 𝑛1 𝑣2 𝟐
m=𝟏 + (when image at near point D) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 𝒏𝟐
𝐟
𝐃 = where (n = 0, 1, 2, 3,...)
m= (when image is at infinity) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 𝒏𝟏
𝐟

141.Young’s double slit experiment 147.Photoelectric Effect 156.Laws of photoelectric effect

The phenomenon of emission of 153.Effect of Intensity of incident
1.Photoelectric current is directly
electrons when photosensitive radiation on stopping potential
proportional to intensity of incident
substances are illuminated by light of
radiation.
suitable frequency is called
2.Kinetic energy of photo electrons
photoelectric effect.
increases with frequency of incident
----------------------------------------------------
light
For bright band path difference , 148.Work function (𝝓𝟎 ) 3. Stopping potential is independent of
𝑥𝑑 The minimum energy required by an Intensity of incident light.
= nλ 4.Stopping potential increases with
D electron to escape from a metal surface
nλ𝐷 frequency of incident light.
x n= , n=0, ±1, ±2,…. is called work function.
d For a given frequency of incident 5.Below threshold frequency photo
𝝓𝟎 = h𝒗𝟎
For dark band path difference, radiation, the stopping potential is emission does not occur.
𝑥𝑑 𝟏
𝑣0 is threshold frequency
= (n+ ) λ work function is expressed in electron independent of intensity of radiation. 6.Photo emission is an instantaneous
D 𝟐
𝟏 λ𝐷 volt(eV) ---------------------------------------------------- process.
xn= (𝐧 + ) , n=0, ±1, ±2,…. 154.Effect of frequency of incident ----------------------------------------------------
𝟐 d ----------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------- 149.Threshold frequency radiation on stopping potential 157.Properties of photon
142.Diffraction The minimum frequency of incident 1)Energy of photon E=hν
Diffraction is the phenomenon of radiation below which photo electric 2)Momentum p= hν/c and
bending of light around the corners of an emission is not possible is called 3)Speed c= 3x 108 m/s
obstacle , into the region of geometrical threshold frequency(𝑣0 ). 4)When frequency of light increases ,
shadow of the obstacle. ---------------------------------------------------- the energy of photon increases.
---------------------------------------------------- 150.Stopping potential 5) When intensity of light is increased,
143.Polarisation of light? The minimum negative potential applied the number of photons increases.
The phenomenon of restricting the to the anode at which the photo current 6) Photons are electrically neutral.
electric field vibrations of light to one 7) In photon-particle collision total
becomes zero is called stopping The stopping potential increases with
plane is called polarisation. energy and total momentum are
potential. increase in frequency of incident
---------------------------------------------------- conserved.(Elastic collision)
---------------------------------------------------- radiation.
144.Uses of polaroids , ----------------------------------------------------
In sunglasses, wind screens in trains and 151.Obtain Einstein’s Photoelectric ----------------------------------------------------
158.The wave associated with material
aeroplanes, in 3D cameras. Equation 155.Variation of stopping potential 𝑽𝟎 particle. Matter wave
---------------------------------------------------- Energy of photon =work function + with frequency 𝒗. What is the slope and ----------------------------------------------------
145. State Malus’ Law KE of electrons y- intercpt of this graph? 159. de Broglie Relation -
The intensity of polarised light that ℎ𝑣 = 𝜙0 + Kmax λ= =
𝒉 𝒉
𝐡𝒗 = 𝐡𝒗𝟎+ ½ mv2 𝒑 𝒎𝒗
comes out through the analyser varies
as I = 𝐈𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝛉 ---------------------------------------------------- Wavelength of matter wave
𝒉 𝒉
I0 - intensity of the polarized light 152.Variation of photocurrent with λ= =
𝒑 𝒎𝒗
from polariser intensity of light.
θ=Angle between the pass axes of ---------------------------------------------
polariser and analyser 160.Postulates of Rutherford’s nuclear
---------------------------------------------------- model of the atom
146.Methods of electron emission from ▪ Most of an atom is empty space.
𝑽𝟎 𝒉
a metal surface Slope = = ▪ The entire positive charge and
𝒗 𝒆
Thermionic emission most of the mass of the atom are
𝝓𝟎 concentrated in the nucleus with
Field Emission Photocurrent increases with intensity of The y- intercept =
𝒆 the electrons some distance away.
