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COMPLETE MATHEMATICS NOTES

FOR HIGH SCHOOLS

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About the book
Education is a key for a countries development, but it becomes a hindrance when it is unequally
distributed. This big problem of disparity in Education system can be solved through technology.
Hence it’s high time we embrace technology in Education sooner than later.

Teachers will therefore use the book in their laptops to teach and even give students notes to read
online after revision.
The book is divided into three parts:
Part one – paper one
Part two – paper two

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Acknowledgment
We would like to acknowledge K.L.B for using some of their examples and illustration. We
would also like to acknowledge K.N.E.C for using their past papers or revision questions.

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Table of Contents
Format for mathematics paper one-------------------------------------------------------10
Natural Numbers --------------------------------------------------------------------------11
Factors -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------18
Divisibility test ----------------------------------------------------------------------------23
G.C.D ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------26
L.C.M ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------29
Integers------------------------------------------------------------------------------------32
Fractions ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------38
Decimals -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------53
Square and square roots ------------------------------------------------------------------63
Algebra and algebraic expressions -------------------------------------------------------69
Rates, Ratio, proportion and percentages--------------------------------------------------79
Length --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------90
Area ---------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------98
Volume and capacity ----------------------------------------------------------------------113
Mass, weight and density-----------------------------------------------------------------119
Time ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------124
Linear inequalities ------------------------------------------------------------------------129
Commercial arithmetic -------------------------------------------------------------------140
Co-ordinates and graphs -----------------------------------------------------------------150
Angles and Plane Figures------------------------------------------------------------------155
Geometric construction-------------------------------------------------------------------167
Scale drawing -----------------------------------------------------------------------------180
Common solids ----------------------------------------------------------------------------195
Cubes and cube roots --------------------------------------------------------------------209
Reciprocal ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------212
Indices and logarithms------------------------------------------------------------------- 216
Gradient and Equation of a straight line------------------------------------------------ 227
Reflection and congruence----------------------------------------------------------------235
Rotation------------------------------------------------------------------------------------241
Similarity and Enlargement ------------------------------------------------------------- 245
The Pythagoras theorem ---------------------------------------------------------------- 256
Trigonometric ratios ---------------------------------------------------------------------259
Area of a triangle ----------------------------------------------------------- 267
Area of quadrilateral -------------------------------------------------------- 270
Area part of a circle --------------------------------------------------------- 277
Surface area of solids --------------------------------------------------------288
Volume of solids ---------------------------------------------------------------302
Quadratic equations and expressions --------------------------------------- 315
Linear inequality --------------------------------------------------------------322

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Linear motion ------------------------------------------------------------------333
Statistics 1 -------------------------------------------------------------------342
Angle properties of a circle---------------------------------------------------354
Vectors ------------------------------------------------------------------------364
Format for paper two ---------------------------------------------------------376
Quadratic expressions and equations --------------------------------------- 377
Approximation and error------------------------------------------------------ 392
Trigometry --------------------------------------------------------------------- 401
Surds ----------------------------------------------------------------------------420
Further logarithms------------------------------------------------------------- 427
Commercial arithmetic II ------------------------------------------------------439
Circles ,chords and Tangents--------------------------------------------------- 460
Matrices ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 489
Binomial expansion---------------------------------------------------------------528
Graphical methods--------------------------------------------------------------546
Probability ----------------------------------------------------------------------567
Vectors --------------------------------------------------------------------------583
Statistics II-------------------------------------------------------------------- 623
Three dimensional Geometry--------------------------------------------------- 642
Longitudes and latitudes --------------------------------------------------------665
Linear programming--------------------------------------------------------------682
Locus -----------------------------------------------------------------------------694
Calculus: Differentiation, integration and area approximation ---------------707

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 MATHEMATICS (121)
PAPER ONE
ALTERNATIVE A
INTRODUCTION
 Questions in this paper will mainly test topics from Form 1 and 2.
 The time allocated for this paper is 2 ½ hours
 The paper consist of a total of 100 marks
 The paper shall consist of two section: : Section 1 and II

Section I
This section will have 50 marks and sixteen (16) compulsory short- answer questions

Section II
This section will have 50 marks and a choice of eight (8) open ended question, for candidates to answer
any five (5).The students should note that any attempted questions in this section will be marked if they are
not cancelled

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 CHAPTER ONE
NATURAL NUMBERS

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
a.) Identify, read and write natural numbers in symbols and words;
b.) Round off numbers to the nearest tens, hundreds, thousands, millions and billions;
c.) Classify natural numbers as even, odd or prime;
d.) Solve word problems involving natural numbers.
Content
a.) Place values of numbers
b.) Rounding off numbers to the nearest tens, hundreds, thousands, millions and billions
c.) Odd numbers
d.) Even numbers
e.) Prime numbers
f.) Word problems involving natural numbers

Introduction

Place value
A digit have a different value in a number because of its position in a number. The position of a digit in a
number is called its place value.

Total value
This is the product of the digit and its place value.

Example
Number Hundred Ten Millions Hundred Ten Thousands Hundred Tens ones
Millions Millions Thousands Thousands

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1
345,678,901

7 6 9 3 0 1 8 5 4
769,301,854

9 0 2 3 5 0 4 0 9
902,350,409

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A place value chart can be used to identify both place value and total value of a digit in a number. The
place value chart is also used in writing numbers in words.

Example
 Three hundred and forty five million, six hundred and seventy eight thousand, nine hundred and
one.
 Seven hundred and sixty nine million, Three hundred and one thousand, eight hundred and fifty
four.

Billions
A billion is one thousands million, written as 1, 000, 000,000.There are ten places in a billion.

Example
What is the place value and total value of the digits below?
a.) 47,397,263,402 (place value 7 and 8).
b.) 389,410 ,000,245 ( place 3 and 9)
Solution
a.) The place value for 6 is ten thousands. Its total value is 60,000.
b.) The place value of 3 is hundred billions. Its total value is 300,000,000,000.
Rounding off
When rounding off to the nearest ten, the ones digit determines the ten i.e. if the ones digit is 1, 2, 3, or 4
the nearest ten is the ten number being considered. If the ones digit is 5 or more the nearest ten is the next
ten or rounded up.
Thus 641 to the nearest ten is 640, 3189 to the nearest is 3190.
When rounding off to the nearest 100, then the last two digits or numbers end with 1 to 49 round off
downwards. Number ending with 50 to 99 are rounded up.
Thus 641 to the nearest hundred is 600, 3189 is 3200.

Example
Rounding off each of the following numbers to the nearest number indicated in the bracket:
a.) 473,678 ( 100)
b.) 524,239 (1000)
c.) 2,499 (10)
Solution
a.) 473,678 is 473,700 to the nearest 100.
b.) 524,239 is 524,000 to the nearest 1000
c.) 2,499 is 2500 to the nearest 10.

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Operations on whole Numbers

Addition

Example
Find out:
a.) 98 + 6734 + 348
b.) 6349 + 259 +7954

Solution
Arrange the numbers in vertical forms
98
6734
+ 348
7180
6349
259
+ 79542

86150

Subtracting

Example
Find: 73469 – 8971

Solution
73469

- 8971
64498

Multiplication
The product is the result of two or more numbers.

Example
Work out: 469 x 63

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Solution
469
X 63
1407
+ 28140

29547

Division
When a number is divided by the result is called the quotient. The number being divided is the divided and
the number dividing is the divisor.

Example
Find: 6493 14

Solution
We get 463 and 11 is the remainder

Note:
6493 = (463 x 14) + 11
In general, dividend = quotient x division + remainder.

Operation Words

sum
plus
Addition added
more than
increased by

difference
minus
subtracted from
Subtraction less than
decreased by
reduced by
deducted from

product of
Multiplication multiply
Word problem
times In working the word problems, the
information given must be read
and understood well before attempting the question.

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 twice The problem should be broken
thrice down into steps and identify each
other operations required.
quotient of
Division
divided by Example
Otego had 3469 bags of maize,
equal to
Equal result is
each weighing 90 kg. He sold 2654
is of them.
a.) How many kilogram of
maize was he left with?
b.) If he added 468 more bags of maize, how many bags did he end up with?
Solution
a.) One bag weighs 90 kg.
3469 bags weigh 3469 x 90 = 312,210 kg
2654 bags weigh 2654 x 90 = 238,860 kg
Amount of maize left = 312,210 – 238,860
= 73,350 kg.
b.) Number of bags = 815 + 468
=1283
Even Number
A number which can be divided by 2 without a remainder E.g. 0,2,4,6 0 or 8
3600, 7800, 806, 78346

Odd Number
Any number that when divided by 2 gives a remainder. E.g. 471,123, 1197,7129.The numbers ends with
the following digits 1, 3, 5,7 or 9.

Prime Number
A prime number is a number that has only two factors one and the number itself.
For example, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17 and 19.

Note:
i.) 1 is not a prime number.
ii.) 2 is the only even number which is a prime number.
End of topic

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If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

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Past KCSE Questions on the topic
1.) Write 27707807 in words
2.) All prime numbers less than ten are arranged in descending order to form a number
a.) Write down the number formed
b.) What is the total value of the second digit?
c.) Write the number formed in words.

CHAPTER TWO
FACTORS

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
a.) Express composite numbers in factor form;
b.) Express composite numbers as product of prime factors;
c.) Express factors in power form.
Content
a.) Factors of composite numbers.

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 b.) Prime factors.
c.) Factors in power form

Introduction

Definition
A factor is a number that divides another number without a remainder.

Number Factors

1,2,3,4,6,12
12

1,2,4,8,16
16

1 ,3,13,39
39

A natural number with only two factors, one and itself is a prime number. Or any number that only can be
divided by 1 and itself. Prime numbers have exactly 2 different factors.

Prime Numbers up to 100.

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2 3 5 7 11

13 17 19 23 29

31 37 41 43 47

53 59 61 67 71

73 79 83 89 97

Composite numbers
Any number that has more factors than just itself and 1.They can be said to be natural number other than 1
which are not prime numbers.They can be expressed as a product of two or more prime factors.
9=3x3
12 = 2 x 2 x 3
105 = 3 x 5 x 7
The same number can be repeated several times in some situations.
32 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 =
72 =2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 =
To express a number in terms of prime factors ,it is best to take the numbers from the smallest and divide
by each of them as many times as possible before going to the next.

Example
Express the following numbers in terms of their prime factors
a.) 300
b.) 196

Solution
a.)
2 300
2 150
3 75

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 5 25

5 5
1
300 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 x 5
=
b.)

2 196
2 98
7 49
7 7

196 = 2 x 2 x 7 x 7
=

Exceptions
The numbers 1 and 0 are neither prime nor composite. 1 cannot be prime or composite because it only has
one factor, itself. 0 is neither a prime nor a composite number because it has infinite factors. All other
numbers, whether prime or composite, have a set number of factors. 0 does not follow the rules.

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

1.) Express the numbers 1470 and 7056, each as a product of its prime factors.
Hence evaluate: 14702
7056
Leaving the answer in prime factor form
2.) All prime numbers less than ten are arranged in descending order to form a number
(a) Write down the number formed

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 (b) What is the total value of the second digit?

CHAPTER THREE
DIVISIBILITY TEST
DDDBUSINEJJGJS
Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
The learner should be able to test the divisibility of numbers by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10 and 11.
48

Content
Divisibility test of numbers by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10 and 11

Introduction
Divisibility test makes computation on numbers easier. The following is a table for divisibility test.

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Divisibility Tests Example
A number is divisible by 2 if the last digit is 0, 2, 4, 6 or 168 is divisible by 2 since the last digit is
8. 8.

A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of the digits is 168 is divisible by 3 since the sum of the
divisible by 3. digits is 15 (1+6+8=15), and 15 is
divisible by 3.

A number is divisible by 4 if the number formed by the 316 is divisible by 4 since 16 is divisible
last two digits is divisible by 4. by 4.

A number is divisible by 5 if the last digit is either 0 or 195 is divisible by 5 since the last digit is
5. 5.

A number is divisible by 6 if it is divisible by 2 AND it 168 is divisible by 6 since it is divisible

is divisible by 3. by 2 AND it is divisible by 3.

A number is divisible by 8 if the number formed by the 7,120 is divisible by 8 since 120 is
last three digits is divisible by 8. divisible by 8.

A number is divisible by 9 if the sum of the digits is 549 is divisible by 9 since the sum of the
divisible by 9. digits is 18 (5+4+9=18), and 18 is
divisible by 9.

A number is divisible by 10 if the last digit is 0. 1,470 is divisible by 10 since the last
digit is 0.

A number is divisible by 11 if the sum of its digits in the 8,260,439 sum of 8 +6 +4 +9 =27:
odd positons like 1st ,3rd ,5th ,7th 2 + 0 +3 = 5 ;
Positions, and the sum of its digits in the even position 27 – 5 = 22 which is a multiple of 11
like 2nd , 4th ,6th ,8th positions are equal or differ by
11,or by a multiple of 11

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 End of topic

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If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

CHAPTER FOUR

GREATEST COMMON DIVISOR

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
a.) Find the GCD/HCF of a set of numbers.
b.) Apply GCD to real life situations.
Content
a.) GCD of a set of numbers
b.) Application of GCD/HCF to real life situations

Introduction
A Greatest Common Divisor is the largest number that is a factor of two or more numbers.
When looking for the Greatest Common Factor, you are only looking for the COMMON factors contained
in both numbers. To find the G.C.D of two or more numbers, you first list the factors of the given numbers,
identify common factors and state the greatest among them.
The G.C.D can also be obtained by first expressing each number as a product of its prime factors. The
factors which are common are determined and their product obtained.

Example
Find the Greatest Common Factor/GCD for 36 and 54 is 18.

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Solution
The prime factorization for 36 is 2 x 2 x 3 x 3.
The prime factorization for 54 is 2 x 3 x 3 x 3.
They both have in common the factors 2, 3, 3 and their product is 18.
That is why the greatest common factor for 36 and 54 is 18.

Example
Find the G.C.D of 72, 96, and 300

Solution
72 96 300
2 36 48 150
2 18 24 75
3 6 8 25

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!
Past KCSE Questions on the topic

1.) Find the greatest common divisor of the term. 144x3y2 and 81xy4
b) Hence factorize completely this expression 144x3y2-81xy4 (2 marks)

2.) The GCD of two numbers is 7and their LCM is 140. if one of the numbers is 20, find the other
number

3.) The LCM of three numbers is 7920 and their GCD is 12. Two of the numbers are 48 and 264. Using
factor notation find the third number if one of its factors is 9

CHAPTER FIVE

LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

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a.) List multiples of numbers.
b.) Find the L CM of a set of numbers.
c.) Apply knowledge of L CM in real life situations.
Content
a.) Multiples of a number
b.) L CM of a set of numbers
c.) Application of L CM in real life situations.

Introduction

Definition
LCM or LCF is the smallest multiple that two or more numbers divide into evenly i.e. without a remainder.
A multiple of a number is the product of the original number with another number.
Some multiples of 4 are 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, 44, 48, 52, 56 …
Some multiples of 7 are 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, 56 …
A Common Multiple is a number that is divisible by two or more numbers. Some common multiples of 4
and 7 are 28, 56, 84, and 112.
When looking for the Least Common Multiple, you are looking for the smallest multiple that they both
divide into evenly. The least common multiple of 4 and 7 is 28.

Example
Find the L.C.M of 8, 12, 18 and 20.

Solution

8 18 20
2 4 6 10
2 2 3 5
2 1 3 5

3 1 1 5

3 1 1 5

5 1 1 1

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The L.C.M is the product of all the divisions used.
Therefore, L.C.M. of 8, 12, 18 and 20 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x5
=x5
= 360

Note;
Unlike the G.C.D tables, if the divisor /factor does not divide a number exactly, then the number is retained,
e.g., 2 does not divide 9 exactly, therefore 9 is retained .The last row must have all values 1.

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!
Past KCSE Questions on the topic
4.) Find the L.C.M of x2 + x, x2 – 1 and x2 – x .
5.) Find the least number of sweets that can be packed into polythene bags which contain either 9 or
15 or 20 or 24 sweets with none left over.
6.) A number n is such that when it is divided by 27, 30, or 45, the remainder is always 3. Find the
smallest value of n.
7.) A piece of land is to be divided into 20 acres or 24 acres or 28 acres for farming and
Leave 7 acres for grazing. Determine the smallest size of such land.

8.) When a certain number x is divided by 30, 45 or 54, there is always a remainder of 21. Find the
least value of the number x .
A number m is such that when it is divided by 30, 36, and 45, the remainder is always 7. Find the smallest
possible value of m.

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CHAPTER SIX
INTERGERS
Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
a.) Define integers
b.) Identify integers on a number line
c.) Perform the four basic operations on integers using the number line.
d.) Work out combined operations on integers in the correct order
e.) Apply knowledge of integers to real life situations.
Content
a.) Integers
b.) The number line
c.) Operation on integers
d.) Order of operations
e.) Application to real life situations

Introduction
The Number Line
Integers are whole numbers, negative whole numbers and zero. Integers are always represented on the
number line at equal intervals which are equal to one unit.

Operations on Integers
Addition of Integers
Addition of integers can be represented on a number line .For example, to add

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+3 to 0 , we begin at 0 and move 3 units to the right as shown below in red to get +3, Also to add + 4 to +3
we move 4 units to the right as shown in blue to get +7.

To add -3 to zero we move 3 units to the left as shown in red below to get -3 while to add -2 to -3 we move
2 steps to the left as shown in blue to get -5.

Note;
 When adding positive numbers we move to
the right.
 When dealing with negative we move to
the left.
Subtraction of integers.

Example
(+7) – (0) = (+7)
To subtract +7 from 0 ,we find a number n which when added to get 0 we get +7 and in this case n = +7 as
shown above in red.

Example
(+2) – (+7) = (-5)
Start at +7 and move to +2. 5 steps will be made towards the left. The answer is therefore -5.

Example
-3 – (+6) = -9

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 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
We start at +6 and moves to -3. 9 steps to the left, the answer is -9.

Note:
 In general positives signs can be ignored when writing positive numbers i.e. +2 can be written as 2
but negative signs cannot be ignored when writing negative numbers -4 can only be written s -4.
4 – (+3) = 4 -3
=1
-3- (+6) =3 – 6
= -3
 Positive integers are also referred to as natural numbers. The result of subtracting the negative of a
number is the same as adding that number.
2 – (- 4) = 2 + 4
=6
(-5) – (- 1) = -5 + 2
= -3
 In mathematics it is assumed that that the number with no sign before it has appositive sign.
Multiplication
In general
i.) ( a negative number ) x ( appositive number ) = ( a negative number)
ii.) (a positive number ) x ( a negative number ) = ( a negative number)
iii.) ( a negative number ) x ( a negative number ) = ( a positive number)
Examples
-6 x 5 = -30
7 x -4 = - 28
-3 x -3 = 9
-2 x -9 = 18

Division
Division is the inverse of multiplication. In general
i.) (a positive number ) ( a positive number ) = ( a positive number)
ii.) (a positive number ) ( a negative number ) = ( a negative number)
iii.) ( a negative number ) ( a negative number ) = ( a positive number)

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 iv.) ( a negative number ) ( appositive number ) = ( a negative number)
Note;
For multiplication and division of integer:
 Two like signs gives positive sign.
 Two unlike signs gives negative sign
 Multiplication by zero is always zero and division by zero is always zero.

Order of operations
BODMAS is always used to show as the order of operations.
B – Bracket first.
O – Of is second.
D – Division is third.
M – Multiplication is fourth.
A – Addition is fifth.
S – Subtraction is considered last.

Example
6x3–4

Solution
Use BODMAS
(2 – 1) = 1 we solve brackets first
(4) = 2 we then solve division
(6 x 3) = 18 next is multiplication
Bring them together
18 – 2 +5 +1 = 22 we solve addition first and lastly subtraction
18 + 6 – 2 = 22

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

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Past KCSE Questions on the topic
1.) The sum of two numbers exceeds their product by one. Their difference is equal to their product less
five. Find the two numbers. (3mks)

2.) 3x – 1 > -4
2x + 1≤ 7

3.) Evaluate -12 ÷ (-3) x 4 – (-15)

-5 x 6 ÷ 2 + (-5)
4.) Without using a calculator/mathematical tables, evaluate leaving your answer as a simple fraction

(-4)(-2) + (-12)  (+3) + -20 + (+4) + -6)

-9 – (15) 46- (8+2)-3

5.) Evaluate -8  2 + 12 x 9 – 4 x 6

56 7 x 2

6.) Evaluate without using mathematical tables or the calculator

1.9 x 0.032
20 x 0.0038

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CHAPTER SEVEN
FRACTIONS
Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
a.) Identify proper and improper fractions and mixed number.
b.) Convert mixed numbers to improper fractions and vice versa.
c.) Compare fractions;
d.) Perform the four basic operations on fractions.
e.) Carry out combined operations on fractions in the correct order.
f.) Apply the knowledge of fractions to real life situations.
Content
a.) Fractions
b.) Proper, improper fractions and mixed numbers.
c.) Conversion of improper fractions to mixed numbers and vice versa.
d.) Comparing fractions.
e.) Operations on fractions.
f.) Order of operations on fractions
g.) Word problems involving fractions in real life situations.

Introduction
A fraction is written in the form where a and b are numbers and b is not equal to 0.The upper number is
called the numerator and the lower number is the denominator.

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Proper fraction
In proper fraction the numerator is smaller than the denominator. E.g.

Improper fraction
The numerator is bigger than or equal to denominator. E.g.

Mixed fraction
An improper fraction written as the sum of an integer and a proper fraction. For example

Changing a Mixed Number to an Improper Fraction

2
Mixed number – 4 (contains a whole number and a fraction)
3
14
Improper fraction - (numerator is larger than denominator)
3

Step 1 – Multiply the denominator and the whole number

Step 2 – Add this answer to the numerator; this becomes the new numerator
Step 3 – Carry the original denominator over

Example
1
3 = 3 × 8 + 1 = 25
8

25
=
8

Example
4
4 = 4 × 9 + 4 = 40
9

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 40
=
9

Changing an Improper Fraction to a Mixed Number

Step 1– Divide the numerator by the denominator

Step 2– The answer from step 1 becomes the whole number
Step 3– The remainder becomes the new numerator
Step 4– The original denominator carries over

Example
47
= 47 ÷ 5 or
5

9
2
5 47 = 5 47 = 9
5
45

Example
4
9
= 2 9 = 2 9 =4½
2
8
1

Comparing Fractions
When comparing fractions, they are first converted into their equivalent forms using the same denominator.

Equivalent Fractions
To get the equivalent fractions, we multiply or divide the numerator and denominator of a given fraction
by the same number. When the fraction has no factor in common other than 1, the fraction is said to be in
its simplest form.

Example
Arrange the following fractions in ascending order (from the smallest to the biggest):

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 1/2 1 /4 5/6 2/3

Step 1: Change all the fractions to the same denominator.

Step 2: In this case we will use 12 because 2, 4, 6, and3 all go into i.e. We get 12 by finding the L.C.M
of the denominators. To get the equivalent fractions divide the denominator by the L.C.M and then
multiply both the numerator and denominator by the answer,
For ½ we divide 12 2 = 6, then multiply both the numerator and denominator by 6 as shown below.

1x6 1x3 5 x2 2 x4
2 x6 4 x3 6 x2 3 x4

Step3: The fractions will now be:

6/12 3/12 10/12 8/12

Step 4: Now put your fractions in order (smallest to biggest.)

3/12 6/12 8/12 10/12

Step 5: Change back, keeping them in order.

1/4 1/2 2/3 5/6
You can also use percentages to compare fractions as shown below.

Example
Arrange the following in descending order (from the biggest)
5/12 7 /3 11/5 9 /4

Solution
X 100 = 41.67%
X 100 = 233.3%
X 100 = 220%
X 100 = 225%
7/3, 9/4, 11/5, 5/12

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Operation on Fractions
Addition and Subtraction
The numerators of fractions whose denominators are equal can be added or subtracted directly.

Example
2/7 + 3/7 = 5/7
6/8 – 5/8 = 1/8
When adding or subtracting numbers with different denominators like:
5/4 + 3 /6=?
2/5 – 2/7 =?

Step 1– Find a common denominator (a number that both denominators will go into or L.C.M)
Step 2– Divide the denominator of each fraction by the common denominator or L.C.M and then multiply
the answers by the numerator of each fraction
Step 3– Add or subtract the numerators as indicated by the operation sign
Step 4 – Change the answer to lowest terms

Example
1 7
+ = Common denominator is 8 because both 2 and 8 will go into 8
2 8
1 7
+ =
2 8
11 3
Which simplifies to 1
8 8

Example
3 1
4 – = Common denominator is 20 because both 4 and 5 will go into 20
5 4

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 3 12
4 = 4
5 20
1 5
– =
4 20

7
4
20

Or

3 1
4 – = =
5 4
Mixed numbers can be added or subtracted easily by first expressing them as improper fractions.

