Lecture 6

General Definitions
Sensor
• A device that responds to a physical stimulus.

• Any sensor is an energy converter. No matter what you try to measure, you
always deal with energy transfer between the object of measurement to the
sensor.

• The process of sensing is a particular case of information transfer, and any

transmission of information requires transmission of energy.

Transducer: A device that converts energy of one form into energy of

another form.

Actuator: A device or mechanism capable of performing a physical action.

Stimulus: The quantity that is sensed. Sometimes called the measurand.

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Sensor category by Stimulus

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Classification of sensors

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 Requirements for interfacing
 Sensors and actuators almost never operate by themselves.

 They are more often parts of more complex systems and function within these
larger systems.

 It is indeed a rare occurrence when the specifications of sensors or actuators

match the needs of the system.

 Therefore most sensors and actuators need to be interfaced with the system in
which they operate.

 Needs:

➢ Matching (impedances, voltages, currents, power)

➢ Transformations (AC/DC, DC/AC, A/D, D/A, V to F, etc.)

➢ Matching of specifications (temperature ranges, environmental conditions, etc.)

➢ Alternative designs. Etc. 5

 Simple connection of sensors/actuators

 Block with Microprocessor

 Amplifier

 Driver

 Should be provided for sensor/processor and processor/actuator

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 Control implementation…

 A/D and signal conditioning may be separate from the

processor

 Entire circuitry may be integrated into a “smart sensor”

 Impedance matching is necessary at input to amplifier and at

processor
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Alternative control implementation

 Uses an integrated sensor (LM35) that contains some of the

necessary circuitry and may still require an A/D (this is a
simpler design)

 This design gives a smaller measurement range (0-85oC)

compared to previous design (−200 to 200oC or more)

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PLC based Connection

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 Input Devices

Magnetic reed proximity sensor; Hall proximity sensor; Inductive proximity sensor,
Capacity proximity sensor
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Input Devices

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 Output devices

• Displays

• electric motors

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 Actuators
 Actuators: are hardware devices that convert a controller command
signal into a change in a physical parameter .

 A device or mechanism capable of performing a physical action

 The change is usually mechanical (e.g., position or velocity).

 An actuator is also a transducer because it changes one type of physical

quantity into some alternative form (e.g. electric current to rotational
speed of electric motor).

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Types of Actuators

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 Categories of Sensors
 Sensors can be classified into two basic categories:

➢ Analog (continuous)

▪ Examples: thermocouple, strain gauges, potentiometers.

➢ Discrete

a) Binary (on/off): Examples: Limit switch, photoelectric switches.

b) Digital (e.g., pulse counter): Examples: photoelectric array , optical

encoder .

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 Limit Switch
 Limit switch (mechanical): Binary contact sensor in which lever arm
or pushbutton closes or opens an electrical contact.

Some functions of the

Limit Switch
• End of travel indicator
• Start of a process step
• Reverse the arm
motion

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 COMMON COMPONENTS OF INDEXING TABLE

CAPACITIVE 2-AXIS
SENSOR ORIENTATION

PHOTOELECTRIC GRIPPER
SENSOR
HOMING
SENSOR
CAPACITIVE
SENSOR

TRANSFER
CYLINDER
INDEXING
TABLE STEPPER MOTOR
Capacitive Proximity Sensors

• Application of Capacitive Proximity

Sensors in a Electro-mechanical
System:

• Non-contact detection of metallic

and non-metallic objects such as
glass, wood and plastic

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 Application

• More capable of detecting liquids

and transparent objects that cannot
be detected by photoelectric sensors.
• Thus can be used for level
measurement

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 Principle of Operation
 A capacitive proximity sensor uses the principle of capacitance to
sense the presence of an object.

 It creates an electrostatic field that is used to sense when a part comes

into range.

 It changes its contacts to their energized state whenever an object

comes within sensing range.

 Some capacitive sensors have a built-in sensitivity adjustment, which

allows the user to alter the electric field strength emitted by the sensor.

 NB: The capacitive sensor consists mainly of a capacitive probe,

which produces an electrostatic field. When an object enters the
electrostatic field, the capacitance of the probe system is changed.
This change in capacitance triggers the sensor
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Sensing a Metallic Object

• Ends of object become charged.