Photo-electric emission incident radiation.
 ▪ The electrons would be moving in 164.Write the limitations of Bohr Atom 167.The energy level diagram for the 170.Isotopes
orbits about the nucleus just as Model hydrogen atom Atoms of the same element, with same
the planets do around the sun. atomic number ,but different mass
1)The Bohr model is applicable to
▪ The size of the nucleus to be about hydrogenic atoms. It cannot be extended
number .
10–15 m to 10–14 m. Hydrogen has three isotopes ,
two or more electron atoms.
▪ The electrostatic force of proton( 11H), deuterium( 21H) and
2)The Bohr model is unable to explain
attraction, between the revolving tritium( 31H)
the intensity variations of the
electrons and the nucleus ----------------------------------------------------
frequencies in hydrogen spectrum
provides the centripetal force to 171.Isobars
----------------------------------------------------
keep them in their orbits. All nuclides with same mass number A ,
165. Write the expression for radius of
---------------------------------------------------- but with different atomic number are
Hydrogen atom.
161.Impact Parameter (b) n2 h2 ε0 called isobars.
Impact parameter is the perpendicular rn = or Eg: ( 31H) and ( 32He)
πme2
distance of the initial velocity vector of ----------------------------------------------------
𝐫𝐧 =0.53 𝐧𝟐 Å
the α particle from the centre of the 172.Isotones
nucleus. 𝐫𝐧 𝜶 𝐧𝟐 Nuclides with same neutron number N
but different atomic number Z are called
*For head on collision, b=0 and the For first orbit , r1 = 1 x 0.53 n2 Å isotones.
angle of scattering, θ ≈1800 , α particle For second orbit , r2 = 1 x 0.53 n2 Å Eg: 198 197
80Hg and 79Au
rebounds back. For third orbit , r3 = 9 x 0.53 n2 Å ----------------------------------------------------
*For large impact parameter, the angle ---------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------- 173.Radius of nucleus.
of scattering θ ≈00 , α particles go 166.Energy of Hydrogen Atom 168. de Broglie’s Explaination of Bohr’s R = R0 A1/3
undeviated. e2 second postulate of Quantisation.
Kinetic energy , K= where R0 = 1.2 × 10–15 m.
---------------------------------------------------- 8πε0 r
−e2
----------------------------------------------------
162.Limitations of Rutherford Model Potential energy, U = 174.Einstein’s mass-energy relation
(a) Rutherford model could not explain 4πε0 r
Total Energy = KE + PE E = mc 2
stability of matter.
e2 −e2 Where c=3 ×108 m/s
(b)It could not explain the characteristic E= +
8πε0 r 4πε0 r
----------------------------------------------------
line spectra of atoms of different −𝐞𝟐
E=
elements. 𝟖𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫 175.Mass defect
−𝟏𝟑.𝟔 For 𝑛𝑡ℎ orbit of radius 𝑟𝑛 , the resonant
---------------------------------------------------- 𝐄𝐧 = eV The difference in mass of a nucleus and
𝐧𝟐 condition is
163.Write the postulates of Bohr atom its constituents is called the mass defect.
𝐄𝐧 𝜶 𝟐
𝟏 2 π 𝑟𝑛 = n λ
model. 𝐧 h
ΔM = [𝐙 𝐦𝐩 + (𝐀 − 𝐙)𝐦𝐧 ] − 𝐌
First postulate : An electron in an atom The negative sign of the total energy of de Broglie equation , λ= ----------------------------------------------------
mv
revolves in certain stable orbits without h
an electron moving in an orbit means 2 π rn = n 176.Binding energy
the emission of radiant energy. mv
that the electron is bound with the 𝐧𝐡 The energy equivalent of mass defect is
nucleus. mv 𝐫𝐧 = where n=1,2,3…… called binding energy.
𝟐𝛑
Second postulate :The orbital angular This Bohr’s second postulate. Eb = Δ Mc2
----------------------------------------------------
momentum of electon is an integral ---------------------------------------------------- Eb = ([𝐙 𝐦𝐩 + (𝐀 − 𝐙)𝐦𝐧 ] − 𝐌)c2
multiple of h/2π For ground state,(first energy level) n=1 169.Atomic mass unit (u)
𝒏𝒉 −13.6 ------------------------------------------------
mvr = , where n = 1,2,3………. E1 = 2 eV = -13.6 eV Atomic mass unit (u) is defined as 177.Binding energy per nucleon
𝟐𝝅 1
Third postulate : When an electron Second energy level, n = 2 , 1/12th of the mass of the carbon (12C) The binding energy per nucleon, Ebn, is
make a transition from higher −13.6 atom. the ratio of the binding energy Eb of a
E2 = 2 eV = -3.4 eV
energy level to lower energy level a 2 mass of the one C−12 atom
1u = nucleus to the number of the nucleons,
photon is emitted . Third energy level, n =3 , 12
A, in that nucleus.
−13.6 1u =1.660539 10-27 kg
hν = 𝑬𝒊 - 𝑬𝒇 E3 = 2 eV = -1.51 eV Ebn = Eb / A
9