Examples
5

Solution
5=5+

Example
Evaluate

Solution

Multiplying Simple Fractions

Step 1– Multiply the numerators
Step 2– Multiply the denominators

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Step 3– Reduce the answer to lowest terms by dividing by common divisors

Example
1 4 4 2
× = which reduces to
7 6 42 21

Multiplying Mixed Numbers

Step 1– Convert the mixed numbers to improper fractions first

Step 2– Multiply the numerators
Step 3– Multiply the denominators
Step 4– Reduce the answer to lowest terms

Example
1 1 7 3 21
2 ×1 = × =
3 2 3 2 6
1
Which then reduces to 3
2

Note:
When opposing numerators and denominators are divisible by a common number, you may reduce the
numerator and denominator before multiplying. In the above example, after converting the mixed numbers
to improper fractions, you will see that the 3 in the numerator and the opposing 3 in the denominator could
have been reduced by dividing both numbers by 3, resulting in the following reduced fraction:

7 31 7 1
× = = 3
13 2 2 2

Dividing Simple Fractions

Step 1– Change division sign to multiplication

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Step 2– Change the fraction following the multiplication sign to its reciprocal (rotate the fraction around
so the old denominator is the new numerator and the old numerator is the new denominator)
Step 3- Multiply the numerators
Step 4– Multiply the denominators
Step 5– simplify the answer to lowest terms

Example
1 2 1 3 3
÷ = becomes × which when solved is
8 3 8 2 16

Dividing Mixed Numbers

Step 1 – Convert the mixed number or numbers to improper fraction.
Step 2 – Change the division sign to multiplication.
Step 3– Change the fraction following the multiplication sign to its reciprocal (flip the fraction around so
the old denominator is the new numerator and the old numerator is the new denominator)
Step 4- Multiply the numerators.
Step 5– Multiply the denominators.
Step 6– Simplify the answer to lowest form.

Example
3 5 15 17 15 6
3 ÷ 2 = becomes ÷ becomes × =
4 6 4 6 4 17

15 63 45 11
Which when solved is × = which simplifies to 1
24 17 34 34

Order of operations on Fractions

The same rules that apply on integers are the same for fractions
BODMAS

Example
15 (we start with of then division)
= 15
=5

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Example
=

Solution
1/3 – 1/4 = (we start with bracket)
(We then work out the outer bracket)
(We then work out the multiplication)
(Addition comes last here)

Example
Evaluate +½

Solution
We first work out this first

Therefore + ½ = 25 + ½
= 25 ½

Note:
Operations on fractions are performed in the following order.
 Perform the operation enclosed within the bracket first.
 If (of) appears, perform that operation before any other.
Example
Evaluate: =

Solution
=

=
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=
=

Example
Two pipes A and B can fill an empty tank in 3hrs and 5hrs respectively. Pipe C can empty the tank
in 4hrs. If the three pipes A, B and C are opened at the same time find how long it will take for the
tank to be full.

Solution
1/3 +1/5 -1/4 = 20+12-15
60
= 17/60
17/60=1hr
1= 1 x 60/17
60/17 = 3.5294118
= 3.529 hrs.
End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!
Past KCSE Questions on the topic

1. Evaluate without using a calculator.

 3 5 2
1   
 7 8 3
3 5 4 1
 1  of 2
4 7 7 3

2. A two digit number is such that the sum of the ones and the tens digit is ten. If the digits are reversed,
the new number formed exceeds the original number by 54.
Find the number.

 3 1 1 1 2
3. Evaluate 3 8 of 7   1  3   2 
 5 3 4 3 5

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  
4. Convert the recurring decimal l 2 .1 8 into fraction

2 1
5. Simplify 0 .00243  5  0 .0009  2 without using tables or calculator

6. Evaluate without using tables or calculators

6 14 20
of  80  
7 3 3
 2  5  14  7   3
7. Mr. Saidi keeps turkeys and chickens. The number of turkeys exceeds the number of chickens by
6. During an outbreak of a disease, ¼ of the chicken and 1/3 of the turkeys died. If he lost total of
30 birds, how many birds did he have altogether?

8  2  12  9  4  6
9. Work out
56  7  2

10. Evaluate -4 of (-4 + -5 15) + -3 – 4 2)

84  -7 + 3 - -5

11. Write the recurring decimal 0. 3 Can as Fraction

5  1 5
of  4  3 
6  3 6
12. Evaluate without using a calculator.
5 3 5 1
 1  2
12 25 9 3

13. Without using tables or calculators evaluate.

35  5  2  3
 9  14  7  4
14. Without using tables or calculator, evaluate the following.
8 + (-13) x 3 – (-5)
-

-
1 + (-6) ÷ 2 x 2

. . .
15. Express 1.9 3 0. 2 5 as a single fraction

16. Simplify ½ of 3½ + 1½ (2½ - 2/3)

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 ¾ of 2½  ½

17. Evaluate:
2
/5 ½ of 4/9 – 11/10
/8 – 1/6 of 3/8
1

18. Without using a calculator or table, work out the following leaving the answer as a mixed number
in its simplest form:-
¾ + 12/7 ÷ 3/7 of 21/3
(9/7-3/8) x 2/3

19. Work out the following, giving the answer as a mixed number in its simplest form.
2
/5 ½ of 4/9 – 1 1/10
1
/8 – 1/16 x 3/8

20. Evaluate;

3
/8 of 73/5 – 1/3 1¼ + 31/3 x 22/5

23. Without using a calculator, evaluate:

14/5 of 25/1812/3 x 24

21/3 – ¼ of 12 5/3 leaving the answer as a fraction in its simplest form

24. There was a fund-raising in Matisse high school. One seventh of the money that was raised was
used to construct a teacher’s house and two thirds of the remaining money was used to construct classrooms.
If shs.300, 000 remained, how much money was raised

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 CHAPTER EIGHT

DECIMALS
Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
a.) Convert fractions into decimals and vice versa
b.) Identify recurring decimals
c.) Convert recurring decimals into fractions
d.) Round off a decimal number to the required number of decimal places
e.) Write numbers in standard form
f.) Perform the four basic operations on decimals
g.) Carry our operations in the correct order
h.) Apply the knowledge of decimals to real life situations.
Content
a.) Fractions and decimals
b.) Recurring decimals
c.) Recurring decimals and fractions
d.) Decimal places

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 e.) Standard form
f.) Operations on decimals
g.) Order of operations
h.) Real life problems involving decimals.

Introduction
A fraction whose denominator can be written as the power of 10 is called a decimal fraction or a decimal.
E.g. 1/10, 1/100, 50/1000.
A decimal is always written as follows 1/10 is written as 0.1 while 5/100 is written as 0.05.The dot is called
the decimal point.
Numbers after the decimal points are read as single digits e.g. 5.875 is read as five point eight seven five.
A decimal fraction such 8.3 means 8 + 3/10.A decimal fraction which represents the sum of a whole number
and a proper fraction is called a mixed fraction.

Place value chart

thousands
Ten

Thousands

Hundreds

Tens

Ones

Point
Decimal

Tenths

Hundredths

s
Thousandth
s
Thousandth
Ten

s
Thousandth
Hundred

10,000 1,000 100 10 1 . .1 .01 .001 .0001 .00001

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Decimal to Fractions
To convert a number from fraction form to decimal form, simply divide the numerator (the top number) by
the denominator (the bottom number) of the fraction.

Example:
5/8

.625
8 5.000  Add as many zeros as needed.

48
20
16
40
40
0

Converting a decimal to a fraction

To change a decimal to a fraction, determine the place value of the last number in the decimal. This
becomes the denominator. The decimal number becomes the numerator. Then reduce your answer.

Example:

.625 - the 5 is in the thousandths column, therefore,

625 5
.625 = = reduces to
1000 8

Note:
Your denominator will have the same number of zeros as there are decimal digits in the decimal number
you started with - .625 has three decimal digits so the denominator will have three zero.

Recurring Decimals
These are decimal fractions in which a digit or a group of digits repeat continuously without ending.

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We cannot write all the numbers, we therefore place a dot above a digit that is recurring. If more than one
digit recurs in a pattern, we place a dot above the first and the last digit in the pattern.

E.g.
0.3333……………………….is written as 0.
0.4545………………………is written as 0.
0.324324………………….is written as 0.
Any division whose divisor has prime factors other than 2 or 5 forms a recurring decimal or non-terminating
decimal.

Example
Express each as a fraction
a.) 0.
b.) 0.7
c.) 0.
Solution
a.) Let r = 0.66666 -------( I )
10r = 6.6666 --------------- (II)
Subtracting I from II
9r = 6

b.) Let r = 0.73333--------- (I)

10 r=7.3333333--------- (II)
100r = 73.33333--------- (III)
Subtracting (II) from (III)

90r = 66

c.) Let r = 0.151515 ---------( I)

100r = 15.1515 ----------- (II)
99r= 15

Decimal places
When the process of carrying out division goes over and over again without ending we may round off the
digits to any number of required digits to the right of decimal points which are called decimal places.

Example
Round 2.832 to the nearest hundredth.
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Solution

Step 1 – Determine the place to which the number is to be rounded is.

2.832

Step 2 – If the digit to the right of the number to be rounded is less than 5, replace it and all the digits to the
right of it by zeros. If the digit to the right of the underlined number is 5 or higher, increase the underlined
number by 1 and replace all numbers to the right by zeros. If the zeros are decimal digits, you may eliminate
them.

2.832 = 2.830 = 2.83

Example
Round 43.5648 to the nearest thousandth.

Solution

43.5648 = 43.5650 = 43.565

Example
Round 5,897,000 to the nearest hundred thousand.

Solution
5,897,000 = 5,900,000

Standard Form
A number is said to be in standard form if it is expressed in form A X, Where 1 < A <10 and n is an integer.

Example
Write the following numbers in standard form.
a.) 36 b.) 576 c.) 0.052
Solution
a.) 36/10 x 10 = 3.6 x
b.) 576/100 x 100 = 5.76 x
c.) 0.052 = 0.052 x 100/100

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Operation on Decimals

Addition and Subtraction

The key point with addition and subtraction is to line up the decimal points!

Example
2.64 + 11.2 = 2.64

+11.20 in this case, it helps to write 11.2 as 11.20

13.84

Example
14.73 – 12.155 = 14.730  again adding this 0 helps
- 12.155
2.575

Example
127.5 + 0.127 = 327.500
+ 0.127
327.627

Multiplication
When multiplying decimals, do the sum as if the decimal points were not there, and then calculate how
many numbers were to the right of the decimal point in both the original numbers - next, place the decimal
point in your answer so that there are this number of digits to the right of your decimal point?

Example
2.1 x 1.2.
Calculate 21 x 12 = 252. There is one number to the right of the decimal in each of the original numbers,
making a total of two. We therefore place our decimal so that there are two digits to the right of the decimal
point in our answer.
Hence 2.1 x 1.2 =2.52.
Always look at your answer to see if it is sensible. 2 x 1 = 2, so our answer should be close to 2 rather than
20 or 0.2 which could be the answers obtained by putting the decimal in the wrong place.

Example
1.4 x 6

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Calculate 14 x 6 = 84. There is one digit to the right of the decimal in our original numbers so our answer
is 8.4
Check 1 x 6 = 6 so our answer should be closer to 6 than 60 or 0.6

Division
When dividing decimals, the first step is to write your numbers as a fraction. Note that the symbol / is used
to denote division in these notes.
Hence 2.14 / 1.2 = 2.14
1.2
Next, move the decimal point to the right until both numbers are no longer decimals. Do this the same
number of places on the top and bottom, putting in zeros as required.
Hence becomes
This can then be calculated as a normal division.
Always check your answer from the original to make sure that things haven’t gone wrong along the way.
You would expect 2.14/1.2 to be somewhere between 1 and 2. In fact, the answer is 1.78.

If this method seems strange, try using a calculator to calculate 2.14/1.2, 21.4/12, 214/120 and 2140 /
1200. The answer should always be the same.

Example
4.36 / 0.14 = 4.36 = 436 = 31.14
1.14 14

Example
27.93 / 1.2 = 27.93 = 2793 = 23.28
1.2 120

Rounding Up

Some decimal numbers go on forever! To simplify their use, we decide on a cutoff point and “round” them
up or down.
If we want to round 2.734216 to two decimal places, we look at the number in the third place after the
decimal, in this case, 4. If the number is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4, we leave the last figure before the cut off as it is. If

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the number is 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9 we “round up” the last figure before the cut off by one. 2.734216 therefore
becomes 2.73 when rounded to 2 decimal places.

If we are rounding to 2 decimal places, we leave 2 numbers to the right of the decimal.
If we are rounding to 2 significant figures, we leave two numbers, whether they are decimals or not.

Example

243.7684 = 243.77 (2 decimal places)

= 240 (2 significant figures)

1973.285 = 1973.29 (2 decimal places)

= 2000 (2 significant figures)
2.4689 = 2.47 (2 decimal places)
= 2.5 (2 significant figures)
0.99879 = 1.00 (2 decimal places)
= 1.0 (2 significant figures)

Order of operation
The same rules on operations is always the same even for decimals.

Examples
Evaluate
0.02 + 3.5 x 2.6 – 0.1 (6.2 -3.4)

Solution
0.02 + 3.5 x 2.6 – 0.1 x 2.8 = 0.02 + 0.91 -0.28
= 8.84

End of topic
Did you understand everything?
If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

46
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 1.) Without using logarithm tables or a calculator evaluate.

384.16 x 0.0625
96.04

2.) Evaluate without using mathematical table

1000 0.0128
200
3.) Express the numbers 1470 and 7056, each as a product of its prime factors.
Hence evaluate: 14702
7056
Leaving the answer in prime factor form
4.) Without using mathematical tables or calculators, evaluate

5.) Evaluate without using mathematical tables or the calculator

CHAPTER NINE

SQUARE AND SQURE ROOTS

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a.) Find squares of numbers by multiplication
b.) Find squares from tables
c.) Find square root by factor method
d.) Find square root from tables.

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Content
a.) Squares by multiplication
b.) Squares from tables
c.) Square roots by factorization
d.) Square roots from tables.

Introduction
Squares
The square of a number is simply the umber multiplied by itself once. For example the square of 15 is
225.That is 15 x 15 = 225.
Square from tables
The squares of numbers can be read directly from table of squares. This tables give only approximate values
of the squares to 4 figures. The squares of numbers from 1.000 to 9.999 can be read directly from the tables.
The use of tables is illustrated below

Example
Find the square of:
a.) 4.25
b.) 42.5

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c.) 0.425

Tables

a.) To read the square of 4.25, look for 4.2 down the column headed x. Move to the right along this
row, up to where it intersects with the column headed 5.The number in this position is the square
of 4.25
So 4.2 = 18.06 to 4 figures
b.) The square of 4.25 lies between 4 and 5 between 1600 and 2500.
4= (
=
= 18.06 x 100
= 1806
c.) 0.4= (
=
=18.06 x 1/100
= 0.1806

The square tables have extra columns labeled 1 to 9 to the right of the thick line. The numbers under these
columns are called mean differences. To find 3.162, read 3.16 to get 9.986.Then read the number in the
position where the row containing 9.986 intersects with the differences column headed 2.The difference is
13 and this should be added to the last digits of 9.986
9.986
+ 13
9.999
56.129 has 5 significant figures and in order to use 4 figures tables, we must first round it off to four figures.
56.129 = 56.13 to 4 figures
= (5.613 x
= 31.50 x
= 3150

Square Roots
Square roots are the opposite of squares. For example 5 x 5 = 25, we say that 5 is a square root of 25.

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Any positive number has two square roots, one positive and the other negative .The symbol for the square
root of a number is.
A number whose square root is an integer is called a perfect square. For example 1, 4,9,25 and 36 are perfect
squares.

Square roots by Factorization.

The square root of a number can also be obtained using factorization method.

Example
Find the square root of 81 by factorization method.

Solution
81 = (Find the prime factor of 81)
= (3x3) (3 x 3) (Group the prime factors into two identical numbers)
=3x3 (Out of the two identical prime factors, choose one and find their product)
=9

Note:
Pair the prime factors into two identical numbers. For every pair, pick only one number then obtain the
product.

Example
Find by factorization.

Solution

=2x3x7
= 42

Example
Find by factorization

Solution

=3x7
=21

Square Root from tables

Square roots of numbers from 1.0 to 99.99 are given in the tables and can be read directly.

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Examples
Use tables to find the square root of:
a.) 1.86 b.) 42.57 c.) 359 d.) 0.8236
Solution
a.) To read the square root of 1.86, look for 1.8 in the column headed x, move to the right along this
row to where it intersects with the column headed 6.The number in this position is the square root
of 1.86.Thus =1.364 to 4 figures.
b.) Look for 42 in the column headed x and move along the row containing 42 to where it intersects
with the column headed 5.Read the number in this position, which is 6.519. The difference for 7
from the difference column along this row is 6.The difference is added to 6.519 as shown below:
6.519
+ 0.006
6.525
Thus, to 4 figures.
For any number outside this range, it is necessary to first express it as the product of a number in this range
and an even power of 10.
c.) 359 = 3.59 x

= 1.895 x 10
= 18.95 (four figures)
d.) 0.8236 = 82.36 x
=
= (9.072 + 0.004) x
= 0.9076 (4 figures)

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

1.) Evaluate without using tables or calculators

3
0.125  64
0.064  629

2.) Evaluate using reciprocals, square and square root tables only.
445.1  10 
1 2
1
0.07245

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 4.652  0.3872
3.) Using a calculator, evaluate
0.8462
(Show your working at each stage)

4.) Use tables of reciprocals and square roots to evaluate

2 1.06

o.5893 846.3
5.) Use tables to find;
a) I) 4.9782
ii) The reciprocal of 31.65
b) Hence evaluate to 4.S.F the value of
4.9782 – 1/31.65
6.) Use tables of squares, square roots and reciprocals to evaluate correct to 4 S.

7. Without using mathematical tables or calculator, evaluate: 153 x 1.8 giving your answer in
standard form 0.68 x 0.32

CHAPTER TEN

ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a.) Use letters to represent numbers
b.) Write statements in algebraic form
c.) Simplify algebraic expressions
d.) Factorize an algebraic expressions by grouping
e.) Remove brackets from algebraic expressions
f.) Evaluate algebraic expressions by substituting numerical values
g.) Apply algebra in real life situations.
Content
a.) Letters for numbers
b.) Algebraic fractions

52
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 c.) Simplification of algebraic expressions
d.) Factorization by grouping
e.) Removal of brackets
f.) Substitution and evaluation
g.) Problem solving in real life situations.

Introduction
An algebraic expression is a mathematical expression that consists of variables, numbers and operations.
The value of this expression can change Clarify the definitions and have students take notes on their graphic
organizer.
Note:
o Algebraic Expression—contains at least one variable, one number and one operation. An
example of an algebraic expression is n + 9.
o Variable—a letter that is used in place of a number. Sometimes, the variable will be given
a value. This value will replace the variable in order to solve the equation. Other times,
the variable is not assigned a value and the student is to solve the equation to determine the
value of the variable.
o Constant—a number that stands by itself. The 9 in our previous vocabulary is an example
of a constant.
o Coefficient—a number in front of and attached to a variable. For example, in the
expression 5x + 3, the 5 is the coefficient.
o Term—each part of an expression that is separated by an operation. For instance, in our
earlier example n + 9, the terms are n and 7.
Examples
Write each phrase as an algebraic expression.
Nine increased by a number r 9+r
Fourteen decreased by a number x 14 - x
Six less than a number t t-6

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The product of 5 and a number n 5 X n or 5n
Thirty-two divided by a number y 31 ÷ x or

Example
An electrician charges sh 450 per hour and spends sh 200 a day on gasoline. Write an algebraic expression
to represent his earnings for one day.
Solution: Let x represent the number of hours the electrician works in one day. The electrician's earnings
can be represented by the following algebraic expression:

Solution
450x - 200

Simplification of Algebraic Expressions

Note:
Basic steps to follow when simplify an algebraic expression:
 Remove parentheses by multiplying factors.
 Use exponent rules to remove parentheses in terms with exponents.
 Combine like terms by adding coefficients.
 Combine the constants.
Like and unlike terms
Like terms have the same variable /letters raised to the same power i.e. 3 b + 2b = 5b or a + 5a = 6a and
they can be simplified further into 5b and 6a respectively.While unlike terms have different variables i.e.
3b + 2 c or 4b + 2x and they cannot be simplified further.

Example

3a +12b +4a -2b = 7a + 10b ( collect the lick terms )

2x - 5y + 3x - 7y + 3w = 5x - 12y + 3w
Example
Simplify: 2x – 6y – 4x + 5z – y

Solution
2x – 6y – 4x + 5z –y = 2x – 4x – 6y –y + 5z
= (2x – 4x) – (6y + y) + 5z
= - 2x – 7y + 5z

Note:
-6y – y = -( 6y + y)

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Example
Simplify:

Solution
The L.C.M of 2, 3 and 4 is 12.
Therefore

Example
Simplify:

Solution

Example
5x² - 2x² = 3x²

4a²bc - 2a²bc = 2a²bc

a²b – 2c + 3a²b +c = 4a²b – c

Note:
Capital letter and small letters are not like terms.

Brackets
Brackets serve the same purpose as they do in arithmetic.

Example
Remove the brackets and simplify:
a.) 3 ( a + b ) – 2(a – b)
b.) 1/3a + 3 (5a + b – c )
c.) 2b + 3 (3 – 2 (a – 5)
Solution
a.) 3 ( a + b ) – 2(a – b) = 3a + 3b – 2a + 2b
= 3a - 2a + 3b + 2b
= a + 5b

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 b.) 1/3a + 3 (5a + b – c ) = 1/3a + 15 a + 3b – 3c
=
c.) 2b + a { 3 – 2 (a – 5 )} = 2b + a {3 – 2a + 10}
=2b + 3a – 2 + 10a
= 2b + 3a + 10 a - 2
= 2b + 13a - 2
The process of remaining the brackets is called expansion while the reverse process of inserting the brackets
is called factorization.

Example
Factorize the following:
a.) 3m + 3n = 3 (m + n ) ( the common term is 3 so we put it outside the bracket)
b.)
c.)
Solution

b.) ( is common)

c.)
(Is common)
=
Factorization by grouping
When the terms of an expression which do not have a common factor are taken pairwise, a common factor
can be found. This method is known as factorization by grouping.

Example
Factorize:
a.) 3ab + 2b + 3ca + 2c
b.) ab + bx – a - x
Solution
a.) 3ab + 2b + 3ca + 2c = b ( 3a + 2 ) + c (3a +2 )
= (3a + 2) (b + c)

b.) ab + bx – a – x = b ( a + x ) – 1 ( a + x)
= (a + x) (b – 1)

Algebraic fractions
In algebra, fractions can be added and subtracted by finding the L.C.M of the denominators.

Examples
Express each of the following as a single fraction:

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 a.)
b.)
c.)
Solution

= (10x -10 + 5x + 10 + 4x)

=
=

Simplification by factorization
Factorization is used to simplify expressions

Examples
Simplify p2 – 2pq + q2

2p2 -3pq + q2
Solution
Numerator is solved first.

Then solve the denominator

2p2-2pq - pq - q2
(2p-q) (p-q)

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Example
Simplify

16m 2  9n 2
4m 2  mn  3n 2

Solution
Num. (4m – 3n) (4m + 3n)
Den. 4m2 – 4mn + 3mn – 3n2
(4m + 3n) (m – n)
(4m – 3n) (4m + 3n)
(4m + 3n) (m – n)

4m – 3n
m–n

Example
Simplify the expression.

18xy  18xr
9 xr  9 xy

Solution
Numerator
18x (y – r)
Denominator
9x (r – y)
Therefore
=

Example
Simplify

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Solution
(3 x  2a )(4 x  3a )
(3 x  2a )(3 x  2a )

4 x  3a
=
3 x  2a

Example
Simplify the expression completely.

Solution
= =
Note:

Substitution
This is the process of giving variables specific values in an expression

Example
Evaluate the expression if x =2 and y = 1

Solution

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

1. Given that y = 2x – z
x + 3z express x in terms of y and z
2. Simplify the expression
x – 1 - 2x + 1

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 x 3x
Hence solve the equation
x–1 - 2x + 1 = 2
x 3x 3
3. Factorize a2 – b2
Hence find the exact value of 25572 - 25472
4. Simplify p2 – 2pq + q2
P3 - pq2 + p2 q –q3
5. Given that y = 2x – z, express x in terms of y and z.
Four farmers took their goats to a market. Mohammed had two more goats as Koech had 3 times
as many goats as Mohammed, whereas Odupoy had 10 goats less than both Mohammed and Koech.
(i) Write a simplified algebraic expression with one variable, representing the total number of
goats.
(ii) Three butchers bought all the goats and shared them equally. If each butcher got 17 goats,
how many did odupoy sell to the butchers?
6. Solve the equation
1 =5 -7
4x 6x
7. Simplify
a + b
2(a+ b) 2(a-b)

8. Three years ago, Juma was three times as old. As Ali in two years time, the sum of their ages will
be 62. Determine their ages

CHAPTER ELEVEN

RATES, RATIO, PROPORTION AND PERCENTAGE

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
a.) Define rates
b.) Solve problems involving rates
c.) Define ratio
d.) Compare two or more quantities using ratios
e.) Change quantities in a given ratio

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 f.) Compare two or more ratios
g.) Represent and interpret proportional parts
h.) Recognize direct and inverse proportions
i.) Solve problems involving direct and inverse proportions
j.) Convert fractions and decimals to percentages and vice-versa
k.) Calculate percentage change in a given quantity
l.) Apply rates, ratios, percentages to real life situations and proportion.
Content
a.) Rates
b.) Solving problems involving rates
c.) Ratio
d.) Comparing quantities using ratio
e.) Increase and decrease in a given ratio
f.) Comparing ratios
g.) Proportion: direct and inverse
h.) Solve problems on direct and inverse proportions
i.) Fractions and decimals as percentages
j.) Percentage increase and decrease
k.) Application of rates, ratios, percentages and proportion to real life situations.