• Plate size of the capacitor
effectively increased.
• Capacitance of the capacitor
increases.
• This causes the oscillator to stop.

• Detection circuitry switches the

output.
Sensing a Nonmetallic Object
• The capacitors nominal dielectric
(e.g. air) is replaced by another
insulator.

• This increases the capacitance

of the capacitor.
• The oscillator is stopped.

• Detection circuitry switches the

output.

• The object is removed from the

sensing range, the output returns
to its de-energized state.
Characteristics that affect capacitive sensor operation

• Target Size
A capacitive sensor will detect a larger target at a greater
distance than a smaller target of the same material.

• Target Material
A capacitive sensors detect metallic objects at greater
distances than non-metallic objects.

• Operating Distance
The closer an object is to an capacitive sensor, the more likely
it is to be sensed.
Characteristics that affect capacitive sensor operation

• Sensing Head Size (Active Zone)

• A capacitive sensor with a larger sensing head size

produces a larger sensing field. Targets at a higher
distance can be detected.

• Sensor Mounting

• Minimum clearance distance must be provided (interfere

with sensor performance).
Determining the Switching Distance
 Problems with Capacitive Sensors
• Too much sensitivity can cause problems.
- Sensor detects a part when it is not present.
- High signal strength detects surrounding objects.
• Problems, if the sensitivity is decreased too much.
- Sensor may not detect a part when it should.
• If both non-metallic and metallic parts are to be detected:
- Sensitivity must be adjusted for both materials.
- It is easier to detect a metallic object than a non-metallic object.
 Inductive Sensors
 Inductive sensors, like photoelectric and capacitive sensors, are contactless
switching devices.

 They simply work like a closed or opened switch (NO or NC).

 With a standard switch, moving a mechanical actuator opens or closes a circuit.

 Instead of using a mechanical actuator, inductive sensors are activated when a

metal object is within the sensing range.

 The inductive sensor consists mainly of a coil on a ferrite core.

 As current flows through this coil, it produces a magnetic field. When a metallic
object enters the magnetic field, the field is disturbed and the sensor activates.

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 Functional Parts of a Transducer
 Normally, a transducer senses the desired input in one physical form and
converts it to an output in another physical form.

 The transducers may be thought of consisting of 2 important and closely

related parts.

 These 2 parts are:

1. sensing element

2. transduction element

 In addition there may be many other auxiliary parts such as amplifiers and
other signal processing equipment, power supplies, calibrating and
reference sources and mechanical mounting features.

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Sensing element / detector element

 A detector or a sensing element is that part of a transducer

which responds to a physical phenomena.

 The response of the sensing element must be closely related to

the physical phenomena.

Transduction elements

 A transduction element transforms the output of a sensing

element to an electrical output.

 The transducer element in a way acts as a secondary transducer.

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 Factors influencing the choice of transducers
These factors are:
i. Operating principle
ii. Sensitivity
iii. Operating range
iv. Accuracy
v. Errors
vi. Transient and frequency response
vii. Stability and Reliability
viii. Operating environment

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 Photo Conductive Cell
 This works on the principle that the resistance
of the photo cell varies with incident light.
 Typical control circuit showing the
application of a photo cell is shown in Fig.
 The potentiometer is used to make adjustment
to compensate for manufacturing tolerances in
photocell sensitivity and relay operating
sensitivity.
 When light is incident on the photocell, its
resistance becomes low and the current
through the relay is consequently high to
operate the relay.
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 Photoelectric Sensors
• While limit switches require actual physical contact with an
object in order to provide detection, photoelectric sensors are
capable of sensing objects without physical contact.
• A photoelectric sensor is essentially a switch-like device,
connecting or disconnecting parts of an electrical circuit.
• The main difference is that the function of the switch actuator is
now replaced by a light beam.
• Photoelectric sensors contain two main components: the emitter
and the receiver.
• The emitter and the receiver can either be contained in the same
housing or in separate housings.
• Regardless, the functionality of all photoelectric sensors are
essentially the same: emit a beam of light and respond to the
changes in light intensity.
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Emitter

• The emitter contains a light source, which is often either an LED or a laser.

• LEDs are more ideal since they can operate over a wide range of
temperatures and tend to be cheaper and more resistant to damage than
lasers.

• Typical LEDs used as the light source include: infrared, visible red, green,
and blue.