178.The nucleus with highest binding 182.Nuclear fission 188.Differentiate p-type and ntype semiconductors
energy per nucleon is…………… Nuclear fission is the process in which a
56Fe nucleus heavier nucleus splits into lighter nuclei n-type semiconductors p-type semiconductors
---------------------------------------------------- with the release of large amount of • Obtained by doping Si or Ge with • Obtained by doping Si or Ge with
179.Write the characteristics of nuclear energy. pentavalent impurities like Arsenic trivalent impurity like Indium
force? (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous (In), Boron (B), Aluminium (Al),
1
0n + 235
92U →
236
92U → 144 89
56Ba + 36Kr + 3 10n
The nuclear force binds the nucleons (P),etc. etc.
together inside the nucleus. • The energy released (the Q value ) • ne >> nh • nh >> ne
1)The nuclear force is the strongest of a uranium nucleus is 200 MeV • Electrons are majority carriers and • Holes are majority carriers and
force in nature. per fissioning nucleus. holes are minority carriers electrons are minority carriers.
2)The force is attractive for distances • Atom bomb-Uncontrolled nuclear • •
larger than 0.8 fm and repulsive if fission
distance is less than 0.8 fm. ----------------------------------------------------
3) The nuclear force does not depend on
183.Nuclear fusion
the electric charge.
---------------------------------------------------- Nuclear fusion is the process in which
180.Radioactivity was discovered two light nuclei combine to form a single
by………………………. larger nucleus, with the release of a
Henry Becquerel large amount of energy.
1
---------------------------------------------------- 1H + 11H → 21H + e+ + ν + 0.42 MeV
181.Write three types of radioactive 189.Differentiate forward biasing and reverse biasing of a p-n junction diode
decay occur in nature. • The energy generation in Forward biasing Reverse biasing
1.Alpha decay sun(stars) takes place by
2.Beta decay thermonuclear fusion. 1)p-side of the diode is connected to the 1)n-side of the diode is connected to the
3.Gamma decay • Hydrogen bomb-Nuclear fusion. negative terminal of the battery. positive terminal and p-side to the
---------------------------------------------------- negative terminal of the battery.
-------------------------------------------------
184.Classification of metals,semi conductors and insulators on the basis of energy band
2)The depletion layer width decreases
and the barrier height is reduced. 2)The depletion layer width increases
3)The effective barrier height is (V0 – V ). and the barrier height is incresaed.
4)The motion of majority carriers on 3)The effective barrier height is (V0 + V )
either side gives rise to diffusion current. 4)The drift of minority carriers gives rise
5)The magnitude of this current is usually to drift current.
in mA. 5)The drift current is of the order of a
few μA.

185.What are Intrinsic Semiconductors? 187.What are Extrinsic Semiconductor? 190.Depletion region (Depletion layer) 191.Barrier Potential
Pure semiconductors are called ‘intrinsic Impurity is added semiconductors The space-charge region on either side The potential difference across the
semiconductors’. (doped semi conductors) are known as of the junction where there is no free depletion region which prevent the
ne = nh = ni extrinsic semiconductors . There are two electrons or holes is called depletion movement of electron from the n region
186.What is doping and dopants? types of extrinsic semiconductors – region. into the p region, it is called a barrier
The addition of a desirable impurity to a (i) n-type semiconductor potential.
pure semiconductor is called doping and (ii) p-type semiconductor The barrier potential of a Ge diode is
0.2Vand that of a Si diode is 0.7V.
the impurity atoms are called dopants.
192.Draw the V-I characteristics of a pn 196.Half wave rectifier
junction diode and mark threshold
voltage and break-down voltage

• During positive half cycle diode

conducts.
• During negative half cycle diode
does not conduct.
• Out put only during positive half
cycle.
--------------------------------------------------------
193.Threshold voltage of a p-n junction
diode.
The forward voltage beyond which the
diode current increases significantly is
called threshold voltage or cut-in voltage
or knee voltage.
----------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------
194.Break down voltge of a p-n junction 197.Full wave rectifier
diode.
The reverse voltage at which the reverse
current increases suddenly is called
break down voltage.
----------------------------------------------------
195.Rectification
• During positive half cycle, diode 𝐷1
The conversion of ac voltage to dc gets forward biased and conducts.
voltage to dc voltage is called • During negative half cycle, diode
rectification. 𝐷2 gets forward biased and
• Diode can be used as a rectifier. conducts.
• The diode conducts only when it is • Current through RL is in same
forward biased.This property of direction in both half cycles.
diode is used in rectification • Output current on both half cycles
in same direction.
----------------------------------------------------
Seema Elizabeth
HSST Physics
MARM Govt HSS Saanthipuram
Thrissur