Introduction
Rates
A rate is a measure of quantity, and comparing one quantity with another of different kind.

Example
If a car takes two hours to travel a distance of 160 km. then we will say that it is travelling at an average
rate of 80 km per hour. If two kilograms of maize meal is sold for sh. 38.00, then we say that maize meal
is selling at the rate of sh.19.00 per kilogram.

Example
What is the rate of consumption per day if twelve bags of beans are consumed in 120 days?

Solution.
Rate of consumption = number of bags/number of days
=
=1/10 bags per day

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Example
A laborer’s wage is sh.240 per eight hours working day. What is the rate of payment per hour?

Solution
Rate = amount of money paid/number of hours
=
=sh.30 per hour

Ratio
A ratio is a way of comparing two similar quantities. For example, if alias is 10 years old and his brother
basher is 14 years old. Then alias age is 10/14 of Bashir’s age, and their ages are said to be in the ratio of
10 to 14. Written, 10:14.
Alias age: Bashir’s age =10:14
Bashir’s age: alias age =14:10
In stating a ratio, the units must be the same. If on a map 2cm rep 5km on the actual ground, then the ratio
of map distance to map distance is 2cm: 5x1 00 000cm, which is 2:500 000.
A ratio is expressed in its simplest form in the same way as a fraction,
E.g. 10/14 = 5/7, hence 10:14= 5:7.
Similarly, 2:500 000 = 1: 250 000,
A proportion is a comparison of two or more ratios. If, example, a, b and c are three numbers such that a:
b: c=2:3:5, then a, b, c are said to be proportional to 2, 3, 5 and the relationship should be interpreted to
mean a/2 = b/3=c/5.
Similarly, we can say that a: b =2:3, b: c=3:5 a: c=2:5
Example 3
If a: b = 3: 4 and b: c = 5: 7 find a: c
Solution
a: b =3 : 4…………………(i)
b: c=5 : 7………………….(ii)
Consider the right hand side;

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Multiply (i) by 5 and (ii) by 4 to get, a: b=15: 20 and b: c=20: 28
Thus, a: b: c = 15: 20: 28 and a: c=15: 28

Increase and decrease in a given ratio

To increase or decrease a quantity in a given ratio, we express the ratio as a fraction and multiply it by the
quantity.

Example
Increase 20 in the ratio 4: 5

Solution
New value =5/4x20
=5x5
=25

Example
Decrease 45 in the ratio 7:9

Solution
New value =7/9 x45
=7x5
=35

Example
The price of a pen is adjusted in the ratio 6:5. If the original price was sh.50. What is the new price?

Solution
New price: old price = 6:5
New price /old price = 6/5
New price = 6/5x50
= sh. 60

Note:
When a ratio expresses a change in a quantity an increase or decrease , it is usually put in the form of new
value: old value

Comparing ratios
In order to compare ratios, they have to be expressed as fractions first, ie., a:b = a/b . the resultant fraction
can then be compared.

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Example
Which ratio is greater, 2: 3 or 4: 5?
Solution 2:3 = 2/3, 4:5 = 4/5
2/3 = 10/15, 4/5 = 12/15 = 4/5 > 2/3
Thus, 4: 5 > 2: 3

Distributing a quantity in a given ratio

If a quantity is to be divided in the ratio a: b: c, the fraction of the quantity represented by:
(i) A will be
(ii) B will be
(iii) C will be
Example
A 72-hactare farm is to be shared among three sons in the ratio 2:3:4. What will be the sizes in hectares of
the three shares?

Solution
Total number of parts is 2+3+4= 9
The she shares are: 2/9 x72ha =16ha
3/9 x 72ha= 24ha
4/9 x72ha = 36ha

Direct and inverse proportion

Direct proportion
The table below shows the cost of various numbers of cups at sh. 20 per cup.

No. of cups 1 2 3 4 5
Cost (sh.) 20 40 60 80 100

The ratio of the numbers of cups in the fourth column to the number of cups in the second column is 4:2=2:1.
The ratio of the corresponding costs is 80:40=2:1. By considering the ratio of costs in any two columns and
the corresponding ratio and the number of cups, you should notice that they are always the same.
If two quantities are such that when the one increases (decreases) in particular ratio, the other one also
increases (decreases) in the ratio,

Example
A car travels 40km on 5 litres of petrol. How far does it travel on 12 litres of petrol?

Solution
Petrol is increased in the ratio 12: 5
Distance= 40x 12/5 km
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Example
A train takes 3 hours to travel between two stations at an average speed of 40km per hour. A t what average
speed would it need to travel to cover the same distance in 2hours?

Solution
Time is decreased in the ratio 2:3 Speed must be increased in the ratio 3:2 average speed is 40 x 3/2 km =
60 km/h

Example
Ten men working six hours a day take 12 days to complete a job. How long will it take eight men working
12 hours a day to complete the same job?

Solution
Number of men decreases in the ratio 8:10
Therefore, the number of days taken increases in the ratio 10:8.
Number of hours increased in the ratio 12:6.
Therefore, number of days decreases in the ratio 6:12.

Number of days taken =12 x x

=7 ½ days
Percentages
A percentage (%) is a fraction whose denominator is 100. For example, 27% means 27/100.

Converting fractions and decimals into percentages

To write a decimal or fraction as a %: multiply by 100 .For example

0.125 = 0.125  100 = 12.5%

=  100 (i.e. Of 100%) = 40%

Or = 2  5  100 = 40%

Example
Change 2/5 into percentage.

Solution
=
x = x 100
= 40%

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Example
Convert 0.67 into a percentage: solution
0.67 =
As a percentage, 0.67= x 100
=67%

Percentage increase and decrease

A quantity can be expressed as a percentage of another by first writing it as a fraction of the given quantity.

Example
A farmer harvested 250 bags of maize in a season. If he sold 200 bags, what percentage of his crops does
this represent?
Let x be the percentage sold.
Then, x/100 =
So, x = = x 100
= 80%
Example
A man earning sh. 4 800 per month was given a 25% pay rise. What was his new salary?

Solution
New salary = 25/100 x 4800 + 4 800
= 1 200 + 4 800
= sh. 6 000
Example
A dress which was costing sh. 1 200 now goes for sh. 960. What is the percentage decrease?

Solution
Decrease in cost is 1 200- 960= sh. 240
Percentage decrease = 240/1 200 x 100
= 20%
Example
The ratio of john’s earnings to muse’s earnings is 5:3. If john’s earnings increase by 12%, his new figure
becomes sh. 5 600. Find the corresponding percentage change in muse’s earnings if the sum of their new
earnings is sh.9 600

Solution
John’s earnings before the increase is 100/112 x 5600 = sh. 5 000

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John’s earnings/muse’s earnings = 5/3
Musa’s earnings before the increase = 3/5 x5000
= sh. 3 000
Musa’s new earnings =9 600 - 5 600
=sh. 4 000
Musa’s change in earnings =4 000-1 000
=sh. 3 000
Percentage change in muse’s earnings = 1000/3000 x100
=33 %

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

1. Akinyi bought and beans from a wholesaler. She then mixed the maize and beans in the ratio 4:3
she bought the maize at Kshs 21 per kg and the beans 42 per kg. If she was to make a profit of 30%.
What should be the selling price of 1 kg of the mixture?
2. Water flows from a tap at the rate of 27 cm3 per second into a rectangular container of length 60
cm, breadth 30 cm and height 40 cm. If at 6.00 PM the container was half full, what will be the
height of water at 6.04 pm?
3. Two businessmen jointly bought a minibus which could ferry 25 paying passengers when full. The
fare between two towns A and B was Kshs 80 per passenger for one way. The minibus made three
round trips between the two towns daily. The cost of fuel was Kshs 1500 per day. The driver and
the conductor were paid daily allowances of Kshs 200 and Kshs 150 respectively.
A further Kshs 4000 per day was set aside for maintenance, insurance and loan repayment.
(a) (i) How much money was collected from the passengers that day?
(ii) How much was the net profit?
(b) On another day, the minibus was 80% full on the average for the three round trips, how
much did each businessman get if the day’s profit was shared in the ratio 2:3?
4. Wainaina has two dairy farms, A and B. Farm A produces milk with 3 ¼ percent fat and farm B
produces milk with 4 ¼ percent fat.
(a) Determine
(i) The total mass of milk fat in 50 kg of milk from farm A and 30 kg of milk from
farm B
(ii) The percentage of fat in a mixture of 50kg of milk A and 30kg of milk from B

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 (b) The range of values of mass of milk from farm B that must be used in a 50kg mixture so
that the mixture may have at least 4 percent fat.
5. In the year 2001, the price of a sofa set in a shop was Kshs 12,000
(a) Calculate the amount of money received from the sales of 240 sofa sets that year.
(b) (i) In the year 2002 the price of each sofa set increased by 25% while
the number of sets sold decreased by 10%. Calculate the percentage increase in
the amount received from the sales
(ii) If the end of year 2002, the price of each sofa set changed in the ratio 16: 15,
calculate the price of each sofa set in the year 2003.

(c) The number of sofa sets sold in the year 2003 was P% less than the number sold in the year
2001.
Calculate the value of P, given that the amounts received from sales if the two years were
equal.
6. A solution whose volume is 80 litres is made up of 40% of water and 60% of alcohol. When x litres
of water is added, the percentage of alcohol drops to 40%.
(a) Find the value of x
(b) Thirty litres of water is added to the new solution. Calculate the percentage of alcohol in
the resulting solution
(c) If 5 litres of the solution in (b) above is added to 2 litres of the original solution, calculate
in the simplest form, the ratio of water to that of alcohol in the resulting solution.
7. Three business partners, Asha, Nangila and Cherop contributed Kshs 60,000, Kshs 85,000 and Kshs
105, 000 respectively. They agreed to put 25% of the profit back into business each year. They also
agreed to put aside 40% of the remaining profit to cater for taxes and insurance. The rest of the
profit would then be shared among the partners in the ratio of their contributions. At the end of the
first year, the business realized a gross profit of Kshs 225, 000.
(a) Calculate the amount of money Cherop received more than Asha at the end of the first year.
(b) Nangila further invested Kshs 25,000 into the business at the beginning of the second year.
Given that the gross profit at the end of the second year increased in the ratio 10:9, calculate
Nangila’s share of the profit at the end of the second year.

8. Kipketer can cultivate a piece of land in 7 hrs while Wanjiku can do the same work in 5 hours. Find
the time they would take to cultivate the piece of land when working together.

9. Mogaka and Ondiso working together can do a piece of work in 6 days. Mogaka working alone,
takes 5 days longer than Onduso. How many days does it take Onduso to do the work alone.

10. A certain amount of money was shared among 3 children in the ratio 7:5:3 the largest share was
Kshs 91. Find the
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 (a) Total amount of money
(b) Difference in the money received as the largest share and the smallest share.

CHAPTER TWELVE

LENGTH
Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a.) State the units of measuring length
b.) Convert units of length from one form to another
c.) Express numbers to required number of significant figures
d.) Find the perimeter of a plane figure and circumference of a circle.
Content
a.) Units of length (mm, cm, m, km)
b.) Conversion of units of length from one form to another
c.) Significant figures
d.) Perimeter
e.) Circumference (include length of arcs).

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Introduction
Length is the distance between two points. The SI unit of length is metres. Conversion of units of length.

1 kilometer (km) = 1000metres

1 hectometer (hm) =100metres
1 decameter (Dm) =10 metres
1 decimeter (dm) = 1/10 metres
1 centimeter (cm) = 1/100 metres
1 millimeter (mm) = 1/1000 metres

The following prefixes are often used when referring to length:

Mega – 1 000 000
Kilo – 1 000
Hecto – 100
Deca -10
Deci-1/10
Centi-1/100
Milli-1/1000
Micro-1/1 000 000

Significant figures
The accuracy with which we state or write a measurement may depend on its relative size. It would be
unrealistic to state the distance between towns A and B as 158.27 km. a more reasonable figure is 158
km.158.27km is the distance expressed to 5 significant figures and 158 km to 3 significant figures.

Example
Express each of the following numbers to 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 significant figures:
(a) 906 315
(b) 0.08564
(c) 40.0089
(d) 156 000

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Solution

number 5 s.f. 4s.f 3s.f 2s.f 1 s.f.

(a) 906 315 906 320 906 300 906 000 910 000 900 000
(b) 0.085641 0.085641 0.08564 0.0856 0.085 0.09
(c) 40.0089 40.009 40.01 40.0 40 40
(d) 156 000 156 000 156 000 156 000 160 000 200 000

The above example show how we would round off a measurement to a given number of significant figures
Zero may not be a significant. For example:
(i) 0.085 - zero is not significant therefore, 0.085 is a two- significant figure.
(ii) 2.30 – zero is significant. Therefore 2.30 is a three-significant figure.
(iii) 5 000 –zero may or may not be significant figure. Therefore, 5 000 to three significant
figure is 5 00 (zero after 5 is significant). To one significant figure is 5 000. Zero after 5 is
not significant.
(iv) 31.805 Or 305 – zero is significant, therefore 31.805 is five significant figure. 305 is three
significant figure.
Perimeter
The perimeter of a plane is the total length of its boundaries. Perimeter is a length and is therefore expressed
in the same units as length.

Square shapes
5cm

Its perimeter is 5+5+5+5= 2(5+5)

=2(10)
=20cm
Hence 5x4 = 20

So perimeter of a square = Sides x 4

Rectangular shapes
Figure12.2 is a rectangle of length 5cm and breadth 3cm.
5cm

3 cm

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Its perimeter is 5+3+5+3 =2(5+3)cm
=2x8
= 16cm
Hence perimeter of a rectangle p=2(L+ W)

Triangular shapes
To find the perimeter of a triangle add all the three sides.

c
a

b
Perimeter = (a + b + c) units, where a, b and c are the lengths of the sides of the triangle.

The circle
The circumference of a circle = 2 r or

Example
(a) Find the circumference of a circle of a radius 7cm.
(b) The circumference of a bicycle wheel is 140 cm. find its radius.
Solution
(a) C= πd
=22/7 x 7
=44 cm
(b) C=πd
=2πr
=2x22/7xr
=140 ÷44/7
=22.27 cm

Length of an arc
An arc of a circle is part of its circumference. Figure 12.10 (a) shows two arcs AMB and ANB. Arc AMB,
which is less than half the circumference of the circle, is called the minor arc, while arc ANB, which is
greater half of the circumference is called the major arc. An arc which is half the circumference of the circle
is called a semicircle.

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Example
An arc of a circle subtends an angle 60 at the centre of the circle. Find the length of the arc if the radius of
the circle is 42 cm. (π=22/7).
Solution
The length, l, of the arc is given by:
L =θ/360 x 2πr.
Θ=60, r=42 cm
Therefore, l =60/360 x2 x 22/7 x 42
= 44 cm

Example
The length of an arc of a circle is 62.8 cm. find the radius of the circle if the arc subtends an angle 144 at
the centre, (take π=3.142).

Solution
L =θ/360 x 2πr = 62.8 and θ= 144
Therefore,
R=
=24.98 cm

Example
Find the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc of length 11cm if the radius of the circle is 21cm.

Solution
L=θ/360 x 2 xπr =11 cm and r =21m
L=θ/360 x2x22/7x 21=11

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 Thus, θ=11x360x7 / 2x22x21

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

1.) Two coils which are made by winding copper wire of different gauges and length have the same
mass. The first coil is made by winding 270 metres of wire with cross sectional diameter 2.8mm
while the second coil is made by winding a certain length of wire with cross-sectional diameter
2.1mm. Find the length of wire in the second coil .
2. The figure below represents a model of a hut with HG = GF = 10cm and FB = 6cm. The four
slanting edges of the roof are each 12cm long.

Calculate
Length DF.
Angle VHF
The length of the projection of line VH on the plane EFGH.
The height of the model hut.
The length VH.
The angle DF makes with the plane ABCD.

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3. A square floor is fitted with rectangular tiles of perimeters 220 cm. each row (tile length wise)
carries 20 less tiles than each column (tiles breadth wise). If the length of the floor is 9.6 m.
Calculate:
a. The dimensions of the tiles
b. The number of tiles needed
c. The cost of fitting the tiles, if tiles are sold in dozens at sh. 1500 per dozen and the labour
cost is sh. 3000

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

AREA 75
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Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a.) State units of area
b.) Convert units of area from one form to another
c.) Calculate the area of a regular plane figure including circles
d.) Estimate the area of irregular plane figures by counting squares
e.) Calculate the surface area of cubes, cuboids and cylinders.
Content
a.) Units of area (cm , m , km , Ares, ha)
2 2 2

b.) Conversion of units of area

c.) Area of regular plane figures
d.) Area of irregular plane shapes
e.) Surface area of cubes, cuboids and cylinders

Introduction

Units of Areas
The area of a plane shape is the amount of the surface enclosed within its boundaries. It is normally
measured in square units. For example, a square of sides 5 cm has an area of
5 x 5 = 25 cm
A square of sides 1m has an area of 1m, while a square of side 1km has an area of 1km
Conversion of units of area
1 m² =1mx 1m
= 100 cm x 100 cm
= 10 000 cm²

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1 km ² = 1 km x 1 km
= 1 000 m x 1 000 m
=1 000 000 m²
1 are = 10 m x 10 m
=100 m²
1 hectare (ha) = 100 Ares
=10 000 m²

Area of a regular plane figures

Areas of rectangle

5cm

3 cm

Area, A =5x3 cm
=15
Hence, the area of the rectangle, A =L X W square units, where l is the length and b breadth.

Area of a triangle

H
Base
Area of a triangle
A =1/2bh square units

Area of parallelogram
Area =1/2bh +1/2bh
=bh square units

Note:
This formulae is also used for a rhombus

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Area of a trapezium
The figure below shows a trapezium in which the parallel sides are a units and b units, long. The
perpendicular distance between the two parallel sides is h units.
Area of a triangle ABD =1/2 ah square units
Area of triangle DBC = ½ bh square units
Therefore area of trapezium ABCD =1/2 ah +1/2 bh
= 1/2h (a + b) square units.
Thus, the area of a trapezium is given by a half the sum of the length of parallel sides multiplied by the
perpendicular distance between them.

That is, area of trapezium =

Area of a circle
The area A of a circle of radius r is given by: A =

The area of a sector

A sector is a region bounded by two radii and an arc.
Suppose we want to find the area of the shaded part in the figure below

The area of the whole circle is πr²

The whole circle subtends 360ͦat the centre.

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Therefore, 360ͦ corresponds to πr²
1ͦ corresponds to 1/360 xͦ πr²
60 ͦ corresponds to 60 ͦ/360ͦ x πr²
Hence, the area of a sector subtending an angle θ at the centre of the circle is given by

Example
Find the area of the sector of a circle of radius 3cm if the angle subtended at the centre is 140 (ͦ take π=22/7)

Solution
Area A of a sector is given by

Here, r =3 cm and θ =
Therefore, A=
= 11 cm²

Example
The area of a sector of a circle is 38.5 cm². Find the radius of the circle if the angle subtended at the centre
is (Take π=22/7)

Solution
From the formula a = θ/360 x πr², we get 90/360 x 22/7 x r² = 38.5
Therefore, r² =

Thus, r = 7

Example
The area of a circle radius 63 cm is 4158 cm². Calculate the angle subtended at the centre of the circle.
(Take π =22/7)
Using a =θ/360 x πr²,
Θ=
=

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Surface area of solids
Consider a cuboid ABCDEFGH shown in the figure below. If the cuboid is cut through a plane parallel to
the ends, the cut surface has the same shape and size as the end faces. PQRS is a plane. The plane is called
the cross-section of the cuboid

A solid with uniform cross-section is called a prism. The following are some of the prisms. The following
are some of the prisms.

The surface area of a prism is given by the sum of the area of the surfaces.

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The figure below shows a cuboid of length l, breath b and height h. its area is given by;
A=2lb+2bh+2hl
=2(lb. + bh +hl)
For a cube offside 2cm;
A =2(3x2²)
=24 cm²

Example
Find the surface area of a triangular prism shown below.

Area of the triangular surfaces = ½ x5x12 x2cm²

=60 cm²
Area of the rectangular surfaces=20 x13 +5 x 20 +12 x20
=260 + 100 + 240 = 600cm²
Therefore, the total surface area= (60+600) cm²
=660 cm²

Cylinder
A prism with a circular cross-section is called a cylinder, see the figure below.

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If you roll a piece of paper around the curved surface of a cylinder and open it out, you will get a rectangle
whose breath is the circumference and length is the height of the cylinder. The ends are two circles. The
surface area S of a cylinder with base and height h is therefore given by;
S=2πrh + 2πr²

Example
Find the surface area of a cylinder whose radius is 7.7 cm and height 12 cm.
Solution
S =2 π (7.7) x 12 + 2 π (7.7) cm²
=2 π (7.7) x 12 + (7.7) cm²
=2 x 7.7 π (12 + 7.7) cm²
=2 x 7.7 x π (19.7) cm²
=15.4π (19.7) cm²
=953.48 cm²

Area of irregular shapes

The area of irregular shape cannot be found accurately, but it can be estimated. As follows;
(i) Draw a grid of unit squares on the figure or copy the figure on such a grid, see the figure below

(ii) Count all the unit squares fully enclosed within the figure.
(iii) Count all partially enclosed unit squares and divide the total by two, i.e.., treat each one of them
as half of a unit square.
(iv) The sum of the numbers in (ii) and (ii) gives an estimate of the areas of the figure.
From the figure, the number of full squares is 9
Number of partial squares= 18
Total number of squares = 9 + 18/2
=18

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Approximate area = 18 sq. units.

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

1.) Calculate the area of the shaded region below, given that AC is an arc of a circle centre B.
AB=BC=14cm CD=8cm and angle ABD = 750 (4 mks)

A
14 cm

B 750

14 cm

C
8 cm
B

2.) The scale of a map is 1:50000. A lake on the map is 6.16cm2. find the actual area of the lake in
hactares.
(3mks)

3.) The figure below is a rhombus ABCD of sides 4cm. BD is an arc of circle centre C. Given that
ABC = 1380. Find the area of shaded region. (3mks)

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4.) The figure below sows the shape of Kamau’s farm with dimensions shown in meters

140

100

20 m

Find the area of Kamau’s farm in hectares (3mks)

80m
5.) In the figure below AB and AC are tangents to the circle centre O at B and C respectively,
the angle AOC = 600

Calculate
(a) The length of AC

6.) The figure below shows the floor of a hall. A part of this floor is in the shape of a rectangle of
length 20m and width 16m and the rest is a segment of a circle of radius 12m. Use the figure to
find:-

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 (a) The size of angle COD
(2mks)

(b) The area of figure DABCO (4mks)

(c) Area of sector ODC (2mks)

(d) Area of the floor of the house.

(2mks)

7.) The circle below whose area is 18.05cm2 circumscribes a triangle ABC where AB = 6.3cm, BC =
5.7cm and AC = 4.8cm. Find the area of the shaded part

8.) In the figure below, PQRS is a rectangle in which PS=10k cm and PQ = 6k cm. M and N are
midpoints of QR and RS respectively

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 a) Find the are of the shaded region (4 marks)
b) Given that the area of the triangle MNR = 30 cm2. find the dimensions of the rectangle
(2 marks)
c) Calculate the sizes of angles  and  giving your answer to 2 decimal places
(4 marks)
9.) The figure below shows two circles each of radius 10.5 cm with centres A and B. the circles
touch each other at T

Given that angle XAD =angle YBC = 1600 and lines XY, ATB and DC are parallel, calculate the area
of:
d) The minor sector AXTD (2 marks)
e) Figure AXYBCD (6marks)
f) The shaded region (2 marks)

10.) The floor of a room is in the shape of a rectangle 10.5 m long by 6 m wide. Square tiles of
length 30 cm are to be fitted onto the floor.

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 (a) Calculate the number of tiles needed for the floor.
(b) A dealer wishes to buy enough tiles for fifteen such rooms. The tiles are packed in cartons
each containing 20 tiles. The cost of each carton is Kshs. 800. Calculate
(i) the total cost of the tiles.
(ii) If in addition, the dealer spends Kshs. 2,000 and Kshs. 600 on transport and subsistence
respectively, at what price should he sell each carton in order to make a profit of 12.5%
(Give your answer to the nearest Kshs.)

11.) The figure below is a circle of radius 5cm. Points A, B and C are the vertices of the triangle

ABC in which ABC = 60o and ACB=50o which is in the circle. Calculate the area of ABC )
B

60o

50o
A C

12.) Mr.Wanyama has a plot that is in a triangular form. The plot measures 170m, 190m
and 210m, but the altitudes of the plot as well as the angles are not known. Find the area
of the plot in hectares

13.) Three sirens wail at intervals of thirty minutes, fifty minutes and thirty five minutes.
If they wail together at 7.18a.m on Monday, what time and day will they next wail together?