Receiver

• The receiver contains a photo-detector which detects light from the emitter
and triggers an electronic circuit.

• This circuit then determines whether or not to give an output signal in the
form of an electrical voltage depending on the detected light intensity.

• The sensitivity of the receiver can be adjusted on many photoelectric sensors.

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 Principles of Photoelectric Sensors
• Sensing Modes
• Different sensing methods (or sensing modes) are possible with
photoelectric sensors.
• The most common methods are transmitted beam, retro reflective,
and diffuse.
• Transmitted beam (often referred to as through-beam) contains separate
housings for the emitter and the receiver.
• The emitter and receiver must be lined up.
• When an object blocks the beam, the sensor is triggered.

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• Retro reflective (or reflex) mode is the most used sensing method.

• Retro reflective sensors contain both the emitter and receiver in the
same housing.

• The emitted light beam simply reflects off a special reflective object
(such as a mirror) back to the receiver.

• As with the transmitted beam mode, the sensor is triggered when an

object blocks the beam.

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• Diffuse (or proximity) mode is often used when it is difficult or
impossible to have access to opposite sides of the object to be sensed.

• In this case, a light beam is directed towards the target position.

• When an object reaches the target position, the light beam is reflected
off the object.

• The light is scattered by the surface at all angles and only a small
portion is reflected back to the receiver.

• The sensor is triggered when this small reflected portion is detected in

the receiver.

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Combination of sensors and actuators in a Module

• Inspection of valve
bodies for correct port
orientation

• Inspection of valve
bodies for correct body
thickness

• Reject the part to a reject bin if the ports are not positioned
correctly, or the part’s height is not within a specific tolerance

• Otherwise, transfer the part to the next station

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 Main Components

CARRIAGE LIMIT
VALVE BODY INDUCTIVE
LIMIT SWITCH
SWITCH SENSOR
INDEXING
TRANSFER TABLE
CYLINDER

ULTRASONIC
SENSOR

PULLEY

BELT PHOTOELECTRIC
SENSOR REJECT
PULLEY CYLINDER
BALL SCREW
DC MOTOR SHAFT
CLUTCH

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 Mode of Operation

• Inspection of a valve body for correct port orientation

PHOTOELECTRIC
SENSOR B1
 Mode of Operation

• Inspection of valve bodies for correct body thickness

TAB INDUCTIVE SENSOR B2

ULTRASONIC SENSOR B3
 Mode of Operation

• End of travel position reached LIMIT SWITCH

 Mode of Operation

• Lift the valve body and transfer it to the next station (good part)

TRANSFER CYLINDER

LIFT CYLINDER
 Mode of Operation

• Lift the valve body and reject it (bad part)

REJECT BIN

LIFT CYLINDER REJECT

CYLINDER
 Ultrasonic Detectors
• Transmission and reception of ultrasonic waves (USW) energy is a basis for very
popular ultrasonic range meters, proximity detectors, and velocity meters.

• USW are mechanical acoustic waves covering frequency range well beyond the
capabilities of human ears, i.e., over 20 kHz.

• However, these frequencies may be quite perceptive by smaller animals, like

dogs, cats, rodents, and insects.

• Indeed, the ultrasonic detectors are the biological ranging devices in bats and
dolphins.

• When USW are incident on an object, part of their energy is absorbed and part is
reflected. In many practical cases, USW energy is reflected in a diffuse manner.

• That is, regardless of the direction where the waves come from, they are reflected
almost uniformly within a wide solid angle, which may approach 180o

• If the object moves, frequency of the reflected wavelength will differ from the
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transmitted waves. This is called the Doppler effect.
Ultrasonic proximity sensor

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 Learning within the system

• Many automatic gauging stations measure part dimensions by

using sensors.
• “Go” and “No-Go” sensor outputs are used to trigger
actuators to either move the part for further processing or
reject it from the station.
 Theoretical Principles

• The sensor determines where

the part is in relation to a
programmed boundary.

• based on the emission and reflection of

acoustic, ultrasonic
waves between an object and a receiver
• normally, carrier of the ultrasonic waves
is air
• Ultrasound : frequencies above the limit of human hearing

• Speed of sound in …

Air 340 m/s

Copper 3,800 m/s
Steel 5,100 m/s
Water 1,480 m/s
CO2 260 m/s