14.) A farmer decides to put two-thirds of his farm under crops. Of this, he put a quarter under maize
and four-fifths of the remainder under beans. The rest is planted with carrots.

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 If 0.9acres are under carrots, find the total area of the farm

CHAPTER FOURTEEN

VOLUME AND CAPACITY

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a.) State units of volume
b.) Convert units of volume from one form to another
c.) Calculate volume of cubes, cuboids and cylinders
d.) State units of capacity
e.) Convert units of capacity from one form to another
f.) Relate volume to capacity
g.) Solve problems involving volume and capacity.
Content
a.) Units of volume
b.) Conversion of units of volume
c.) Volume of cubes, cuboids and cylinders
d.) Units of capacity
e.) Conversion of units of capacity
f.) Relationship between volume and capacity
g.) Solving problems involving volume and capacity

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Introduction

Volume is the amount of space occupied by a solid object. The unit of volume is cubic units.
A cube of edge 1 cm has a volume of 1 cm x 1 cm x 1 cm =1 cm³.

Conversion of units of volume

A cube of side 1 m has a volume of 1 m³
But 1 m = 100 cm
1 m x 1 m x 1 m = 100 cm x 100 cm x 100 cm
Thus, 1 m = (0.01 x 0.01 x 0.01) m³
=0.000001m³
=1 x 10¯⁶m³
A cube side 1 cm has a volume of 1 cm³.
But 1 cm=10mm
1 cm x 1 cm x 1 cm = 10 mm x 10 mm x 10 mm
Thus, 1 cm³= 1000mm³

Volume of cubes, cuboids and cylinders

Cube
A cube is a solid having six plane square faces in which the angle between two adjacent faces is a right-
angle.
Volume of a cube= area of base x height
=l ²x l

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 =l³

Cuboid
A cuboid is a solid with six faces which are not necessarily square.
Volume of a cuboid = length x width x height
=a sq. units x h
= ah cubic units.

Cylinder
This is a solid with a circular base.
Volume of a cylinder = area of base x height
=πr² x h
=πr²h cubic units

Example
Find the volume of a cuboid of length 5 cm, breadth 3 cm and height 4 cm.

Solution
Area of its base = 5x4 cm²
Volume =5x4x3 cm³
= 60 cm³

Example
Find the volume of a solid whose cross-section is a right- angled triangle of base 4 cm, height 5 cm and
length 12 cm.

Solution
Area of cross-section =1/2 x4 x 5
=10 cm²
Therefore volume =10 x 12
=120 cm³

Example
Find the volume of a cylinder with radius 1.4 m and height 13 m.

Solution
Area of cross-section= 22/7 x 1.4 x 1.4
=6.16 m²
Volume = 6.16 x 13
=80.08 m³

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In general, volume v of a cylinder of radius r and length l given by v=πr²l

Capacity
Capacity is the ability of a container to hold fluids. The SI unit of capacity is litre (l)
Conversion of units to capacity
1 centiliter (cl)=10 millilitre (ml)
1 decilitre dl = 10 centilitre (cl)
1 litre (l) =10 decilitres (dl)
1 Decalitre (Dl) = 10 litres (l)
1 hectolitre (Hl) =10 decalitre( Dl)
1 kilolitre (kl) =10 hectolitres (Hl)
1 kilolitre (kl)= 1000 litres (l)
1 litre (l) =1000 millilitres (ml)

Relationship between volume and capacity

A cubed of an edge 10 cm holds 1 litre of liquid.
1 litre =10 cm x 10cm x 10cm
= 1 000 cm³
1 m³ =10⁶ cm³
1 m³ =10³ litres.

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

1. ) All the water is poured into a cylindrical container of circular radius 12cm. If the cylinder has height
45cm, calculate the surface area of the cylinder which is not in contact with water.
(4 marks)

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 2.) The British government hired two planes to airlift football fans to South Africa for the World cup
tournament. Each plane took 10 ½ hours to reach the destination.
Boeng 747 has carrying capacity of 300 people and consumes fuel at 120 litres per minute. It
makes 5 trips at full capacity. Boeng 740 has carrying capacity of 140 people and consumes fuel
at 200 litres per minute. It makes 8 trips at full capacity. If the government sponsored the fans one
way at the cost of 800 dollars per fan, calculate:

(a) The total number of fans airlifted to South Africa. (2mks)

(b) The total cost of fuel used if one litre costs 0.3 dollars.
(4mks)

(c) The total collection in dollars made by each plane. (2mks)

(d) The net profit made by each plane. (2mks)

3.) A rectangular water tank measures 2.6m by 4.8m at the base and has water to a height
of 3.2m. Find the volume of water in litres that is in the tank

4.) Three litres of water (density1g/cm3) is added to twelve litres of alcohol (density 0.8g/cm3.
What is the density of the mixture?

5.) A rectangular tank whose internal dimensions are 2.2m by 1.4m by 1.7m is three fifth full
of milk.
(a) Calculate the volume of milk in litres
(b) The milk is packed in small packets in the shape of a right pyramid with an equilateral base
triangle of sides 10cm. The vertical height of each packet is 13.6cm. Full packets obtained are sold at
shs.30 per packet. Calculate:
(i) The volume in cm3 of each packet to the nearest whole number
(ii) The number of full packets of milk
(iii) The amount of money realized from the sale of milk

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 6.) An 890kg culvert is made of a hollow cylindrical material with outer radius of 76cm and an inner
radius of 64cm. It crosses a road of width 3m, determine the density of the material ssused in its
construction in Kg/m3 correct to 1 decimal place.

CHAPTER FIFTEEN

MASSS WEIGHT AND DENSITY

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a.) Define mass
b.) State units of mass
c.) Convert units of mass from one form to another
d.) Define weight
e.) State units of weight
f.) Distinguish mass and weight
g.) Relate volume, mass and density.
Content
a.) Mass and units of mass
b.) Weight and units of weight
c.) Density
d.) Problem solving involving real life experiences on mass, volume, density and weight.

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Introduction
Mass
The mass of an object is the quantity of matter in it. Mass is constant quantity, wherever the object is, and
matter is anything that occupies space. The three states of matter are solid, liquid and gas.
The SI unit of mass is the kilogram. Other common units are tone, gram and milligram.
The following table shows units of mass and their equivalent in kilograms.

Weight
The weight of an object on earth is the pull of the earth on it. The weight of any object varies from one
place on the earth’s surface to the other. This is because the closure the object is to the centre of the earth,
the more the gravitational pull, hence the more its weight. For example, an object weighs more at sea level
then on top of a mountain.

Units of weight
The SI unit of weight is newton. The pull of the earth, sun and the moon on an object is called the force of
gravity due to the earth, sun and moon respectively. The force of gravity due to the earth on an object of
mass 1kg is approximately equal to 9.8N. The strength of the earth’s gravitational pull (symbol ‘g’) on an
object on the surface of the earth is about 9.8N/Kg.
Weight of an object = mass of an object x gravitation
Weight N =mass kg x g N/kg

Density
The density of a substance is the mass of a unit cube of the substance. A body of mass (m)kg and volume
(v) m³ has:
(i) Density (d) = mass (m)/ density (d)
(ii) Mass (m)= density (d) x volume (v)
(iii) Volume (v) = mass (m) / density (d)
Units of density
The SI units of density is kg/m³. the other common unit is g/cm³
1 g/cm³ = 1 000kg/m³

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Example
Find the mass of an ice cube of side 6 cm, if the density of the ice is 0.92 g/ cm³.

Solution
Volume of cube = 6x6x6 = 216 cm³
Mass = density x volume
=216 x 0.92
=198.72 g

Example
Find the volume of cork of mass 48 g. given that density of cork is 0.24 g/cm³

Solution
Volume = mass/density
=48/0.24
=200cm³

Example
The density of iron is 7.9 g/cm³. what is this density in kg/m³
Solution
1 g/cm³ = 1 000 kg/m³
7.9 g/cm³ =7.9 x 1000/1
= 7 900kg/m³

Example
A rectangular slab of glass measures 8 cm by 2 cm by 14 cm and has a mass of 610g. calculate the density
of the glass in kg/m³

Solution
Volume of the slab = 8x 2x14
=224 cm³
Mass of the slab = 610 g
Density = 610/244
= 2.5 x 1 000 kg = 25 000kg/m³

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

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 If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

1.) A squared brass plate is 2mm thick and has a mass of 1.05kg. The density of brass is 8.4g/cm.
Calculate the length of the plate in centimeters. (3mks)

2.) A sphere has a surface area 18cm2. Find its density if the sphere has a mass of 100g. (3mks)

3.) Nyahururu Municipal Council is to construct a floor of an open wholesale market whose area is
800m2. The floor is to be covered with a slab of uniform thickness of 200mm. In order to make the slab,
sand, cement and ballast are to be mixed such that their masses are in the ratio 3:2:3. The mass of dry slab
of volume 1m3 is 2000kg. Calculate

(a) (i) The volume of the slab

(2mks)

(ii) The mass of the dry slab.

(2mks)

(iii) The mass of cement to be used.

(2mks)

(b) If one bag of the cement is 50kg, find the number of bags to be purchased. (1mk)

(c) If a lorry carries 10 tonnes of ballast, calculate the number of lorries of ballast to be
purchased.
(3mks)

4.) A sphere has a surface area of 18.0cm2. Find its density if the sphere has a mass of 100 grammes.

(3 mks)

5.) A piece of metal has a volume of 20 cm3 and a mass of 300g. Calculate the density of the metal
in kg/m3.

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 6.) 2.5 litres of water density 1g/cm3 is added to 8 litres of alcohol density 0.8g/cm3. Calculate the
density of the mixture

CHAPTER TEN

TIME
Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a.) Convert units of time from one form to another
b.) Relate the 12 hour and 24 hour clock systems
c.) Read and interpret travel time-tables
d.) Solve problems involving travel time tables.
Content
a.) Units of time
b.) 12 hour and 24 hour clock systems
c.) Travel time-tables
d.) Problems involving travel time tables

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Introduction
Units of time
1 week = 7 days
1 day = 24 hours
1 hour = 60 minutes
1 minutes = 60 seconds

Example
How many hours are there in one week?

Solution
1 week = 7 days
1 day =24 hours
1 week = (7 x24) hours
=168 hours

Example
Covert 3h 45 min into minutes

Solution
1 h = 60 min

3 h = (3x60) min

3h 45min =((60x3) + 45) min

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 =(180+45) min

=225 min

Example
Express 4h 15 min in sec

Solution
1 hour = 60 min

1 min= 60 sec
4h 15 min=(4x60+15 ) min
=240+15 min
=255 min
=255 x 60 sec
=15 300 sec.

The 12 and the 24 hour systems

In the 12 hour system, time is counted from midnight. The time from midnight to midday is written as am
. while that from midday to midnight is written as pm.
In the 24 hour system, time is counted from midnight and expressed in hours.

Travel time table

Travel timetables shows the expected arrival and departure time for vehicles. Ships, aeroplanes, trains.

Example
The table below shows a timetable for a public service vehicle plying between two towns A and D via
towns B and C.

Town Arrival time Departure time

A 8.20 A.M
B 10.40 P.M 11.00 A.M
C 2.30 P.M 2.50 P.M
D 4.00 P.M

(a) What time does the vehicle leave town A?

(b) At what time does it arrive in town D?

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 (c) How long does it take to travel from town A to D.
(d) What time does the vehicle takes to travel from town C to D?
Solution
(a) 8.20 A.M
(b) 4.00 P.M
(c) Arrival time in town D was 4.00 p.m. it departure from town A was 8.20 a.m.
Time taken= (12.00-8.20 +4 h)
=3 h 40 min +4 h
= 7 h 40 min
(d) The vehicle arrived in town D at 4.00 p.m. it departed from town C at 2.50 p.m.
Time taken = 4.00-2.50
=1 h 10 min

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

1.) A van travelled from Kitale to Kisumu a distance of 160km. The average speed of the van for the
first 100km was 40km/h and the remaining part of the journey its average speed was 30km/h.
Calculate the average speed for the whole journey.
(3 mks)

2.) A watch which looses a half-minute every hour was set to read the correct time at 0545h on
Monday. Determine the time, in the 12 hour system, the watch will show on the following Friday at
1945h.

3.) The timetable below shows the departure and arrival time for a bus plying between two towns M
and R, 300km apart 0710982617

Town Arrival Departure

M 0830h

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 N 1000h 1020h

P 1310h 1340h
Q 1510h 1520h

R 1600h

(a) How long does the bus take to travel from town M to R?
(b) What is the average speed for the whole journey?

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

LINEAR EQUATIONS

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a.) solve linear equations in one unknown
b.) solve simultaneous linear equations by substitution and elimination
c.) Linear equations in one and two unknown.
Content
a.) Linear equations in one unknown

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 b.) Simultaneous linear equations
c.) Linear equations in one and two unknowns from given real life situations

Introduction

Linear equations are straight line equations involving one or two unknowns. In this chapter, we will deal
with the formation and solving of such equations consider the following cases.

Example
Solve for the unknowns in each of the following equations
3x + 4 = 10
–2=4
= 5/4

Solution
3x + 4 =10
3x + 4 – 4 = 10 – 4 (to make x the subject subtract 4 on both sides)
3x = 6
X=2

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–2=4
–2+2=4+2 (to make x the subject add 2 to both sides)
=6
X = 18

3x( = x3

P+ 5 =

4(p + 5) =
4p + 20 = 15
4p = -5
P=
=-1¼

Solving an equation with fractions or decimals, there is an option of clearing the fractions or decimals in
order to create a simpler equation involving whole numbers.
1. To clear fractions, multiply both sides of the equation (distributing to all terms) by the LCD of all
the fractions.
2. To clear decimals, multiply both sides of the equation (distributing to all terms) by the lowest
power of 10 that will make all decimals whole numbers.

Steps for Solving a Linear Equation in One Variable:

1. Simplify both sides of the equation.
2. Use the addition or subtraction properties of equality to collect the variable terms on one side of
the equation and the constant terms on the other.
3. Use the multiplication or division properties of equality to make the coefficient of the variable
term equal to 1.
4. Check your answer by substituting your solution into the original equation.
Note:
All other linear equations which have only one solution are called conditional.

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Example
Solve for the unknown in each in of the following equations

a.) - = 1/8
b.) =
c.)
Solution
a.) - = 1/8 x 24 ( multiply both sides by the L.C.M of 2 ,3 and 8)
−8 (x – 2) = 3
− 8x – 16 =3

4x = -25

b.) =(multiply both sides by the L.C.M of 2 5 and 4)

30y- 4 (14y -3) = 5 (y – 4)
-26 + 12 = 5y -20
31 y = 32

c.)

Problems leading to Linear equations

Equations are very useful in solving problems. The basic technique is to determine what quantity it is that
we are trying to find and make that the unknown. We then translate the problem into an equation and solve
it. You should always try to minimize the number of unknowns. For example, if we are told that a piece of
rope 8 metres long is cut in two and one piece is x metres, then we can write the remaining piece as (8 – x)
metres, rather than introducing a second unknown.

Word problems
Equations arise in everyday life. For example Mary bought a number of oranges from Anita’s kiosk. She
then went to Marks kiosk and bought the same number of oranges. Mark them gave her three more oranges.

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The oranges from the two kiosks were wrapped in different paper bags. On reaching her house, she found
that a quarter of the first Lot oranges and a fifth of the second were bad. If in total six oranges were bad,
find how many oranges she bought from Anita’s kiosk.

Solution
Let the number of oranges bought at Anita’s kiosk be x.
Then, the number of oranges obtained from Marks kiosk will be x +3.

Number of Bad oranges from Marks kiosk was.

Total number of Bad oranges is equal to =

Thus, = +
Multiply each term of the equation by 20 (L.C.M of 4 and 5) to get rid of the denominator.
=20 x
5x + 4 (x + 3) = 120
5x + 4x + 12 =120 (Removing brackets)
Subtracting 12 from both sides.
9x =108
X = 12
Thus, the number of oranges bought from Anita’s kiosk was 12.

Note:
If any operation is performed on one side of an equation,it must also be performed on the other side.

Example
Solve for x in the equation:

Solution
Eliminate the fractions by multiplying each term by 6 (L.C.M, of 2 and 3 ).
6x (
3(x + 3) – 2 (x – 4) = 24
(note the change in sigh when the bracket are removed)

Linear Equations in Two Unknowns

Many problems involve finding values of two or more unknowns. These are often linked via a number of
linear equations. For example, if I tell you that the sum of two numbers is 89 and their difference is 33, we
can let the larger number be x and the smaller one y and write the given information as a pair of equations:

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x + y = 89 (1)
x – Y = 33. (2)
These are called simultaneous equations since we seek values of x and y that makes both equations true
simultaneously. In this case, if we add the equations we obtain 2x = 122, so x = 61. We can then substitute
this value back into either equation, say the first, then 61 + y = 89 giving y = 28.

Example
The cost of two skirts and three blouses is sh 600.If the cost of one skirt and two blouses of the same
quality sh 350,find the cost of each item.

Solution
Let the cost of one skirt be x shillings and that of one blouse be y shillings. The cost of two skirts and
three blouses is 2x + 3y shillings.
The cost of one skirt and two blouses is x + 2y shillings.
So, 2x + 3y = 600……………….. (I)
X + 2y = 350 ……………………….. (II)
Multiplying equation (II) by 2 to get equation (III).
2x + 4y = 700 ……………… (III).
2x + 3y = 600…………………(I)
Subtracting equation (I) from (II), y = 100.
From equation (II),
X + 2y = 350 but y = 100
X + 200 = 350
X = 150
Thus the cost of one skirt is 150 shillings and that of a blouse is 100 shillings.
In solving the problem above, we reduced the equations from two unknowns to a single unknown in y by
eliminating. This is the elimination method of solving simultaneous equations.

Examples
a.)

b.)

c.)

Solutions
a.)

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Adding I to II
2a = 12
Subtracting II from I ;
2b = 2

b.)

Find the value of b

c.)

To eliminate (I) by 5 and (II) by 3 to get (III) and (IV) respectively and subtracting (IV) from (III);
d.)

2y = 6
Therefore y = 3
Substituting y = 3 in (I);
3x + 12 = 18
Therefore x =2
Note that the L.C.M of 3 and 5 is 15.
To eliminate y;
Multiplying (I) by 3, (II) by 2 to get (V) and (VI) and Subtracting (V) from (VI);

Subtracting x = 2 in (ii);
10 + 6y = 28
6y = 18
Therefore y = 3.

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Note;
 It is advisable to study the equation and decide which variable is easier to eliminate.
 It is necessary to check your solution by substituting into the original equations.

Solution by substitution

Taking equation (II) alone;

Subtracting 2y from both sides;

Substituting this value of x in equation;

2(350 – 2y) + 3y = 600
700 – 4y + 3y = 600
Y = 100
Substituting this value of y in equation;

This method of solving simultaneous equations is called the substitution method

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

1. A cloth dealer sold 3 shirts and 2 trousers for Kshs 840 and 4 shirts and 5 trousers for Kshs
1680 find the cost of 1 shirt and the cost of 1 trouser
2. Solve the simultaneous equations
2x – y = 3

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 x2 – xy = -4
3. The cost of 5 skirts and blouses is Kshs 1750. Mueni bought three of the skirts and one of the
blouses for Kshs 850. Find the cost of each item.
4. Akinyi bought three cups and four spoons for Kshs 324. Wanjiru bought five cups and
Fatuma bought two spoons of the same type as those bought by Akinyi, Wanjiku paid Kshs
228 more than Fatuma. Find the price of each cup and each spoon.
5. Mary has 21 coins whose total value is Kshs. 72. There are twice as many five shillings coins
as there are ten shilling coins. The rest one shillings coins. Find the number of ten shillings
coins that Mary has. ( 4 mks)
6. The mass of 6 similar art books and 4 similar biology books is 7.2 kg. The mass of 2 such art
books and 3 such biology books is 3.4 kg. Find the mass of one art book and the mass of one
biology book
7. Karani bought 4 pencils and 6 biros – pens for Kshs 66 and Tachora bought 2 pencils and 5
biro pens for Kshs 51.
(a) Find the price of each item
(b) Musoma spent Kshs. 228 to buy the same type of pencils and biro – pens if the number of
biro pens he bought were 4 more than the number of pencils, find the number of pencils
bought.
8. Solve the simultaneous equations below
2x – 3y = 5
-x + 2y = -3
9. The length of a room is 4 metres longer than its width. Find the length of the room if its area
is 32m2
10. Hadija and Kagendo bought the same types of pens and exercise books from the same types
of pens and exercise books from the same shop. Hadija bought 2 pens and 3 exercise books
for Kshs 78. Kagendo bought 3 pens and 4 exercise books for Kshs 108.
Calculate the cost of each item
11. In fourteen years time, a mother will be twice as old as her son. Four years ago, the sum of
their ages was 30 years. Find how old the mother was, when the son was born.
12. Three years ago Juma was three times as old as Ali. In two years time the sum of their ages
will be 62. Determine their ages.
13. Two pairs of trousers and three shirts costs a total of Kshs 390. Five such pairs of trousers
and two shirts cost a total of Kshs 810. Find the price of a pair of trousers and a shirt.
14. A shopkeeper sells two- types of pangas type x and type y. Twelve x pangas and five type y
pangas cost Kshs 1260, while nine type x pangas and fifteen type y pangas cost 1620.
Mugala bought eighteen type y pangas. How much did he pay for them?

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CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a.) State the currencies of different countries
b.) Convert currency from one form into another given the exchange rates
c.) Calculate profit and loss
d.) Express profit and loss as percentages
e.) Calculate discount and commission
f.) Express discount and commission as percentage.
Content
a.) Currency
b.) Current currency exchange rates
c.) Currency conversion
d.) Profit and loss
e.) Percentage profit and loss
f.) Discounts and commissions
g.) Percentage discounts and commissions

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Introduction
In commercial arithmetic we deal with calculations involving business transaction. The medium of any
business transactions is usually called the currency. The Kenya currency consist of a basic unit called a
shilling.100 cents are equivalent to one Kenyan shillings, while a Kenyan pound is equivalent to twenty
Kenya shillings.

Currency Exchange Rates

The Kenyan currency cannot be used for business transactions in other countries. To facilitate international
trade, many currencies have been given different values relative to another. These are known as exchange
rates.
The table below shows the exchange rates of major international currencies at the close of business on a
certain day in the year 2015.The buying and selling column represents the rates at which banks buy and sell
these currencies.

Note
The rates are not always fixed and they keep on charging. When changing the Kenyan currency to foreign
currency, the bank sells to you. Therefore, we use the selling column rate. Conversely when changing
foreign currency to Kenyan Currency, the bank buys from you, so we use the buying column rate.
Currency Buying Selling
DOLLAR 102.1472 102.3324
STG POUND 154.0278 154.3617
EURO 109.6072 109.8522
SA RAND 7.3332 7.3486
KES / USHS 33.0785 33.2363

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KES / TSHS 20.9123 21.0481
KES / RWF 7.2313 7.3423
AE DIRHAM 27.8073 27.8653
CAN $ 77.6018 77.7661
JAPNESE YEN 84.0234 84.1964
SAUDI RIYAL 27.2284 27.2959
CHINESE YUAN 16.0778 16.1082
AUSTRALIAN $ 71.8606 72.0420

Example
Convert each of the following currencies to its stated equivalent
a.) Us $305 to Ksh
b.) 530 Dirham to euro

Solution
a.) The bank buys Us 1 at Ksh 102.1472
Therefore US $ 305 = Ksh (102.1472 x 305)
= Ksh 31,154.896
= Ksh 31,154.00 (To the nearest shillings)
The bank buys 1 Dirham at Ksh 27.8073
Therefore 530 Dirham = Ksh (21.8073 x 530)
= Ksh 11, 557.00 (To the nearest shillings)
The bank sells 1 Euro at 109.8522
Therefore 530 Dirham = 11, 557/109.8522
= 105.170 Euros

Example
During a certain month, the exchange rates in a bank were as follows;

Buying (Ksh.) Selling (Ksh.)

1 US $ 91.65 91.80
1 Euro 103.75 103.93

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A tourist left Kenya to the United States with Ksh.1 000,000.On the airport he exchanged all the money to
dollars and spent 190 dollars on air ticket. While in US he spent 4500 dollars for upkeep and proceeded to
Europe. While in Europe he spent a total of 2000 Euros. How many Euros did he remain with? (3marks)

Solution
1000000
 10,893.25
91.80
10,893.25  (190  4500)  6203.25
6203.25  91.65  568,278.86
568,527.86
 5,470.30
103.93
5470.30  2000  3,470.30

Profit and Loss

The difference between the cost price and the selling price is either profit or loss. If the selling price is
greater than the cost price, the difference is a profit and if the selling price is less than the total cost price,
the difference is a loss.

Note
Selling price - cost price = profit
Percentage profit =
Cost price - selling price = loss
Percentage loss x 100

Example
Ollie bought a cow at sh 18000 and sold it at sh 21000.What percentage profit did he make?

Solution
Selling price = sh 21000
Cost price = sh 18000
Profit = sh (21000 -18, 000)
= sh 3000
Percentage profit x 100
= 16

Example
Johnny bought a dress at 3500 and later sold it at sh.2800.what percentage loss did he incurs?
Cost price = sh 3500
Selling price = sh 2800
Loss = sh (3500 - 2800)

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= Sh 700
Percentage loss x 100 = 20%

Discount
A shopkeeper may decide to sell an article at reduced price. The difference between the marked price and
the reduced price is referred to as the discount. The discount is usually expressed as a percentage of the
actual price.

Example
The price of an article is marked at sh 120.A discount is allowed and the article sold at sh 96.Calculate the
percentage discount.

Solution
Actual price = sh 120.00
Reduced price = sh 96.00
Discount = sh (120.00 – 96.00)
=sh 24
Percentage discount = 24/120 x 100
= sh 20%

Commission
A commission is an agreed rate of payment, usually expressed as a percentage, to an agent for his services.

Example
Mr. Neasa, a salesman in a soap industry, sold 250 pieces of toilet soap at sh 45.00 and 215 packets of
determining at sh 75.00 per packet. If he got a 5% commission on the sales, how much money did he get
as commission?

Solution
Sales for the toilet soap was 250 x 45 = sh 11250
Sales for the detergent was 215 x 75 = sh 16125
Commission =

Example
A salesman earns a basic salary of sh. 9,000 per month. In addition he is also paid a commission of 5% for
sales above sh. 15,000. In a certain month he sold goods worth sh. 120,000 at a discount of 2½%. Calculate
his total earnings that month. {3 marks}

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Solution

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

1. The cash prize of a television set is Kshs 25000. A customer paid a deposit of Kshs 3750. He
repaid the amount owing in 24 equal monthly installments. If he was charged simple interest
at the rate of 40% p.a how much was each installment?
2. Mr Ngeny borrowed Kshs 560,000 from a bank to buy a piece of land. He was required to repay
the loan with simple interest for a period of 48 months. The repayment amounted to Kshs
21,000 per month.
Calculate
(a) The interest paid to the bank
(b) The rate per annum of the simple interest
3. A car dealer charges 5% commission for selling a car. He received a commission of Kshs
17,500 for selling car. How much money did the owner receive from the sale of his car?
4. A company saleslady sold goods worth Kshs 240,000 from this sale she earned a commission
of Kshs 4,000
(a) Calculate the rate of commission
(b) If she sold good whose total marked price was Kshs 360,000 and allowed
a discount of 2% calculate the amount of commission she received.
5. A business woman bought two bags of maize at the same price per bag. She discovered that
one bag was of high quality and the other of low quality. On the high quality bag she made a

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 profit by selling at Kshs 1,040, whereas on the low quality bag she made a loss by selling at
Kshs 880. If the profit was three times the loss, calculate the buying price per bag.
6. A salesman gets a commission of 2. 4 % on sales up to Kshs 100,000. He gets an additional
commission of 1.5% on sales above this. Calculate the commission he gets on sales worth Kshs
280,000.
7. Three people Koris, Wangare and Hassan contributed money to start a business. Korir
contributed a quarter of the total amount and Wangare two fifths of the remainder.
Hassan’s contribution was one and a half times that of Koris. They borrowed the rest of the
money from the bank which was Kshs 60,000 less than Hassan’s contribution. Find the total
amount required to start the business.
8. A Kenyan tourist left Germany for Kenya through Switzerland. While in Switzerland he bought
a watch worth 52 deutsche Marks. Find the value of the watch in:
(a) Swiss Francs.
(b) Kenya Shillings
Use the exchange rtes below:
1 Swiss Franc = 1.28 Deutsche Marks.
1 Swiss Franc = 45.21 Kenya Shillings
9. A salesman earns a basic salary of Kshs. 9000 per month
In addition he is also paid a commission of 5% for sales above Kshs 15000
In a certain month he sold goods worth Kshs. 120, 000 at a discount of 2½ %. Calculate
his total earnings that month
10. In this question, mathematical table should not be used
A Kenyan bank buys and sells foreign currencies as shown below
Buying Selling
(In Kenya shillings) In Kenya Shillings
1 Hong Kong dollar 9.74 9.77
1 South African rand 12.03 12.11
A tourists arrived in Kenya with 105 000 Hong Kong dollars and changed the whole amount
to Kenyan shillings. While in Kenya, she pent Kshs 403 897 and changed the balance to South
African rand before leaving for South Africa. Calculate the amount, in South African rand that
she received.
11. A Kenyan businessman bought goods from Japan worth 2, 950 000 Japanese yen. On arrival
in Kenya custom duty of 20% was charged on the value of the goods.
If the exchange rates were as follows
1 US dollar = 118 Japanese Yen
1 US dollar = 76 Kenya shillings
Calculate the duty paid in Kenya shillings

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 12. Two businessmen jointly bought a minibus which could ferry 25 paying passengers when full.
The fare between two towns A and B was Kshs. 80 per passenger for one way. The minibus
made three round trips between the two towns daily. The cost of fuel was Kshs 1500 per day.
The driver and the conductor were paid daily allowances of Kshs 200 and Kshs 150
respectively.
A further Kshs 4000 per day was set aside for maintenance.
(a) One day the minibus was full on every trip.
(i) How much money was collected from the passengers that day?
(ii) How much was the net profit?
(b) On another day, the minibus was 80% on the average for the three round
trips. How much did each business get if the days profit was shared in the ratio 2:3?

13. A traveler had sterling pounds 918 with which he bought Kenya shillings at the rate of Kshs
84 per sterling pound. He did not spend the money as intended. Later, he used the Kenyan
shillings to buy sterling pound at the rate of Kshs. 85 per sterling pound. Calculate the amount
of money in sterling pounds lost in the whole transaction.

14. A commercial bank buys and sells Japanese Yen in Kenya shillings at the rates shown below
Buying 0.5024
Selling 0.5446
A Japanese tourist at the end of his tour of Kenya was left with Kshs. 30000 which he converted
to Japanese Yen through the commercial bank. How many Japanese Yen did he get?

15. In the month of January, an insurance salesman earned Kshs. 6750 which was commission of
4.5% of the premiums paid to the company.
(a) Calculate the premium paid to the company.
(b) In February the rate of commission was reduced by 662/3% and the
premiums reduced by 10% calculate the amount earned by the salesman in the month of
February

16. Akinyi, Bundi, Cura and Diba invested some money in a business in the ratio of 7:9:10:14
respectively. The business realized a profit of Kshs 46800. They shared 12% of the profit
equally and the remainder in the ratio of their contributions. Calculate the total amount of
money received by Diba.

17. A telephone bill includes Kshs 4320 for a local calls Kshs 3260 for trank calls and rental charge
Kshs 2080. A value added tax (V.A.T) is then charged at 15%, Find the total bill.

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 18. During a certain period. The exchange rates were as follows
1 sterling pound = Kshs 102.0
1 sterling pound = 1.7 us dollar
1 U.S dollar = Kshs 60.6
A school management intended to import textbooks worth Kshs 500,000 from UK. It changed
the money to sterling pounds. Later the management found out that the books the sterling
pounds to dollars. Unfortunately a financial crisis arose and the money had to be converted to
Kenya shillings. Calculate the total amount of money the management ended up with.

19. A fruiterer bought 144 pineapples at Kshs 100 for every six pineapples. She sold some of them
at Kshs 72 for every three and the rest at Kshs 60 for every two.
If she made a 65% profit, calculate the number of pineapples sold at Kshs 72 for every three.

CHAPTER TEN

COORDINATES AND GRAPHS

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a.) Draw and label the complete Cartesian plane
b.) Locate and plot points on the Cartesian plane
c.) Choose and use appropriate scale for a given data
d.) Make a table of values for a given linear relation
e.) Use values to draw a linear graph
f.) Solve simultaneous linear equations graphically
g.) Draw, read and interpret graphs.
Content
a.) Cartesian plane
b.) Cartesian co-ordinate
c.) Points on the Cartesian plane
d.) Choice of appropriate scale
e.) Table of values for a given linear relation
f.) Linear graphs
g.) Graphical solutions of simultaneous linear equations

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 h.) Interpretation of graphs.

Introduction
The position of a point in a plan is located using an ordered pair of numbers called co- ordinates and written
in the form (x, y).The first number represents the distance along the x axis and is called the x co-ordinates.
The second number represents distance along the y axis and it’s called the y coordinates.
The x and y coordinates intersects at (0, 0) a point called the origin. The system of locating points using
two axes at right angles is called Cartesian plan system.
To locate a point on the Cartesian plane, move along the x-axis to the number indicated by the x-coordinate
and then along the y-axis to the number indicated by the y-coordinate. For example, to locate the point with
coordinates (1, 2), move 1 unit to the right of the origin and then 2 units up

The Cartesian plan

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The Graph of a straight line
Consider the Linear equation y = 2x + 1.Some corresponding values of x and y are given in the table below.
If we plot the points we notice that they all lie in a straight line.

Solution
Step 1 write the rule y = 2x + 1
Step 2 Draw a table and choose simple x values

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Step 3 Use the rule to find each y value and enter then in the table.
E.g. when x = -2, y= 2 x -2 + 1 = -3.
when x = -1 ,y= 2 x -1 + 1 = -1
step 4 Draw a Cartesian plan and plot the points.
Step 5 Join the points to form a straight line and label the graph

Note:
 Two points are sufficient to determine a straight line, but we use the third point as a check.
 It is advisable to choose points which can be plotted easily.

Graphing solutions of simultaneous linear equation

The graphs of the form ax + by = c represents a straight line. When two linear equations are represented on
the same Cartesian plan, their graphs may or may not intersect. For example, in solving the simultaneous
equations x + 3y = 5 and 5x + 7y = 9 graphically, the graphs of the two equation are drawn.

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The two lines intersect at p (- 1, 2).The solution to the simultaneous equations is, therefore, x = - 1 and y =
2.

General graphs
Graphs are applied widely in science and many other fields. The graphs should theirfoe be drawn in a way
that convey information easily and accurately. The most of important technique of drawing graphs is the
choice of appropriate scale.
A good scale is one which uses most of the graph page and enables us to plot points and read off values
easily and accurately.
Avoid scales which:
 Give tiny graphs.
 Cannot accommodate all the data in the table.
It is good practice to:
 Label the axes clearly.
 Give the title of the graph.

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Revision Questions on the topic

1.) Copy and complete the table and hence draw the corresponding graph.
Y= 4x + 3
x -2 -1 0 1 2
y

2.) Draw the graph of the following:

a.) Y + 2x =5
b.) y/2 + 2x =5

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CHAPTER TWENTY

ANGLES AND PLANE FIGURES

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a.) Name and identify types of angles
b.) Solve problems involving angles on a straight line
c.) Solve problems involving angles at a point
d.) Solve problems involving angles on a transversal cutting parallel lines
e.) State angle properties of polygons
f.) Solve problems involving angle properties of polygons
g.) Apply the knowledge of angle properties to real life situations.
Content
a.) Types of angles
b.) Angles on a straight line
c.) Angles at a point
d.) Angles on a transversal (corresponding, alternate and allied angles)
e.) Angle properties of polygons
f.) Application to real life situations.

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Introduction
A flat surface such as the top of a table is called a plane. The intersection of any two straight lines is a point.

Representation of points and lines on a plane

A point is represented on a plane by a mark labelled by a capital letter. Through any two given points on a
plane, only one straight line can be drawn.

The line passes through points A and B and hence can be labelled line AB.

Types of Angles
When two lines meet, they form an angle at a point. The point where the angle is formed is called the vertex
of the angle. The symbol is used to denote an angle.

Acute angle. Reflex angle.

Obtuse angle Right angle

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To obtain the size of a reflex angle which cannot be read directly from a protractor ,the corresponding acute
or obtuse angle is subtracted from .If any two angles X and Y are such that:
i.) Angle X + angle Y =, the angles are said to be complementary angles. Each angle is then said
to be the complement of the other.
ii.) Angle X + angle Y =, the angles are said to be supplementary angles. Each angle is then said
to be the supplement of the other.

In the figure below < POQ and < ROQ are a pair of complementary angles.

In the figure below <DOF and < FOE are a pair of supplementary angles.

Angles on a straight line.

The below shows a number of angles with a common vertex 0.AOE is a straight line.

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Two angles on either side of a straight line and having a common vertex are referred to as adjacent angles.
In the figure above:
AOB is adjacent to BOC
BOC is adjacent to COD
COD is adjacent to DOE

Angles on a straight line add up to.

Angles at a point
Two intersecting straight lines form four angles having a common vertex. The angles which are on opposite
sides of the vertex are called vertically opposite angles. Consider the following:

In the figure above and AOC are adjacent angles on a straight line. We can now show that a = c as follows:
(Angles on a straight line)
(Angles on a straight line)

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So, a + b + c + d =+ =
This shows that angles at a point add up to

Angles on a transversal
A transversal is a line that cuts across two parallel lines.

In the above figure PQ and ST are parallel lines and RU cuts through them.RU is a transversal.
Name:
i.) Corresponding angles are Angles b and e, c and h, a and f, d and g.
ii.) Alternate angles a and c, f and h, b and d, e and g.
iii.) Co-interior or allied angles are f and d, c and e.
Angle properties of polygons
A polygon is a plan figure bordered by three or ore straight lines

Triangles
A triangle is a three sided plane figure. The sum of the three angles of a triangle add up to 18.triangles are
classified on the basis of either angles sides.
i.) A triangle in which one of the angles is is called a right angled triangle.
ii.) A scalene triangle is one in which all the sides and angles are not equal.
iii.) An isosceles triangle is one in which two sides are equal and the equal sides make equal angles
with the third side.
iv.) An equilateral triangle is one in which all the side are equal and all the angles are equal

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Exterior properties of a triangle

Angle DAB = p + q.
Similarly, Angle EBC = r + q and angle FCA = r + p.
But p + q + r =
But p + q + r =
Therefore angle DAB + angle EBC + angle FCA = 2p +2q + 2r
=2(p +q +r)
=2x
= 36
In general the sum of all the exterior angles of a triangle is .

Quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral is a four –sided plan figure. The interior angles of a quadrilateral add put .Quadrilaterals
are also classified in terms of sides and angles.

PROPERTIES OF QUADRILATERALS
Properties of Parallelograms
In a parallelogram,

1. The parallel sides are parallel by definition.

2. The opposite sides are congruent.
3. The opposite angles are congruent.
4. The diagonals bisect each other.
5. Any pair of consecutive angles are supplementary.

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Properties of Rectangles
In a rectangle,

1. All the properties of a parallelogram apply by definition.

2. All angles are right angles.
3. The diagonals are congruent.

Properties of a kite
1. Two disjoint pairs of consecutive sides are congruent by definition.
2. The diagonals are perpendicular.
3. One diagonal is the perpendicular bisector of the other.
4. One of the diagonals bisects a pair of opposite angles.
5. One pair of opposite angles are congruent.
Properties of Rhombuses
In a rhombus,

1. Allthe properties of a parallelogram apply by definition.

2. Two consecutive sides are congruent by definition.
3. All sides are congruent.
4. The diagonals bisect the angles.
5. The diagonals are perpendicular bisectors of each other.
6. The diagonals divide the rhombus into four congruent right triangles.
Properties of Squares
In a square,

1. All the properties of a rectangle apply by definition.

2. All the properties of a rhombus apply by definition.
3. The diagonals form four isosceles right triangles.

Properties of Isosceles Trapezoids

In an isosceles trapezoid,

1. The legs are congruent by definition.

2. The bases are parallel by definition.
3. The lower base angles are congruent.
4. The upper base angles are congruent.
5. The diagonals are congruent.
6. Any lower base angle is supplementary to any upper base angle.

Proving That a Quadrilateral is a Parallelogram

Any one of the following methods might be used to prove that a quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

1. If both pairs of opposite sides of a quadrilateral are parallel, then it is a parallelogram (definition).
2. If both pairs of opposite sides of a quadrilateral are congruent, then it is a parallelogram.

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 3. If one pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral are both parallel and congruent, then it is a
parallelogram.
4. If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then the it is a parallelogram.
5. If both pairs of opposite angles of a quadrilateral are congruent, then it is a parallelogram.

Proving That a Quadrilateral is a Rectangle

One can prove that a quadrilateral is a rectangle by first showing that it is a parallelogram and then using
either of the following methods to complete the proof.

1. If a parallelogram contains at least one right angle, then it is a rectangle (definition).

2. If the diagonals of a parallelogram are congruent, then it is a rectangle.
One can also show that a quadrilateral is a rectangle without first showing that it is a parallelogram.

3. If all four angles of a quadrilateral are right angles, then it is a rectangle.

Proving That a Quadrilateral is a Kite

To prove that a quadrilateral is a kite, either of the following methods can be used.

1. If two disjoint pairs of consecutive sides of a quadrilateral are congruent, then it is a kite
(definition).
2. If one of the diagonals of a quadrilateral is the perpendicular bisector of the other diagonal, then it
is a kite.

Proving That a Quadrilateral is a Rhombus

To prove that a quadrilateral is a rhombus, one may show that it is a parallelogram and then apply either of
the following methods.

1. If a parallelogram contains a pair of consecutive sides that are congruent, then it is a rhombus
(definition).
2. If either diagonal of a parallelogram bisects two angles of the parallelogram, then it is a rhombus.
One can also prove that a quadrilateral is a rhombus without first showing that it is a parallelogram.

3. If the diagonals of a quadrilateral are perpendicular bisectors of each other, then it is a rhombus.
Proving That a Quadrilateral is a Square
The following method can be used to prove that a quadrilateral is a square:
If a quadrilateral is both a rectangle and a rhombus, then it is a square.

Proving That a Trapezoid is an Isosceles Trapezoid

Any one of the following methods can be used to prove that a trapezoid is isosceles.

1. If the nonparallel sides of a trapezoid are congruent, then it is isosceles (definition).

2. If the lower or upper base angles of a trapezoid are congruent, then it is isosceles.
3. If the diagonals of a trapezoid are congruent, then it is isosceles.
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Note:
 If a polygon has n sides, then the sum of interior angles (2n -4) right angles.
 The sum of exterior angles of any polygon is.
 A triangle is said to be regular if all its sides and all its interior angles are equal.

The figure below is a hexagon with interior angles g ,h ,I ,k and I and exterior angles a, b ,c ,d ,e ,and f.

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!
Past KCSE Questions on the topic
In the figure below, lines AB and LM are parallel.

A B
y z

830
x
L 1300 M
Find the values of the angles marked x, y and z (3 mks)

CHAPTER ONE
GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS
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Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a.) Use a ruler and compasses only to:
 construct a perpendicular bisector of a line
 construct an angle bisector
 construct a perpendicular to a line from a given a point
 construct a perpendicular to a line through a given point on the line
 construct angles whose values are multiples of 7 ½ °
 construct parallel lines
 divide a line proportionally
b.) Use a ruler and a set square to construct parallel lines, divide a line proportionally, and to construct
perpendicular lines
c.) Construct a regular polygon using ruler and compasses only, and ruler, compasses and protractor
d.) Construct irregular polygons using a ruler, compasses and protractor.
Content
a.) Construction of lines and angles using a ruler and compasses only
b.) Construction of perpendicular and parallel lines using a ruler and a set square only
c.) Proportional division of a line
d.) Construction of regular polygons (up to a hexagon)
e.) Construction of irregular polygons (up to a hexagon).

Introduction
Construction Instruments
The following minimum set of instruments is required in order to construct good quality drawings:
o Two set squares.
o A protractor.
o A 15cm or 150 mm ruler
o Compass
o Protractor

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 o Divider
o An eraser/rubber
o Two pencils - a 2H and an HB, together with some sharpening device – Razor blade or shaper.
Construction of Perpendicular Lines
Perpendicular lines
The figure below shows PQ as a perpendicular bisector of a given line AB.

To obtain the perpendicular bisector PQ

 With A and B as centre, and using the same radius,draw arcs on either side of AB to intersect at P
and Q.
 Join P to Q.

The figure below shows PE, a perpendicular from a point P to a given line AB.

To construct a perpendicular line from a point

 To drop a perpendicular line from point P to AB.
 Set the compass point at P and strike an arc intersecting AB at C and D.
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  With C and D as centres and any radius larger than one-half of CD,
 Strike arcs intersecting at E.
 A line from P through E is perpendicular to AB.
To construct a perpendicular line from a point
 Using P as centre and any convenient radius,draw arcs to intersect the lines at A and B.
 Using A as centre and a radius whose measure is greater than AP,draw an arc above the line.
 Using B as the centre and the same radius,draw an arc to interact the one in (ii) at point Q.
 Using a ruler ,draw PQ.

FIGUR 21.4

Construction of perpendicular lines using a set square.

Two edges of a set square are perpendicular. They can be used to draw perpendicular lines. When one of
the edges is put along a line, a line drawn along the other one is perpendicular to the given line.

To construct a perpendicular from a point p to a line

 Place a ruler along the line.
 Place one of the edges of a set square which form a right angle along the ruler.
 Slide the set square along the ruler until the other edge reaches p.
 Hold the set square firmly and draw the line through P to meet the line perpendicularly.

Construction of Angles using a Ruler and a pair of compass only

The basic angle from which all the others can be derived from is the

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Construction of an Angle of
 Let A be the apex of the angle
 With centre A draw an arc BC using a suitable radius.
 With b as the centre draw another arc to intersect arc BC at D.
 Draw a line AE through D. The angle EAC is
Construction of an Angle of
 Let A be the apex of the angle.
 With centre A draw an arc BC of large radius.
 Draw an arc on BC using a suitable radius and mark it D.
 Using the same radius and point D as the centre draw an arc E.
 BD and DE are of the same radius.

 With centre D draw any arc F.

 With centre E draw an arc equal in radius to DF.
 Join AF with a straight line. Angle BAF is

Construction of an Angle of
Draw AB and AC at right angles to each other.With centre A and with large radius ,draw an arc to cut AB
at D and and AC at E.With centres E and D draw arcs of equal radius to intersect at Draw a straight line
from A through Angle BAF is

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Construction of angles of multiple of 7
The bisection of angle produces and the successive bisection of this angle produces which is bisected to
produce as shown below.

 Draw AB and AC at to each other as shown above.

 With centre A, and a large radius, draw an arc to cut AB at E and AC at D.
 With centres E and D draw arcs of equal radius to intersect at F.
 Draw a line from A through F.
 Angle CAF is half.
To construct
 Draw AC and AF at to each other as described above.
 With centres G and D draw arcs of equal radius to intersect at H
 Draw a line from A through H
 Angle CAH is.

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  With centres J and D a further bisection can be made to give
Construction of parallel lines
To construct a line through a given point and parallel to a given line, we may use a ruler and a pair of
compass only, or a ruler and a set square.

Using a ruler and a pair of compass only

Parallelogram method
The line EP parallel to AC is constructed as follows:

 With X as the centre and radius PQ, draw an arc.

 With Q as the centre and radius PX, draw another arc to cut the first arc at R.
 Join X to R.
Proportional Division of lines
Lines can be proportionately divided into a given number of equal parts by use of parallel lines.

To divide line AB
 Divide line AB into ten equal parts.

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  Through b, draw a line CB of any convenient length at a suitable angle with AB.
 Using a pair of compasses, mark off,along BC ,ten equal intervals as shown above.
 Join C to A.By using a set square and a ruler, draw lines parallel to CA.
 The line is therefore divided ten equal parts or intervals.

Construction of Regular Polygons

A polygon is regular if all its sides and angles are equal ,otherwise it is irregular.

Note:
For a polygon of n sides,the sum of interior angles is ( 2n -4 ) right angles.The size of each interior angle
of the regular polygon is therefore equal to( .
The sum of exterior angles of any polygon is .Each exterior angle of a regular polygon is therefore equal
to.

Construction of a regular Triangle

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Construction of a regular Quadrilateral

Construction of a regular pentagon.

To construct a regular pentagon ABCD of sides 4 cm.

Each of the interior angles =

 Draw a line AB = 4 cm long.

 Draw angle ABC = and BC =4 cm
 Use the same method to locate points D and

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Note;
Use the same procedure to construct other points.

Construction of irregular polygons

Construction of triangles
To construct a triangle given the length of its sides
 Draw a line and mark a point A on it.
 On the line mark off with a pair of compass a point B,3 cm from A.
 With B as the centre and radius 5 cm, draw an arc
 With A as the centre and radius 7 cm,draw another arc to intersect the arc in (iii) at C.Join A to C
and B to C.
To construct a triangle, given the siz of two angles and length of one side.
Construct a triangle ABC in which < BAC = , < ABC == and BC = 4 cm.The sketch is shown below.
 Draw a line and mark a point B on it.
 Mark off a point C on the line, 4 cm from B.
 Using a protractor, measure an angle of = and = at B and C respectively.
To construct a triangle given two sides and one angle.
Given the lengths of two sides and the size of the included angle. Construct a triangle ABC, in which AB
= 4 cm,BC =5 cm and < ABC =.Draw a sketch as shown below.
 Draw a line BC = 5 cm along
 Measure an angle of = at B and mark off a point A, 4 cm from B.
 Join A to C.

To construct a trapezium.
The construction of a trapezium ABCD with AB = 8 cm ,BC = 5 cm ,CD = 4cm and angle ABC = and
AB = 8 cm
 Draw a line AB = 8 cm.
 Construct an Angle of = at B.
 Using B as the centre and radius of 5 cm, mark an arc to insect the line in (ii) at C.
 Through C , draw a line parallel to AB

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  Using C as the centre and radius of 4 cm,Mark an arc to intersect the line in (iv) at D.
 Join D to A to form the trapezium.
End of topic
Did you understand everything?
If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

1. Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only,
a) Construct a triangle ABC in which AB = 9cm, AC = 6cm and angle BAC = 37½0
a) Drop a perpendicular from C to meet AB at D. Measure CD and hence find the area of the
triangle ABC
b) Point E divides BC in the ratio 2:3. Using a ruler and Set Square only, determine point E.
Measure AE.
2.
X
B
A

On the diagram, construct a circle to touch line AB at X and passes through the point C.
(3 mks)
3. Using ruler and pair of compasses only for constructions in this question.
(a) Construct triangle ABC such that AB=AC=5.4cm and angle ABC=300. Measure BC
(4 mks)
(b) On the diagram above, a point P is always on the same side of BC as A. Draw the
locus of P such that angle BAC is twice angle BPC (2 mks)
(c) Drop a perpendicular from A to meet BC at D. Measure AD (2 mks)
(d) Determine the locus Q on the same side of BC as A such that the area of triangle
BQC = 9.4cm2 (2
mks)

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4. (a) Without using a protractor or set square, construct a triangle ABC in which AB = 4cm,
BC = 6cm and ABC = 67½0. Take AB as the base. (3mks)
Measure AC.
(b) Draw a triangle A1BC1 which is indirectly congruent to triangle ABC. (3mks)

5. Construct triangle ABC in which AB = 4.4 cm, BC = 6.4 cm and AC = 7.4 cm. Construct an
escribed circle opposite angle ACB (5 mks)
(a) Measure the radius of the circle (1 mk)
(b) Measure the acute angle subtended at the centre of the circle by AB (1 mk)
(c) A point P moves such that it is always outside the circle but within triangle AOB, where O is
the centre of the escribed circle. Show by shading the region within which P lies.
(3 mks)
6. (a) Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only, construct a parallelogram PQRS in which PQ =
8cm, QR = 6cm and  PQR = 1500 (3 mks)
(b) Drop a perpendicular from S to meet PQ at B. Measure SB and hence calculate the area of the
parallelogram. (5 mks)
(c) Mark a point A on BS produced such that the area of triangle APQ is equal to three quarters
the area of the parallelogram (1 mk)
(d) Determine the height of the triangle. (1 mk)
7. Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only, construct triangle ABC in which AB = 6cm, BC =
8cm and angle ABC = 45o. Drop a perpendicular from A to BC at M. Measure AM and AC
(4mks)
8. a) Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only to construct a trapezium ABCD
such that AB  12cm , DAB  60 0 , ABC  75 0 and AD  7cm (5mks)
b)From the point D drop a perpendicular to the line AB to meet the line at E. measure DE hence
calculate the area of the trapezium (5mks)
9. Using a pair of compasses and ruler only;
(a) Construct triangle ABC such that AB = 8cm, BC = 6cm and angle ABC = 300.(3 marks)
(b) Measure the length of AC (1 mark)
(c) Draw a circle that touches the vertices A,B and C. (2 marks)
(d) Measure the radius of the circle (1 mark)
(e) Hence or otherwise, calculate the area of the circle outside the triangle. (3 marks)
10. Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only, construct the locus of a point P such that angle APB =
600 on the line AB = 5cm. (4mks)

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 A B
11. Using a set square, ruler and pair of compases divide the given line into 5 equal portions. (3mks)

12. Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only, draw a parallelogram ABCD, such that angle DAB =
750. Length AB = 6.0cm and BC = 4.0cm from point D, drop a perpendicular to meet line AB at
N
a) Measure length DN
b) Find the area of the parallelogram (10 mks)

13. Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only, draw a parallelogram ABCD in which AB = 6cm, BC
= 4cm and angle BAD = 60o. By construction, determine the perpendicular distance betweenthe lines AB
and CD

14. Without using a protractor, draw a triangle ABC where CAB = 30o, AC = 3.5cm and
AB = 6cm. measure BC

15. (a) Using a ruler and a pair of compass only, construct a triangle ABC in which
angle ABC =37.5o, BC =7cm and BA = 14cm
(b) Drop a perpendicular from A to BC produced and measure its height
(c) Use your height in (b) to find the area of the triangle ABC
(d) Use construction to find the radius of an inscribed circle of triangle ABC

16. In this question use a pair of compasses and a ruler only

a) Construct triangle PQR such that PQ = 6 cm, QR = 8 cm and <PQR = 135°
b) Construct the height of triangle PQR in (a) above, taking QR as the base

17. On the line AC shown below, point B lies above the line such that BAC = 52.5o and]
AB = 4.2cm. (Use a ruler and a pair of compasses for this question)

A C
(a) Construct BAC and mark point B
(b) Drop a perpendicular from B to meet the line AC at point F . Measure BF

CHAPTER TWENTY TW0

SCALE DRAWING 143

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Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a.) Interpret a given scale
b.) Choose and use an appropriate scale
c.) Draw suitable sketches from given information
d.) State the bearing of one point from another
e.) Locate a point using bearing and distance
f.) Determine angles of elevation and depression
g.) Solve problems involving bearings elevations and scale drawing
h.) Apply scale drawing in simple surveying.
Content
a.) Types of scales
b.) Choice of scales
c.) Sketching from given information and scale drawing
d.) Bearings
e.) Bearings, distance and locating points
f.) Angles of elevation and depression
g.) Problems involving bearings, scale drawing, angles of elevation and depression
h.) Simple surveying techniques.

Introduction
The scale
The ratio of the distance on a map to the actual distance on the ground is called the scale of the map. The
ratio can be in statement form e.g. 50 cm represents 50,000 cm or as a representative fraction (R.F), 1:
5,000,000 is written as.

Example
The scale of a map is given in a statement as 1 cm represents 4 km. convert this to a representative fraction
(R.F).

Solution
One cm represents 4 x 100,000 cm. 1 cm represents 400, 000
Therefore, the ratio is 1: 400,000 and the R.F is

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Example
The scale of a map is given as 1:250,000.Write this as a statement.

Solution
1:250,000 means 1 cm on the map represents 250,000 cm on the ground. Therefore, 1 cm represents
I.e. 1 cm represents 2.5 km.

Scale Diagram
When during using scale, one should be careful in choosing the right scale, so that the drawing fits on the
paper without much details being left.

Bearing and Distances

Direction is always found using a compass point.

A compass has eight points as show above. The four main points of the compass are North, South, East,
and West. The other points are secondary points and they include North East (NE), South East (SE), South
West (SW) and North West (NW).Each angle formed at the centre of the compass is the angle between N
and E is.

Compass Bearing
When the direction of a place from another is given in degrees and in terms of four main points of a compass.
E.g. N, then the direction is said to be given in compass bearing. Compass bearing is measured either
clockwise or anticlockwise from North or south and the angle is acute.

True bearing
North East direction, written as can be given in three figures as measured clockwise from True North. This
three- figure bearing is called the true bearing.
The true bearings due north is given as.Due south East as and due North West as.

Example
From town P, a town Q is 60km away on a bearing South 80º east. A third town R is 100km from P on the
bearing South 40º west. A cyclist travelling at 20km/h leaves P for Q. He stays at Q for one hour
and then continues to R. He stays at R for 1½ hrs. and then returns directly to P.
(a) Calculate the distance of Q from R.

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P² = 100² + 60² - 2(100) (60) Cos 120
P² = 13600 – 12000 Cos 120
P² = 19600
P = 140km

(b) Calculate the bearing of R from Q.

140 100
 M1
Sin 120 Sin Q

100 Sin 120

Sin Q  M1
140
= 38.2° A1
Bearing 270 – 38.2 = 241.8 B1

(c) What is the time taken for the whole round trip?

60
Time from P to R   3hrs
20

140 B1 for all three

Time from Q to R   7 hrs correct
20
100
From R to P   5hrs
20
Taken travelling = 3 + 7 + 5 M1 
= 15hrs

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Example
A port B is on a bearing 080o from a port A and a distance of 95 km. A Submarine is stationed at a port D,
which is on a bearing of 200o from A, and a distance of 124 km from B. A ship leaves B and moves directly
Southwards to an Island P, which is on a bearing of 140o from A. The Submarine at D on realizing that the
ship was heading to the Island P, decides to head straight for the Island to intercept the ship. Using a scale
of 1 cm to represent 10 km, make a scale drawing showing the relative positions of A, B, D and P.
{4 marks}

Hence find:
b) The distance from A to D. {2 marks}

c) The bearing o the Submarine from the ship when the ship was setting off from B. {1
mark}

d) The bearing of the Island P from D.

{1 mark}
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e) The distance the Submarine had to cover to reach the Island P {2 marks}

Angle of Elevation and Depression

Angle of Elevation:
The angle above the horizontal that an observer must look to see an object
that is higher than the observer. Example, a man looking at a bird.

Angle of Depression:
The angle below horizontal that an observer must look to see an object that
is lower than the observer. Example, a bird looking down at a bug.

Angles of depression and elevation can be measured using an instrument

called clinometer
To find the heights or the lengths we can use scale drawing.

Simple survey methods

This involves taking field measurements of the area so that a map of the area can be drawn to scale. Pieces
of land are usually surveyed in order to:
 Fix boundaries
 For town planning
 Road construction
 Water supplies
 Mineral development

Areas of irregular shapes

Areas of irregular shape can be found by subdividing them into convenient geometrical shapes e.g.
triangles, rectangles or trapezia.

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Example
The area in hectares of the field can be found by the help of a base line and offsets as shown.

Fig 22.26
XY is the base line 360 m.SM,RP and QN are the offsets.
Taking X as the starting point of the survey,the information can be entred in a field book as follows.

The sketch is as follows:

Using a suitable scale.

The area of the separate parts is found then combined.

Area of:
Triangle XPR is ½ x180 x 90 = 8100
Triangle PRY is ½ x180 x 90 = 8100
Triangle XSM is ½ x120 x 60 = 3600
Triangle QNY is ½ x120 x 180 = 10800

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Trapezium SQNM = ½(QN + SM) x SQ
½ (180 + 60) x 120
= 14400
Total area = 8100 + 8100 + 3600 + 10800 + 14400 = 45000

End of topic
Did you understand everything?
If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

1. A point B is on a bearing of 0800 from a port A and at a distance of 95 km. A submarine is stationed
at a port D, which is on a bearing of 2000 from AM and a distance of 124 km from B.
A ship leaves B and moves directly southwards to an island P, which is on a bearing of 140 from A.
The submarine at D on realizing that the ship was heading fro the island P, decides to head straight
for the island to intercept the ship
Using a scale 0f 1 cm to represent 10 km, make a scale drawing showing the relative positions of A,
B, D, P.
Hence find
(i) The distance from A to D
(ii) The bearing of the submarine from the ship was setting off from B
(iii) The bearing of the island P from D
(iv) The distance the submarine had to cover to reach the island P
2. Four towns R, T, K and G are such that T is 84 km directly to the north R, and K is on a bearing of
2950 from R at a distance of 60 km. G is on a bearing of 3400 from K and a distance of 30 km. Using
a scale of 1 cm to represent 10 km, make an accurate scale drawing to show the relative positions
of the town.
Find

(a) The distance and the bearing of T from K

(b) The distance and the bearing G from T
(c) The bearing of R from G

3. Two aeroplanes, S and T leave airports A at the same time. S flies on a bearing of 060 at 750
km/h while T flies on a bearing of 2100 at 900km/h.

(a) Using a suitable scale, draw a diagram to show the positions of the aeroplane after two
hours.
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 (b) Use your diagram to determine

(i) The actual distance between the two aeroplanes

(ii) The bearing of T from S

(iii) The bearing of S from T

4. A point A is directly below a window. Another point B is 15 m from A and at the same horizontal
level. From B angle of elevation of the top of the bottom of the window is 300 and the angle of
elevation of the top of the window is 350. Calculate the vertical distance.
(a) From A to the bottom of the window
(b) From the bottom to top of the window
4. Find by calculation the sum of all the interior angles in the figure ABCDEFGHI below

6. Shopping centers X, Y and Z are such that Y is 12 km south of X and Z is 15 km from X. Z is on

a bearing of 3300 from Y. Find the bearing of Z from X.
7. An electric pylon is 30m high. A point S on the top of the pylon is vertically above another point
R on the ground. Points A and B are on the same horizontal ground as R. Point A due south of
the pylon and the angle of elevation of S from A is 260. Point B is due west of the pylon and the
angle of elevation of S from B is 320
Find the
(a) Distance from A and B
(b) Bearing of B from A
8. The figure below is a polygon in which AB = CD = FA = 12cm BC = EF = 4cm
and BAF =- CDE = 1200. AD is a line of symmetry.

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 Find the area of the polygon.
9. The figure below shows a triangle ABC

a) Using a ruler and a pair of compasses, determine a point D on the line BC

such that BD:DC = 1:2.

b) Find the area of triangle ABD, given that AB = AC.

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10. A boat at point x is 200 m to the south of point Y. The boat sails X to another
point Z. Point Z is 200m on a bearing of 3100 from X, Y and Z are on the same horizontal plane.
(a) Calculate the bearing and the distance of Z from Y
(b) W is the point on the path of the boat nearest to Y.
Calculate the distance WY
(c) A vertical tower stands at point Y. The angle of point X from the top of the tower is 60
calculate the angle of elevation of the top of the tower from W.
11. The figure below shows a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = 8 cm, DC = 12 cm,  BAD = 450,
 CBD = 900 and BCD = 300.

Find:
(a) The length of BD
(b) The size of the angle A D B
12. In the figure below, ABCDE is a regular pentagon and ABF is an equilateral triangle

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Find the size of

a)  ADE
b)  AEF
c)  DAF
13. In this question use a pair of compasses and a ruler only

(a) construct triangle ABC such that AB = 6 cm, BC = 8cm and ABC 1350
(2 marks)
(b) Construct the height of triangle ABC in a) above taking BC as the base
(1 mark)
14. The size of an interior angle of a regular polygon is 3x0 while its exterior angle is (x- 20)0. Find
the number of sides of the polygon
15. Points L and M are equidistant from another point K. The bearing of L from K is 3300. The
bearing of M from K is 2200.
Calculate the bearing of M from L
16. Four points B,C,Q and D lie on the same plane point B is the 42 km due south- west of town Q.
Point C is 50 km on a bearing of 5600 from Q. Point D is equidistant from B, Q and C.
(a) Using the scale 1 cm represents 10 km, construct a diagram showing the position of B, C,
Q and D
(b) Determine the
(i) Distance between B and C
(ii) Bearing D from B

17. Two aeroplanes P and Q, leave an airport at the same time flies on a bearing of 2400 at 900km/hr
while Q flies due East at 750 km/hr
(a) Using a scale of 1v cm drawing to show the positions of the aeroplanes after 40 minutes.
(b) Use the scale drawing to find the distance between the two aeroplane after 40 minutes
(c) Determine the bearing of
(i) P from Q ans 2540
(ii) Q from P ans 740

18. A port B is no a bearing of 080 from a port A and at a distance of 95 km. A submarine is
stationed port D which is on a bearing of 2000 from A, and a distance of 124 km from B.
A ship leaves B and moves directly southwards to an island P, which is on a bearing of 1400 from
A. The submarine at D on realizing that the ship was heading for the island P decides to head
straight for the island to intercept the ship.
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 Using a scale of 1 cm to represent 10 km, make a scale drawing showing the relative position of
A, B D and P.
Hence find:
(i) The distance from A and D
(ii) The bearing of the submarine from the ship when the ship was setting off from B
(iii) The baring of the island P from D
(iv) The distance the submarine had to cover to reach the island

19. Four towns R, T, K and G are such that T is 84 km directly to the north R and K is on a bearing of
2950 from R at a distance of 60 km. G is on a bearing of 3400 from K and a distance of 30 km.
Using a scale of 1 cm to represent 10 km, make an acute scale drawing to show the relative
positions of the towns.
Find
(a) The distance and bearing of T from K
(b) The bearing of R from G

20. In the figure below, ABCDE is a regular pentagon and M is the midpoint of AB. DM intersects
EB at N. (T7)

Find the size of

(a)  BAE

(b)  BED

(c)  BNM

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21. Use a ruler and compasses in this question. Draw a parallelogram ABCD in which AB = 8cm, BC
= 6 cm and BAD = 75. By construction, determine the perpendicular distance between AB and
CD.

22. The interior angles of the hexagon are 2x0, ½ x0, x + 400, 1100, 1300 and 1600. Find the value of
the smallest angle.

23. The size of an interior angle of a regular polygon is 1560. Find the number of sides of the
polygon.

CHAPTER TWENTY THREE

COMMON SOLIDS

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a.) Identify and sketch common solids
b.) Identify vertices, edges and faces of common solids
c.) State the geometric properties of common solids
d.) Draw nets of solids accurately
e.) Make models of solids from nets
f.) Calculate surface area of solids from nets
Content
a.) Common solids (cubes, cuboids, pyramids, prisms, cones, spheres, cylinders etc)
b.) Vertices, edges and faces of common solids.
c.) Geometric properties of common solids.
d.) Nets of solids.
e.) Models of solids from nets.
f.) Surface area of solids from nets (include cubes, cuboids, cones, pyramids prisms)

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Introduction
A solid is an object which occupies space and has a definite or fixed shape. Solids are either regular or
irregular.

Note:
 Intersections of faces are called edges.

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  The point where three or more
edges meet is called a vertex.

Sketching solids
To draw a reasonable sketch of a solid on
a plan paper,the following ideas are hepful:

Use of isometric projections

In this method the following points should be obtained:
 Each edge should be drawn to the correct length.
 All rectangular faces must be drawn as parallelograms.
 Horizontal and vertical edges must be drawn accurately to scale.
 The base edges are drawn at an angle with the horizontal lines.
 Parallel lines are drawn parallel.
Examples
a.) Cube net

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 b.) Cuboid net

c.) Triangular prism net

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 d.) Pentagonal prism

e.) Square base pyramid

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 f.) Cylinder net

g.) Cone net

Teache
Co

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Cone net
h.) Hexagonal prism

i.) Tetrahedron

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 j.) Octahedron

k.) Dodecagon

Example
An ant moved from Y to X the midpoint of RS through P in the right pyramid below

Y
15cm

P S
8cm O X
QO
R
Draw the net of the pyramid showing the path of the ant hence find the distance it moved.

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Solution

Distance=15+ (144  16)

=27.649cm

Example
Draw the net of the solid below.

H 1c
G
m
E J
F C 1cm
2.5c

I B
m

D 3cm
3cm
A

Solution

H G
B1 Scale drawing
J

G H C B J G
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 B1 Correct labeling

Correct
measurement of
B1
GJ and FI

End
of
topic
Did you understand everything?
If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

1. The figure below shows a net of a prism whose cross – section is an equilateral triangle.

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a) Sketch the prism
b) State the number of planes of symmetry of the prism.
2. The figure below represents a square based solid with a path marked on it.

Sketch and label the net of the solid.

3. The figure below represents below represents a prism of length 7 cm

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 AB = AE = CD = 2 cm and BC – ED =
1 cm

Draw the net of the prism ( 3 marks)

4. The diagram below represents a right pyramid on a square base of side 3 cm. The slant of the pyramid
is 4 cm.

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 (a) Draw a net of the pyramid ( 2 marks)
(b) On the net drawn, measure the height of a triangular face from the top of
the Pyramid ( 1 mark)
5. (a) Draw a regular pentagon of side 4 cm ( 1 mark)
(b) On the diagram drawn, construct a circle which touches all the sides of the pentagon
( 2 marks)

6. The figure below shows a solid regular tetrapack of sides 6 cm

(a) Draw a net of the solid

(b) Find the surface area of the solid

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7. The figure below shows a solid made by pasting two equal regular tetrahedral

(a) Draw a net of the solid

(b) If each face is an equilateral triangle of side 5cm, find the surface area of the solid.

8(a) Sketch the net of the prism shown below

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 (b) Find the surface area of the solid

CHAPTER TWENTY FOUR

CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS
Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
a) Find the cube of a number by multiplication
b) Find the cube root of a number by factor method
c) Find cubes of numbers from mathematical tables
d) Evaluate expressions involving cubes and cube roots
e) Apply the knowledge of cubes and cube roots to real life situations

Content
a.) Cubes of numbers by multiplication.
b.) Cube roots of numbers by factor method.
c.) Cubes from mathematical tables.
d.) Expressions involving cubes and cube roots
e.) Application of cubes and cube roots

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Introduction
Cubes
The cube of a number is simply a number multiplied by itself three times e.g.
a× a × a=a3
1 × 1 × 1 = 13; 8 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 23; 27 = 3 × 3 × 3 =33;

Example 1
What is the value of 63?
63 =6 x6 x 6
= 36 x 6
=216

Example 2
Find the cube of 1.4
=1.4 x 1.4 x 1.4
=1.96 x 1.4
=2.744

Use of tables to find roots

The cubes can be read directly from the tables just like squares and square root.
Cube Roots using factor methods

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Cubes and cubes roots are opposite. The cube root of a number is the number that is multiplied
by itself three times to get the given number

Example
The cube root of 64 is written as;
64 = 4 Because 4 x 4 x 4 =64
=3 Because 3 x 3 x 3= 27

Example
Evaluate:
=
=2x3
=6

Note;
After grouping them into pairs of three you chose one number from the pair and multiply

Example
Find:
The volume of a cube is 1000 cm3 .What is the length of the cube
Volume of the cube, v = l 3
L 3=1000
L=
=10
The length of the cube is therefore 10 cm
End of topic

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going to sleep!

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CHAPTER TWENTY FIVE
RECIPROCALS

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
a.) Find reciprocals of numbers by division
b.) Find reciprocals of numbers from tables
c.) Use reciprocals of numbers in computation.
Content
a.) Reciprocals of numbers by division
b.) Reciprocals of numbers from tables
c.) Computation using reciprocals

Introduction
The reciprocal of a number is simply the number put in fraction form and turned upside down
e.g., the reciprocal of 2.

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Solution:
Change 2 into fraction form which is ,
Then turn it upside down and get

Note:
When you multiply a number by its reciprocal you get 1,
x =1

Finding the reciprocal of decimals

Finding the reciprocal of a decimal can be done in a number of ways.
Change the decimal to a fraction first.

Example.
0.25 is 25/100 and is equivalent to the fraction 1/4. Therefore its reciprocal would be 4/1 or 4.

Keep the decimal and form the fraction 1/?? Which can then be or converted to a decimal.

Example
0.75 The reciprocal is 1/0.75. Using a calculator, the decimal form can be found by performing the
operation: 1 divided by 0.75. The decimal reciprocal in this case is a repeating decimal, 1.33333....
After finding a reciprocal of a number, perform a quick check by multiplying your original number
and the reciprocal to determine that the product.

Reciprocal of Numbers from Tables.

Reciprocal of numbers can be found using tables.

Example
Find the reciprocal of 2.456 using the reciprocal tables.

Solution.
Using reciprocal tables, the reciprocal of 2.456 is 0.4082 - 0.0010 = 0.4072

Example
Find the reciprocal of 45.8.

Solution
You first write 45.8 in standard form which is 4.58 x.
Then =

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 =
=
= 0.02183

Example
Find the reciprocal of 0.0236

Solution
Change 0.0236 in standard form which is 2.36 x

=
= x 0.4237
= 42.37

Example
Use reciprocal tables to solve the following:

Solution
Multiply the numerators by the reciprocal of denominators, then add them
1(reciprocal 0.0125) + 1 (reciprocal 12.5)

Using tables find the reciprocals,

= 1(80) +1 (0.08)
= 80.08

Example

Solution
= 4 (rec0.375) - 3(37.5)
= (4 x2.667) – (3x0.026667)
= 10.59

End of topic

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 Did you understand everything?
If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

CHAPTER TWENTY SIX

INDICES AND LOGARITHMS

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
a.) Define indices (powers)
b.) State the laws of indices
c.) Apply the laws of indices in calculations
d.) Relate the powers of 10 to common logarithms
e.) Use the tables of common logarithms and anti-logarithms in computation.

Content
a.) Indices (powers) and base
b.) Laws of indices (including positive integers, negative integers and fractional indices)
c.) Powers of 10 and common logarithms
d.) Common logarithms:
 characteristics
 mantissa
e.) Logarithm tables
f.) Application of common logarithms in multiplication, division, powers and roots.

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Introduction
Index and base form
The power to which a number is raised is called index or indices in plural.
=
5 is called the power or index while 2 two is the base.
100 =
2 is called the index and 10 is the base.

Laws of indices
For the laws to hold the base must be the same.
Rule 1
Any number, except zero whose index is 0 is always equal to 1

Example

=1
Rule 2
To multiply an expression with the same base, copy the base and add the indices.

Example
=
= 3125
Rule 3
To divide an expression with the same base, copy the base and subtract the powers.

Example

Rule 4
To raise an expression to the nth index, copy the base and multiply the indices

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Example
)2
=
Rule 5
When dealing with a negative power, you simply change the power to positive by changing it into
a fraction with 1 s the numerator.
=

Example
=

Example
Evaluate:
a.)
=
=1
b.) (() 2
=()
=1
=1 2 or =) squared =

Fractional indices
Fractional indices are written in fraction form. In summary if. a is called the root of b written as
.

Example
= = () = = 8
=3

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 =

LOGARITHM
Logarithm is the power to which a fixed number (the base) must be raised to produce a given
number. = n is written as =m.
= n is the index notation while = m is the logarithm notation.
Examples
Index notation Logarithm form
4

Reading logarithms from the tables is the same as reading squares square roots and reciprocals.
We can read logarithms of numbers between 1 and 10 directly from the table. For numbers
greater than 10 we proceed as follows:
Express the number in standard form, A X .Then n will be the whole number part of the logarithms.
Read the logarithm of A from the tables, which gives the decimal part of the logarithm. Then add
it to n which is the power of 10 to form the positive part of the logarithm.

Example
Find the logarithm of:
379

Solution
379
= 3.79 x
Log 3.79 = 0.5786
Therefore the logarithm of 379 is 2 + 0.5786= 2.5786
The whole number part of the logarithm is called the characteristic and the decimal part is the
mantissa.

Logarithms of Positive Numbers less than 1

Example
Log to base 10 of 0.034
We proceed as follows:

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Express 0.034 in standard form, i.e., A X.
Read the logarithm of A and add to n
Thus 0.034 = 3.4 x
Log 3.4 from the tables is 0.5315
Hence 3.4 x =
Using laws of indices add 0.5315 + -2 which is written as.
It reads bar two point five three one five. The negative sign is written directly above two to show
that it’s only the characteristic is negative.

Example
Find the logarithm of:
0.00063

Solution
(Find the logarithm of 6.3)

.7993

ANTILOGARITHMS
Finding antilogarithm is the reverse of finding the logarithms of a number. For example the
logarithm of 1000 to base 10 is 3. So the antilogarithm of 3 is 1000.In algebraic notation, if
Log x = y then antilog of y = x.

Example
Find the antilogarithm of .3031

Solution
Let the number be x
X

(Find the antilog, press shift and log then key in the number)

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Example
Use logarithm tables to evaluate:

Number Standard form logarithm

456 4.56 x 2.6590
398 3.98 x 2.5999
5.2589

271 2.71 x 2.4330

2.8259
= 669.7
To find the exact number find the antilog of 2.8259 by letting the characteristic part to be the
power of ten then finding the antilog of 0.8259

Example
Operations involving bar
Evaluate

Solution

Number logarithm
415.2 2.6182
0.0761 .8814 +
1.4996
135 2.1303

2.341 x .3693
0.2341

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Example
= (9.45 x
=()

Note;
In order to divide .9754 by 2 , we write the logarithm in search away that the characteristic is
exactly divisible by 2 .If we are looking for the root , we arrange the characteristic to be exactly
divisible by n)
.9754 = -1 + 0.9754
= -2 + 1.9754
Therefore, .9754) =
= -1 + 0.9877
= .9877
Find the antilog of by writing the mantissa as power of 10 and then find the antilog of
characteristic.

= 0.9720

Example

Number logarithm

+ 1.7910)
3.954 x . 5970 (find the antilog)

0.3954
End of topic

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going to sleep!

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Past KCSE Questions on the cubes, cubes roots, Reciprocals
indices and logarithms.
1. Use logarithms to evaluate

3 36.15 x 0.02573
1,938
2. Find the value of x which satisfies the equation.
16x2 = 84x-3

3. Use logarithms to evaluate ( 1934)2 x √ 0.00324

436
4. Use logarithms to evaluate
55.9 ÷ (02621 x 0.01177) 1/5

5. Simplify 2x x 52x 2-x

6. Use logarithms to evaluate
(3.256 x 0.0536)1/3

7. Solve for x in the equation

32(x-3) ÷8 (x-4) = 64 ÷2x
8. Solve for x in the equations 812x x 27x = 729
9x
9. Use reciprocal and square tables to evaluate to 4 significant figures, the expression:
1 + 4 .3462
24.56
10. Use logarithm tables, to evaluate

2/3
0.032 x 14.26
0.006

11. Find the value of x in the following equation

49(x +1) + 7(2x) = 350

12. Use logarithms to evaluate

(0.07284)2
3√0.06195

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13. Find the value of m in the following equation
(1/27m x (81)-1 = 243
14. Given that P = 3y express the equation 3(2y-1) + 2 x 3 (y-1) = 1 in terms of P hence or otherwise find the
value of y in the equation 3 (2y – 1) + 2 x 3 (y-1) = 1

15. Use logarithms to evaluate 55.9 (0.2621 x 0.01177)1/5

16. Use logarithms to evaluate

6.79 x 0.3911¾
Log 5

17. Use logarithms to evaluate

3 1.23 x 0.0089
79.54

18. Solve for x in the equation

X = 0.0056 ½
1.38 x 27.42

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CHAPTER TWENTY SEVEN

GRADIENT AND EQUATIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
a.) Define gradient of a straight line
b.) Determine the gradient of a straight line through known points
c.) Determine the equation of a straight line using gradient and one known point
d.) Express a straight line equation in the form y = mx + c
e.) Interpret the equation y = mx + c
f.) Find the x- and y- intercepts from an equation of a line
g.) Draw the graph of a straight line using gradient and x- and y- intercepts
h.) State the relationship of gradients of perpendicular lines
i.) State the relationship of gradients of parallel lines
j.) Apply the relationship of gradients of perpendicular and parallel lines to get equations of straight
lines.
Content
a.) Gradient of a straight line
b.) Equation of a straight line
c.) The equation of a straight line of the form y = mx + c
d.) The x and y intercepts of a line
e.) The graph of a straight line
f.) Perpendicular lines and their gradient
g.) Parallel lines and their gradients
h.) Equations of parallel and perpendicular lines.

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Gradient

The steepness or slope of an area is called the gradient. Gradient is the change in y axis over the
change in x axis.

Note:
If an increase in the x co-ordinates also causes an increase in the y co-ordinates the gradient is
positive.
If an increase in the x co-ordinates causes a decrease in the value of the y co-ordinate, the gradient
is negative.
If, for an increase in the x co-ordinate, there is no change in the value of the y co-ordinate, the
gradient is zero.
For vertical line, the gradient is not defined.

Example
Find the gradient.

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Solution
Gradient =

Equation of a straight line.

Given two points

Example.
Find the equation of the line through the points A (1, 3) and B (2, 8)

Solution
The gradient of the required line is 5
Take any point p (x, y) on the line. Using... points P and A, the gradient is
Therefore 5
Hence y = 5x - 2
Given the gradient and one point on the line

Example
Determine the equation of a line with gradient 3, passing through the point (1, 5).

Solution
Let the line pass through a general point (x, y).The gradient of the line is 3
Hence the equation of the line is y =3x +2
We can express linear equation in the form.

Illustrations.
For example 4x + 3 y = -8 is equivalent to y. In the linear equation below gradient is equal to m
while c is the y intercept.

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Using the above statement we can easily get the gradient.

Example
Find the gradient of the line whose equation is 3 y -6 x + 7 =0

Solution
Write the equation in the form of

M= 2 and also gradient is 2.

The y- intercept
The y – intercept of a line is the value of y at the point where the line crosses the y axis. Which is
C in the above figure. The x –intercept of a graph is that value of x where the graph crosses the x
axis.
To find the x intercept we must find the value of y when x = 0 because at every point on the y axis
x = 0 .The same is true for y intercept.

Example
Find the y intercept y = 2x + 10 on putting y = o we have to solve this equation.
2x + 10 = 0
2x= -10
X =- 5
X intercept is equal to – 5.

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Perpendicular lines
If the products of the gradient of the two lines is equal to – 1, then the two lines are equal to each
other.

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Example
Find if the two lines are perpendicular
+1

Solution
The gradients are
M= and M = -3
The product is

The answer is -1 hence they are perpendicular.

Example
Y = 2x + 7
Y = -2x + 5
The products are hence the two lines are not perpendicular.

Parallel lines
Parallel lines have the same gradients e.g.

Both lines have the same gradient which is 2 hence they are parallel
End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

1. The coordinates of the points P and Q are (1, -2) and (4, 10) respectively.
A point T divides the line PQ in the ratio 2: 1
(a) Determine the coordinates of T
(b) (i) Find the gradient of a line perpendicular to PQ

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 (iii) Hence determine the equation of the line perpendicular PQ and passing through T
(iv) If the line meets the y- axis at R, calculate the distance TR, to three significant figures
2. A line L1 passes though point (1, 2) and has a gradient of 5. Another line L2, is perpendicular to L1
and meets it at a point where x = 4. Find the equation for L2 in the form of y = mx + c
3. P (5, -4) and Q (-1, 2) are points on a straight line. Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of
PQ: giving the answer in the form y = mx+c.
4. On the diagram below, the line whose equation is 7y – 3x + 30 = 0 passes though the
points A and B. Point A on the x-axis while point B is equidistant from x and y axes.

Calculate the co-ordinates of the points A and B

5. A line with gradient of -3 passes through the points (3. k) and (k.8). Find the value of k and hence
express the equation of the line in the form a ax + ab = c, where a, b, and c are constants.
6. Find the equation of a straight line which is equidistant from the points (2, 3) and (6, 1), expressing it
in the form ax + by = c where a, b and c are constants.
7. The equation of a line -3/5x + 3y = 6. Find the:
(a) Gradient of the line (1 mk)

(b) Equation of a line passing through point (1, 2) and perpendicular to the given line b
8. Find the equation of the perpendicular to the line x + 2y = 4 and passes through point (2,1)
9. Find the equation of the line which passes through the points P (3,7) and Q (6,1)
10. Find the equation of the line whose x- intercepts is -2 and y- intercepts is 5
11. Find the gradient and y- intercept of the line whose equation is 4x – 3y – 9 = 0

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CHAPTER TWENTY EIGHT
REFLECTION AND CONGRUENCE

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
a.) State the properties of reflection as a transformation
b.) Use the properties of reflection in construction and identification of images and
objects
c.) Make geometrical deductions using reflection
d.) Apply reflection in the Cartesian plane
e.) Distinguish between direct and opposite congruence
f.) Identify congruent triangles.
Content
a.) Lines and planes of symmetry
b.) Mirror lines and construction of objects and images
c.) Reflection as a transformation
d.) Reflection in the Cartesian plane
e.) Direct and opposite congruency
f.) Congruency tests (SSS, SAS, AAS, ASA and RHS)

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Introduction
The process of changing the position, direction or size of a figure to form a new figure is called
transformation.

Reflection and congruence

Symmetry
Symmetry is when one shape becomes exactly like another if you turn, slide or cut them into two
identical parts. The lines which divides a figure into two identical parts are called lines of
symmetry. If a figure is cut into two identical parts the cut part is called the plane of symmetry.

How many planes of symmetry does the above figures have?

There are two types of symmetry. Reflection and Rotational.

Reflection
A transformation of a figure in which each point is replaced by a point symmetric with respect to
a line or plane e.g. mirror line.

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Properties preserved under reflection
 Midpoints always remain the same.
 Angle measures remain the same i.e. the line joining appoint and its image is
perpendicular to the mirror line.
 A point on the object and a corresponding point on the image are equidistant from the
mirror line.
A mirror line is a line of symmetry between an object and its image.

(a)
Figures that have
rotational
symmetry

(b) Order of
rotational 2 3 4 5
symmetry

Examples
To reflect an object you draw the same points of the object but on opposite side of the mirror. They
must be equidistance from each other.

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 

Exercise
Find the mirror line or the line of symmetry.

To find the mirror line, join the points on the object and image together then bisect the lines
perpendicularly. The perpendicular bisector gives us the mirror line.

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 Congruence
Figures with the same size and same shape are said to be congruent. If a figure fits into another
directly it is said to be directly congruent.
If a figure only fits into another after it has been turned then it’s called opposite congruent or
indirect congruence.

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C

A B

Figure A and B are directly congruent while C is oppositely or indirectly congruent because it
only fits into A after it has been turned.
End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

CHAPTER TWENTY NINE

ROTATION

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

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 a.) State properties of rotation as a transformation
b.) Determine centre and angle of rotation
c.) Apply properties of rotation in the Cartesian plane
d.) Identify point of rotational symmetry
e.) State order of rotational symmetry of plane figure
f.) Identify axis of rotational symmetry of solids
g.) State order of rotational symmetry of solids
h.) Deduce congruence from rotation.
Content
a.) Properties of rotation
b.) Centre and angle of rotation
c.) Rotation in the cartesian plane
d.) Rotational symmetry of plane figures and solids (point axis and order)
e.) Congruence and rotation

Introduction
A transformation in which a plane figure turns around a fixed center point called center of rotation.
A rotation in the anticlockwise direction is taken to be positive whereas a rotation in the clockwise
direction is taken to be negative.
For example a rotation of 900 clockwise is taken to be negative. - 900 while a rotation of
anticlockwise 900 is taken to be +900.

For a rotation to be completely defined the center and the angle of rotation must be stated.

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Illustration
To rotate triangle A through the origin ,angle of rotation +1/4 turn.

Draw a line from each point to the center of rotation ,in this case it’s the origin.Measure 90 0 from
the object using the protacter and make sure the base line of the proctacter is on the same line as
the line from the point of the object to the center.The 0 mark should start from the object.
Mark 900 and draw a straight line to the center joining the lines at the origin.The distance from
the point of the object to the center should be the same distance as the line you drew.This give
you the image point
The distance between the object point and the image point under rotation should be the same as
the center of rotation in this case 900

Illustration.
To find the center of rotation.
 Draw a segment connecting point’s and ′
 Using a compass, find the perpendicular bisector of this line.

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  Draw a segment connecting point’s and ′.Find the perpendicular bisector of this segment.
 The point of intersection of the two perpendicular bisectors is the center of rotation. Label this
point .

Justify your construction by measuring angles ∠ ′ and ∠ ′. Did you obtain the same measure? The
angle between is the angle of rotation. The zero mark of protector should be on the object to give you the
direction of rotation.

Rotational symmetry of plane figures

The number of times the figure fits onto itself in one complete turn is called the order of
rotational symmetry.

Note;
The order of rotational symmetry of a figure = 360 /angle between two identical parts of the
figure.
Rotational symmetry is also called point symmetry. Rotation preserves length, angles and area,
and the object and its image are directly congruent.
End of topic

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 CHAPTER THIRTY

SIMILARITY AND ENLARGEMENT

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
a.) Identify similar figures
b.) Construct similar figures
c.) State properties of enlargement as a transformation
d.) Apply the properties of enlargement to construct objects and images
e.) Apply enlargement in Cartesian planes
f.) State the relationship between linear, area and volume scale factor
g.) Apply the scale factors to real life situations.
Content
a.) Similar figures and their properties
b.) Construction of similar figures
c.) Properties of enlargement
d.) Construction of objects and images under enlargement
e.) Enlargement in the Cartesian plane
f.) Linear, area and volume scale factors
g.) Real life situations.

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Introduction

Similar Figures
Two or more figures are said to be similar if:
 The ratio of the corresponding sides is constant.
 The corresponding angle are similar
Example 1
In the figures below, given that △ABC ~ △PQR, find the unknowns x, y and z.

Solution
BA corresponds to QP each of them has opposite angle y and 980 .Hence y is equal to 980 BC
corresponds to QR and AC corresponds to PR.

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 BA/QR=BC/QR=AC/PR
AC/PR=BC/QR
3/4.5=5/Z
Z = 7.5 cm

Note:
Two figures can have the ratio of corresponding sides equal but fail to be similar if the
corresponding angles are not the same.
Two triangles are similar if either their all their corresponding angles are equal or the ratio of
their corresponding sides is constant.
Example:
In the figure, △ABC is similar to △RPQ. Find the values of the unknowns.

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Since △ABC~ △RPQ,
∠B= ∠P ∴x= 90°

Also,
AB/RP = BC /PQ
39 /y =52 /48

(48 X 39)
52
∴y = 36

Also,
AC/RQ=BC/PQ

Z/60=52/48

∴z = 65
ENLARGMENT

What’s enlargement?
Enlargement, sometimes called scaling, is a kind of transformation that changes the size of an
object. The image created is similar* to the object. Despite the name enlargement, it includes
making objects smaller.
For every enlargement, a scale factor must be specified. The scale factor is how many times
larger than the object the image is.

Length of side in image = length of side in object X scale factor

For any enlargement, there must be a point called the center of enlargement.

Distance from center of enlargement to point on image =

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 Distance from Centre of enlargement to point on object X scale factor

The Centre of enlargement can be anywhere, but it has to exist.

This process of obtaining triangle A’ B ‘C’ from triangle A B C is called enlargement. Triangle
ABC is the object and triangles A’ B ‘C ‘Its image under enlargement scale factor 2.
Hence
OA’/OA=OB’/OB=OC’/OC= 2...
The ratio is called scale factor of enlargement. The scale factor is called liner scale factor
By measurement OA=1.5 cm, OB=3 cm and OC =2.9 cm. To get A’, the image of A, we proceed
as follows
OA=1.5 cm
OA’/OA=2 (scale factor 2)
OA’=1.5X2
=3 cm
Also OB’/OB=2
= 3 X2
=6 cm

Note:
Lines joining object points to their corresponding image points meet at the Centre of
enlargement.

CENTER OF ENLARGMENT

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To find center of enlargement join object points to their corresponding image points and extend
the lines, where they meet gives you the Centre of enlargement. Or Draw straight lines from each
point on the image, through its corresponding point on the object, and continuing for a little
further. The point where all the lines cross is the Centre of enlargement.

SCALE FACTOR
The scale factor can be whole number, negative or fraction. Whole number scale factor means that
the image is on the same side as the object and it can be larger or the same size,
Negative scale factor means that the image is on the opposite side of the object and a fraction
whole number scale factor means that the image is smaller either on the same side or opposite side.
Linear scale factor is a ratio in the form a: b or a/b .This ratio describes an enlargement or reduction
in one dimension, and can be calculated using.

New length
Original length
Area scale factor is a ratio in the form e: f or e/f. This ratio describes how many times to enlarge.
Or reduce the area of two dimensional figure. Area scale factor can be calculated using.
New Area
Original Area
Area scale factor= (linear scale factor) 2
Volume scale factor is the ratio that describes how many times to enlarge or reduce the volume of
a three dimensional figure. Volume scale factor can be calculated using.
New Volume
Original Volume

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Volume scale factor = (linear scale factor) 3
CONGRUENCE TRIANGLES
When two triangles are congruent, all their corresponding sides andcorresponding angles are
equal.

TRASLATION VECTOR
Translation vector moves every point of an object by the same amount in the given vector direction.
It can be simply be defined as the addition of a constant vector to every point.

Translations and vectors: The translation at the left

shows a vector translating the top triangle 4 units to
the right and 9 units downward. The notation for such
vector movement may be written as:

or

Vectors such as those used in translations are what is

known as free vectors. Any two vectors of the same
length and parallel to each other are considered
identical. They need not have the same initial and
terminal points.

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on Reflection and Congruence, Rotation,

Similarity and Enlargement.
1. A translation maps a point (1, 2) onto) (-2, 2). What would be the coordinates of the object whose
image is (-3, -3) under the same translation?
2. Use binomial expression to evaluate (0.96)5 correct to 4 significant figures

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 11. In the figure below triangle ABO represents a part of a school badge. The badge has as symmetry
of order 4 about O. Complete the figures to show the badge.

O
C
3. A point (-5, 4) is mapped onto (-1, -1) by a translation. Find the image of (-4, 5) under the same
translation.
4. A triangle is formed by the coordinates A (2, 1) B (4, 1) and C (1, 6). It is rotated
clockwise through 900 about the origin. Find the coordinates of this image.
5. The diagram on the grid provided below shows a trapezium ABCD

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 On the same grid
(a) (i) Draw the image A’B’C’D of ABCD under a rotation of 900
clockwise about the origin .
(ii) Draw the image of A”B”C”D” of A’B’C’D’ under a reflection in
line y = x. State coordinates of A”B”C”D”.
(b) A”B”C”D” is the image of A”B”C”D under the reflection in the line x=0.
Draw the image A”B” C”D” and state its coordinates.
(c) Describe a single transformation that maps A” B”C”D onto ABCD.
6. A translation maps a point P(3,2) onto P’(5,4)
(a) Determine the translation vector
(b) A point Q’ is the image of the point Q (, 5) under the same translation. Find the length of ‘P’ Q
leaving the answer is surd form.
7. Two points P and Q have coordinates (-2, 3) and (1, 3) respectively. A translation map point P to P’ (
10, 10)
(a) Find the coordinates of Q’ the image of Q under the translation (1 mk)
(b) The position vector of P and Q in (a) above are p and q respectively given that mp – nq =
-12
9 Find the value of m and n (3mks)
8. on the Cartesian plane below, triangle PQR has vertices P(2, 3), Q ( 1,2) and R ( 4,1) while
triangles P” q “ R” has vertices P” (-2, 3), Q” ( -1,2) and R” ( -4, 1)

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(a) Describe fully a single transformation which maps triangle PQR onto triangle P”Q”R”
(b) On the same plane, draw triangle P’Q’R’, the image of triangle PQR, under reflection in line y = -
x
(c) Describe fully a single transformation which maps triangle P’Q’R’ onto triangle P”Q”R
(d) Draw triangle P”Q”R” such that it can be mapped onto triangle PQR by a positive quarter turn
about (0, 0)
(e) State all pairs of triangle that are oppositely congruent

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CHAPTER THIRTY ONE
THE PYTHAGORA’S THEOREM

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
a.) Derive Pythagoras theorem
b.) Solve problems using Pythagoras theorem
c.) Apply Pythagoras theorem to solve problems in life situations
Content
a.) Pythagoras Theorem
b.) Solution of problems using Pythagoras Theorem
c.) Application to real life situations.

Introduction
Consider the triangle below:

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Pythagoras theorem states that for a right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum
of the square of the two shorter sides.

Example
In a right angle triangle, the two shorter sides are 6 cm and 8 cm. Find the length of the hypotenuse.

Solution
Using Pythagoras theorem

100 hyp = =10

End of topic

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Past KCSE Questions on the topic.
1. The angle of elevation of the top of a tree from a point P on the horizontal ground is 24.5°.From
another point Q, five metres nearer to the base of the tree, the angle of elevation of the top of the tree is
33.2°. Calculate to one decimal place, the height of the tree.
2. A block of wood in the shape of a frustrum of a cone of slanting edge 30 cm and base radius 10cm
is cut parallel to the base, one third of the way from the base along the slanting edge. Find the ratio of the
volume of the cone removed to the volume of the complete cone

CHAPTER THIRTY TWO

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
a.) Define tangent, sine and cosine ratios from a right angled triangle
b.) Read and use tables of trigonometric ratios
c.) Use sine, cosine and tangent in calculating lengths and angles
d.) Establish and use the relationship of sine and cosine of complimentary angles
e.) Relate the three trigonometric ratios
f.) Determine the trigonometric ratios of special angles 30°, 45°, 60° and 90°without using tables
g.) Read and use tables of logarithms of sine, cosine and tangent

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 h.) Apply the knowledge of trigonometry to real life situations.
Content
a.) Tangent, sine and cosine of angles
b.) Trigonometric tables
c.) Angles and sides o f a right angled triangle
d.) Sine and cosine of complimentary angles
e.) Relationship between tangent, sine and cosine
f.) Trigonometric ratios of special angles 30°, 45°, 60° and 90°
g.) Logarithms of sines, cosines and tangents
h.) Application of trigonometry to real life situations.

Introduction
Tangent of Acute Angle
The constant ratio between the is called the tangent. It’s abbreviated as tan

Tan =

Sine of an Angle
The ratio of the side of angle x to the hypotenuse side is called the sine.
Sin

Cosine of an Angle
The ratio of the side adjacent to the angle and hypotenuse.

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 Cosine

Example

In the figure above adjacent length is 4 cm and Angle x. Calculate the opposite length.

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Solution

cm.

Example

In the above o = 5 cm a = 12 cm calculate angle sin x and cosine x.

Solution

But

Therefore sin x
= 0.3846
Cos x =
=
=0.9231
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Sine and cosines of complementary angles
For any two complementary angles x and y, sin x = cos y cos x = sin y e.g. sin,
Sin, sin,

Example
Find acute angles
Sin

Solution

Therefore

Trigonometric ratios of special Angles .

These trigonometric ratios can be deducted by the use of isosceles right – angled triangle and
equilateral triangles as follows.

Tangent cosine and sine of.

The triangle should have a base and a height of one unit each, giving hypotenuse of.

Cos sin tan

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Tangent cosine and sine of

The equilateral triangle has a sides of 2 units each

Sin
Sin
End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. Given sin (90 - a) = ½ , find without using trigonometric tables the value of cos a (2mks)

24
2. If tan   ,find without using tables or calculator, the value of
45
tan   cos
(3
cos  sin
marks)
3. At point A, David observed the top of a tall building at an angle of 30o. After walking for 100meters
towards the foot of the building he stopped at point B where he observed it again at an angle of 60o. Find
the height of the building

4. Find the value of , given that ½ sin = 0.35 for 0o ≤ θ ≤ 360o

5. A man walks from point A towards the foot of a tall building 240 m away. After covering 180m,
he observes that the angle of elevation of the top of the building is 45o. Determine the angle of elevation
of the top of the building from A
6. Solve for x in 2 Cos2x0 = 0.6000 00≤ x ≤ 3600.

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7. Wangechi whose eye level is 182cm tall observed the angle of elevation to the top of her house to
be 32º from her eye level at point A. she walks 20m towards the house
on a straight line to a point B at which point she observes the angle of elevation to the
top of the building to the 40º. Calculate, correct to 2 decimal places the ;
a)distance of A from the house
b) The height of the house
8. Given that cos A = 5/13 and angle A is acute, find the value of:-
2 tan A + 3 sin A

9. Given that tan 5° = 3 + 5, without using tables or a calculator, determine tan 25°, leaving your
answer in the form a + b c

10. Given that tan x = 5, find the value of the following without using mathematical tables or
calculator: 12
(a) Cos x
(b) Sin2(90-x)

11. If tan θ =8/15, find the value of Sinθ - Cosθ without using a calculator or table
Cosθ + Sinθ

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 CHAPTER THIRTY THREE

AREA OF A TRIANGLE

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a.) Derive the formula; Area = ½ab sin C

b.) Solve problems involving area of triangles using the formula Area = ½ab sin C;
c.) Solve problems on area of a triangle using the formula area =
Content
a.) Area of triangle A =1/2 ab sin C
b.) Area of a triangle
c.) Application of the above formulae in solving problems involving real life situations.

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Introduction
Area of a triangle given two sides and an included Angle
The area of a triangle is given by but sometimes we use other formulas to as follows.

Example
If the length of two sides and an included angle of a triangle are given, the area of the triangle is
given by

In the figure above PQ is 5 cm and PR is 7 cm angle QPR is .Find the area of the the triangle.

Solution
Using the formulae by a= 5 cm b =7 cm and
Area =
=2.5 x 7 x 0.7660
=13.40

Area of the triangle, given the three sides.

Example
Find the area of a triangle ABC in which AB = 5 cm, BC = 6 cm and AC =7 cm.

Solution
When only three sides are given us the formulae
Hero’s formulae
S
A, b, c are the lengths of the sides of the triangle.
And A

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 End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. The sides of a triangle are in the ratio 3:5:6. If its perimeter is 56 cm, use the Heroes formula to
find its area (4mks)

2. The figure below is a triangle XYZ. ZY = 13.4cm, XY = 5cm and angle xyz = 57.7o

Calculate
i.) Length XZ. (3mks)
iii.) Angle XZY. (2 mks)
iv.) If a perpendicular is dropped from point X to cut ZY at M, Find the ratio MY: ZM. (3 mks)
Find the area of triangle XYZ. (2 mks)

CHAPTER THIRTY FOUR

AREA OF QUADRILATERALS

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Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
a.) Find the area of a quadrilateral
b.) Find the area of other polygons (regular and irregular).
Content
a.) Area of quadrilaterals
b.) Area of other polygons (regular and irregular).

Introduction
Quadrilaterals.
They are four sided figures e.g. rectangle, square, rhombus, parallelogram, trapezium and kite.

Area of rectangle

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AB and DC area the lengths while AD and BC are the width.

Area of parallelogram
A figure whose opposite side are equal parallel.

Area

Area of a Rhombus.
A figure with all sides equal and the diagonals bisect each other at. In the figure below BC =CD
=DA=AB=4 cm while AC=10 cm and BD = 12. Find the area

Solution
Find half of the diagonal which is

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Area of
Area of

Area of Trapezium
A quadrilateral with only two of its opposite sides being parallel. The area

Example
Find the area of the above figure
Solution
Area

Note:
You can use the sine rule to get the height given the hypotenuse and an angle.

Or use the acronym SOHCAHTOA

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Rhombus

Example
In the figure above the lines market // =7 cm while / =5 cm, find the area.

Solution
Join X to Y.
Find the area of the two triangles formed
(Triangle one)

(Triangle two)
Then add the area of the two triangles

Area of regular polygons

Any regular polygon can be divided into isosceles triangle by joining the vertices to the Centre.
The number of the polygon formed is equal to the number of sides of the polygon.

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Example
If the radius is of a pentagon 6 cm find its area.

Solution
Divide the pentagone into five triangles each with ie

Area of one triangle will be

=17.11
There are five triangles therefore
AREA

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1.) The diagram below, not drawn to scale, is a regular pentagon circumscribed in a circle of radius 10 cm
at centre O

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O
10 cm
 Find
(a) The side of the pentagon (2mks)
(b) The area of the shaded region (3mks)
2.) PQRS is a trapezium in which PQ is parallel to SR, PQ = 6cm, SR = 12cm,  PSR = 400 and PS
= 10cm. Calculate the area of the trapezium. (4mks)

P > Q

40
S 0 >
R

3.) A regular octagon has an area of 101.8 cm2. calculate the length of one side of the octagon
(4marks)
4.) Find the area of a regular polygon of length 10 cm and side n, given that the sum of interior angles of n
: n –1 is in the ratio 4 : 3.

5.) Calculate the area of the quadrilateral ABCD shown:-

D
14cm
12cm
C

6cm
A B
18cm

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 CHAPTER THIRTY FIVE

AREA PART OF A CIRCLE

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
a.) Find the area of a sector
b.) Find the area of a segment
c.) Find the area of a common region between two circles.
Content
a.) Area of a sector
b.) Area of a segment
c.) Area of common regions between circles.

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Introduction
Sector
A sector is an area bounded by two radii and an arc .A minor sector has a smaller area compared
to a major sector.

The orange part is the major sector while the yellow part is the minor sector.

The area of a sector

The area of a sector subtending an angle at the Centre of the circle is given by; A

Example
Find the area of a sector of radius 3 cm, if the angle subtended at the Centre is given as take as

Solution
Area A of a sector is given by;
A
Area

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 = 11

Example
The area of the sector of a circle is 38.5 cm. Find the radius of the circle if the angle subtended at
the Centre is.

Solution
From A, we get

R = 7 cm

Example
The area of a sector of radius 63 cm is 4158 cm .Calculate the angle subtended at the Centre of
the circle.

Solution
4158

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Area of a segment of a circle
A segment is a region of a circle bounded by a chord and an arc.

In the figure above the shaded region is a segment of the circle with Centre O and radius r. AB=8
cm, ON = 3 cm, ANGLE AOB =. Find the area of the shaded part.

Solution
Area of the segment = area of the sector OAPB – area of triangle OAB
=
= 23.19 – 12
= 11.19
Area of a common region between two intersecting circles.

Find the area of the intersecting circles above. If the common chord AB is 9 cm.

Solution
From

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6.614 cm
From

3.969 cm
The area between the intersecting circles is the sum of the areas of segments and. Area of segment
= area of sector
Using trigonometry, sin = 0.75
Find the sine inverse of 0.75 to get hence

Area of segment = area of sector

Using trigonometry, sin = 0.5625
Find the sine inverse of 0.5625 to get hence

Therefore the area of the region between the intersecting circles is given by;

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 End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. The figure below shows a circle of radius 9cm and centre O. Chord AB is 7cm long. Calculate the
area of the shaded region. (4mks)

A B

2. The figure below shows two intersecting circles with centres P and Q of radius 8cm and 10cm
respectively. Length AB = 12cm

P ө ß

B
Calculate:

a)  APB
(2mks)

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O

9cm
 b)  AQB
(2mks)

c) Area of the shaded region (6mks)

3.

5cm 5cm

A B
The diagram above represents a circle centre o of radius 5cm. The minor arc AB subtends an
angle of 1200 at the centre. Find the area of the shaded part. (3mks)
4. The figure below shows a regular pentagon inscribed in a circle of radius 12cm, centre O.

Calculate the area of the shaded part.

(3mks)

5. Two circles of radii 13cm and 16cm intersect such that they share a common chord of length
 22 
20cm. Calculate the area of the shaded part.    
 7 
(10mks)

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6. Find the perimeter of the figure below, given AB,BC and AC are diameters. (4mks)

7. The figure below shows two intersecting circles. The radius of a circle A is 12cm and that of
circle B is 8 cm.

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If the angle MBN = 72o, calculate
The size of the angle MAN
b) The length of MN
c) The area of the shaded region.
8.

In the diagram above, two circles, centres A and C and radii 7cm and 24cm respectively intersect
at B and D. AC = 25cm.

a) Show that angel ABC = 900

b) Calculate

i) the size of obtuse angel BAD

ii) the area of the shaded part (10 Mks)

9. The ends of the roof of a workshop are segments of a circle of radius 10m. The roof is 20m long.
The angle at the centre of the circle is 120o as shown in the figure below:

10cm
o
120

(a) Calculate :-

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 (i) The area of one end of the roof
(ii) The area of the curved surface of the roof
(b) What would be the cost to the nearest shilling of covering the two ends and the curved surface
with galvanized iron sheets costing shs.310 per square metre

10. The diagram below, not drawn to scale, is a regular pengtagon circumscribed in a circle of radius
10cm at centre O

●
Find;
(a) The side of the pentagon
10cm
(b) The area of the shaded region

11. Triangle PQR is inscribed in he circle PQ= 7.8cm, PR = 6.6cm and QR = 5.9cm. Find:

Q
P 7.8cm

6.6cm
5.9cm

R place
(a) The radius of the circle, correct to one decimal
(b) The angles of the triangle
(c) The area of shaded region

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 A

CHAPTER THIRTY SIX

SURFACE AREA OF SOLIDS

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
a.) Find the surface area of a prism
b.) Find the surface area of a pyramid
c.) Find the surface area of a cone
d.) Find the surface area of a frustum
e.) Find the surface area of a sphere and a hemisphere.
Content
Surface area of prisms, pyramids, cones, frustums and spheres.

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Introduction
Surface area of a prism
A prism is a solid with uniform cross- section. The surface area of a prism is the sum of its faces.

Cylinder

Area of closed cylinder

Area of open cylinder

Example
Find the area of the closed cylinder r =2.8 cm and l = 13 cm
Solution

Note;
For open cylinder do not multiply by two, find the area of only one circle.

Surface area of a pyramid

The surface area of a pyramid is the sum of the area of the slanting faces and the area of the base.
Surface area = base area + area of the four triangular faces (take the slanting height marked green below)

Example

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Solution
Surface area = base area + area of the four triangular faces
= (14 x 14) + (14 x 14)
= 196 + 252
= 448

Example
The figure below is a right pyramid with a square base of 4 cm and a slanting edge of 8 cm. Find the
surface area of the pyramid.

a = 4 cm e = 8 cm
Surface area = base area + area of the four triangular bases
= (l x w) + 4 ( )
Remember height is the slanting height

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 Slanting height =
=
Surface area =
= 77.97

Surface area of a cone

Total surface area of a cone=
Curved surface area of a cone =

Example
Find the surface area of the cone above

= 50.24 +62.8
=113.04
Note;
Always use slanting height, if it’s not given find it using Pythagoras theorem

Surface area of a frustum

The bottom part of a cut pyramid or cone is called a frustum. Example of frustums are bucket,

Examples a lampshade and a hopper.

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Example
Find the surface area of a fabric required to make a lampshade in the form of a frustum whose top and
bottom diameters are 20 cm and 30 cm respectively and height 12 cm.
Solution
Complete the cone from which the frustum is made, by adding a smaller cone of height x cm.

h =12, H= x cm, r =10 cm, R =15 cm

From the knowledge of similar

Surface area of a frustum = area of the curved area of curved surface of smaller cone
Surface of bigger cone.
L = 24 + 12 = 36 cm

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Surface area =
= )
=1838.57
= 1021

Surface area of the sphere

A sphere is solid that it’s entirely round with every point on the surface at equal distance from
the Centre. Surface area is

Example
Find the surface area of a sphere whose diameter is equal to 21 cm

Solution
Surface area =
= 4 x 3.14 x 10.5 x 10.5
= 1386
End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

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1. A swimming pool water surface measures 10m long and 8m wide. A path of uniform width is
made all round the swimming pool. The total area of the water surface and the path is 168m2

(a) Find the width of the path (4 mks)

(b) The path is to be covered with square concrete slabs. Each corner of the path is covered with a
slab whose side is equal to the width of the path. The rest of the path is covered with slabs of
side 50cm. The cost of making each corner slab is sh 600 while the cost of making each
smaller slab is sh.50. Calculate

(i) The number of the smaller slabs used (4 mks)

(ii) The total cost of the slabs used to cover the whole path (2 mks)

2. The figure below shows a solid regular tetrapack of sides 4cm.

(a) Draw a labelled net of the solid.

(1mk)

(b) Find the surface area of the solid. (2mks)

3. The diagram shows a right glass prism ABCDEF with dimensions as shown.

F
5.2cm D

A 5.2cm C

7.4 cm 14.7cm

B
Calculate:
(a) the perimeter of the prism (2 mks)

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 (b) The total surface area of the prism (3 mks)
(c) The volume of the prism (2 mks)
(d) The angle between the planes AFED and BCEF (3 mks)
4. The base of a rectangular tank is 3.2m by 2.8m. Its height is 2.4m. It contains water to a depth of
1.8m. Calculate the surface area inside the tank that is not in contact with water. (2mks)
5. Draw the net of the solid below and calculate surface area of its faces (3mks)

6.

4cm F
8cm D
A B
5cm
The figure above is a triangular prism of uniform cross-section in which AF = 4cm, AB = 5cm and
BC = 8cm.
(a) If angle BAF = 300, calculate the surface area of the prism. (3 marks)
(b) Draw a clearly labeled net of the prisms. (1 mark)
7. Mrs. Dawati decided to open a confectionary shop at corner Baridi. She decorated its entrance
with 10 models of cone ice cream, five on each side of the door. The model has the following
shape and dimensions. Using  = 3.142 and calculations to 4 d.p.

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 (a) Calculate the surface area of the conical part. (2mks)

(b) Calculate the surface area of the top surface. (4mks)

(c) Find total surface area of one model. (2mks)

(d) If painting 5cm2 cost ksh 12.65, find the total cost of painting the models (answer to 1 s.f).
(2mks)

8. A right pyramid of height 10cm stands on a square base ABCD of side 6 cm.
a) Draw the net of the pyramid in the space provided below. (2mks)
b) Calculate:-
(i) The perpendicular distance from the vertex to the side AB. (2mks)
(ii) The total surface area of the pyramid. (4mks)
c) Calculated the volume of the pyramid. (2mks)
9. The figure below shows a solid object consisting of three parts. A conical part of radius 2 cm and
slant height 3.5 cm a cylindrical part of height 4 cm. A hemispherical part of radius 3 cm . the
cylinder lies at the centre of the hemisphere. (
  3.142)

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 Calculate to four significant figures:
I. The surface area of the solid (5 marks)
II. The volume of the solid (5 marks)
10. A lampshade is in the form of a frustrum of a cone. Its bottom and top diameters are 12cm and
8cm respectively. Its height is 6cm.Find;
(a) The area of the curved surface of the lampshade
(b) The material used for making the lampshade is sold at Kshs.800 per square metres. Find the
cost of ten lampshades if a lampshade is sold at twice the cost of the material
11. A cylindrical piece of wood of radius 4.2cm and length 150cm is cut lengthwise into two equal
pieces. Calculate the surface area of one piece
12. The base of an open rectangular tank is 3.2m by 2.8m. Its height is 2.4m. It contains water to a
depth of 1.8m. Calculate the surface area inside the tank that is not in contact with water

13. The figure below represents a model of a solid structure in the

shape of frustrum of a cone with ahemisphere top. The diameter of the hemispherical part is 70cm and is
equal to the diameter of thetop of the frustrum. The frustrum has a base diameter of 28cm and slant height
of 60cm.

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Calculate:
(a) The area of the hemispherical surface
(b) The slant height of cone from which the frustrum was cut
(c) The surface area of frustrum
(d) The area of the base
(e) The total surface area of the model

14. A room is 6.8m long, 4.2m wide and 3.5m high. The room has two glass doors each measuring
75cm by 2.5m and a glass window measuring 400cm by 1.25m. The walls are to be painted except the
window and doors.
a) Find the total area of the four walls
b) Find the area of the walls to be painted
c) Paint A costs Shs.80 per litre and paint B costs Shs.35 per litre. 0.8 litres of A covers an area of
1m2 while 0.5m2 uses 1 litre of paint B. If two coats of each paint are to be applied. Find the cost of
painting the walls using:
i) Paint A
ii) Paint B
d) If paint A is packed in 400ml tins and paint B in 1.25litres tins, find the least number of tins of
each type of paint that must be bought.
15. The figure below shows a solid frustrum of pyramid with a square top of side 8cm and a square
base of side 12cm. The slant edge of the frustrum is 9cm

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 Calculate:
(a) The total surface area of the frustrum
(b) The volume of the solid frustrum
(c) The angle between the planes BCHG and the base EFGH.

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 CHAPTER THIRTY SEVEN

VOLUME OF SOLIDS
Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
a.) Find the volume of a prism
b.) Find the volume of a pyramid
c.) Find the volume of a cone
d.) Find the volume of a frustum
e.) Find the volume of a sphere and a hemisphere.
Content
Volumes of prisms, pyramids, cones, frustums and spheres.

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Introduction
Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object. It’s measured in cubic units.
Generally volume of objects is base area x height

Volume of a Prism
A prism is a solid with uniform cross section .The volume V of a prism with cross section area A and
length l is given by V = AL

Example

Solution
Volume of the prism = base area x length (base is triangle)
=
= 90

Example

Explanation
A cross- sectional area of the hexagonal is made up of 6 equilateral triangles whose sides are 8 ft
To find the height we take one triangle as shown above

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Using sine rule we get the height

Solution
Area of cross section

Volume = 166.28 x 12
= 1995.3

Volume of a pyramid
Volume of a pyramid
Where A = area of the base and h = vertical height

Example
Find the volume of a pyramid with the vertical height of 8 cm and width 4 cm length 12 cm.

Solution.

Volume
= 128

Volume of a sphere
V

Volume of a cone
Volume

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Example
Calculate the volume of a cone whose height is 12 cm and length of the slant heigth is 13 cm

Solution
Volume

But, base radius r =

Therefore volume

Volume of a frustrum
Volume = volume of large cone – volume of smaller cone

Example
A frustum of base radius 2 cm and height 3.6 cm. if the height of the cone from which it was cut was 6
cm, calculate
The radius of the top surface
The volume of the frustum

Solution

Triangles PST and PQR are similar

Therefore
Hence

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ST = 0.8 cm
The radius of the top surface is 0.8 cm
Volume of the frustum = volume of large cone – volume of smaller cone
=
= 25.14 – 1.61 = 23.53

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. Metal cube of side 4.4cm was melted and the molten material used to make a sphere. Find to 3

 22 
significant figures the radius of the sphere  take    (3mks)
 7 

2. Two metal spheres of diameter 2.3cm and 3.86cm are melted. The molten material is used to cast
equal cylindrical slabs of radius 8mm and length 70mm.

If 1/20 of the metal is lost during casting. Calculate the number of complete slabs casted. (4mks)

3. The volume of a rectangular tank is 256cm3. The dimensions are as in the figure.

¼x
x-8
16cm

Find the value of x (3 marks)

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4.
R=14cm

22.5cm

21cm
The diagram represent a solid frustum with base radius 21cm and top radius 14cm. The frustum
is 22.5cm high and is made of a metal whose density is 3g/cm3 π = 22/7.
a) Calculate
(i) the volume of the metal in the frustrum. (5 marks)
(ii) the mass of the frustrum in kg. (2 marks)
b) The frustrum is melted down and recast into a solid cube. In the process 20% of the metal is
lost. Calculate to 2 decimal places the length of each side of the cube. (3 marks)
5. The figure below shows a frustrum

2.2 cm

4.8 cm

Find the volume of the frustrum 3.3 cm (4 mks)

4 3
6. The formula for finding the volume of a sphere is given by V  r . Given that V = 311 and
3
 =3.142, find r. (3 mks)

7. A right conical frustrum of base radius 7cm and top radius 3.5cm, and height of 6cm is stuck onto
a cylinder of base radius 7cm and height 5cm which is further attached to a hemisphere to form a
closed solid as shown below

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 Find:
(a) The volume of the solid (5mks)
(b) The surface area of the solid
(5mks)
8. A lampshade is made by cutting off the top part of a square-based pyramid VABCD as shown in
the figure below. The base and the top of the lampshade have sides of length 1.8m and 1.2m
respectively. The height of the lampshade is 2m

Calculate
a) The volume of the lampshade (4mks)
b) The total surface area of the slant surfaces (4mks)

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 c) The angle at which the face BCGF makes with the base ABCD. (2mks)
9. A solid right pyramid has a rectangular base 10cm by 8cm and slanting edge 16cm.
calculate:
(a) The vertical height
(b) The total surface area
(c) The volume of the pyramid

10. A solid cylinder of radius 6cm and height 12cm is melted and cast into spherical balls of radius
3cm. Find the number of balls made

11. The sides of a rectangular water tank are in the ratio 1: 2:3. If the volume of the tank is 1024cm3.
Find the dimensions of the tank. (4s.f)

12. The figure below represents sector OAC and OBD with radius OA and OB respectively.
Given that OB is twice OA and angle AOC = 60o. Calculate the area of the shaded region in m2,
given that OA = 12cm B

O 60o

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13. The figure below shows a closed water tank comprising of a hemispherical part surmounted on
top of a cylindrical part. The two parts have the same diameter of 2.8cm and the cylindrical part is 1.4m
high as shown:-

1.4m

d =2.8m

(a) Taking = 22, calculate:

7
(i) The total surface area of the tank
(ii) the cost of painting the tank at shs.75 per square metre
(iii) The capacity of the tank in litres
(b) Starting with the full tank, a family uses water from this tank at the rate of 185litres/day for
the first 2days. After that the family uses water at the rate of 200 liters per day. Assuming that no
more water is added, determine how many days it takes the family to use all the water from the tank
since the first day

14. The figure below represents a frustrum

of a right pyramid on a square base. The vertical height of the frustrum is 3 cm. Given that EF = FG = 6
cm and that AB = BC = 9 cm

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 Calculate;
a) The vertical height of the pyramid.
b) The surface area of the frustrum.
c) Volume of the frustrum.
d) The angle which line AE makes with the base ABCD.
15. A metal hemisphere of radius 12cm is melted done and recast into the shape of a cone of base
radius 6cm. Find the perpendicular height of the cone
16. A solid consists of three discs each of 1½ cm thick with diameter of 4 cm, 6 cm and 8 cm
respectively. A central hole 2 cm in diameter is drilled out as shown below. If the density of material used
is 2.8 g/cm3, calculate its mass to 1 decimal place

17. A right conical frustum of base radius 7 cm and top

radius 3.5 cm and height 6 cm is stuck onto a cylinder of base radius 7 cm and height 5 cm which is

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further attached to form a closed solid as shown below.

Find;
a) The volume of the solid.
b) The surface area of the solid.

18. The diagram below shows a metal solid consisting of a cone mounted on hemisphere.
The height of the cone is 1½ times its radius;

Given that the volume of the solid is 31.5π cm3, find:

(a) The radius of the cone
(b) The surface area of the solid
(c) How much water will rise if the solid is immersed totally in a cylindrical container which
contains some water, given the radius of the cylinder is 4cm
(d) The density, in kg/m3 of the solid given that the mass of the solid is 144gm

19. A solid metal sphere of volume 1280 cm3 is melted down and recast into 20 equal solid cubes.
Find the length of the side of each cube. Calculate the volume of the
frustum

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CHAPTER THIRTY EIGHT
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS AND EXPRESSIONS

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a.) Expand algebraic expressions that form quadratic equations
b.) Derive the three quadratic identities
c.) Identify and use the three quadratic identities
d.) Factorize quadratic expressions including the identities
e.) Solve quadratic equations by factorization
f.) Form and solve quadratic equations.
Content
a.) Expansion of algebraic expressions to form quadratic expressions of the form
ax2 + bx + c,where a, b and c are constants
b.) The three quadratic identities:
=
=

=
=

c.) Using the three quadratic identities

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 d.) Factorisation of quadratic expressions
e.) Solve quadratic equations by factorization
f.) Form and solve quadratic equations.

Introduction
Expansion
A quadratic is any expression of the form ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0. When the expression (x + 5) (3x + 2) is
written in the form, ,it is said to have been expanded

Example
Expand (m + 2n) (m-n)

Solution
Let (m-n) be a
Then (m + 2n)(m-n) = (m+2n)a
= ma + 2na
= m (m-n) + 2n (m-n)
=
=

Example
Expand (

Solution
(= ((
=((
=
=

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The quadratic identities.
(a + b = (
(a - b = (
(a + b)(a –b) =

Examples
(X+2 x 2+4x+4
(X-3 x 2-6x+9
(X+ 2a)(X -2a) x 2- 4

Factorization
To factorize the expression ,we look for two numbers such that their product is ac and their sum is b. a , b
are the coefficient of x while c is the constant

Example

Solution
Look for two number such that their product is 8 x 3 = 24.
Their sum is 10 where 10 is the coefficient of x,
The number are 4 and 6,
Rewrite the term 10x as 4x + 6x, thus
Use the grouping method to factorize the expression
= 4x (2x + 1) + 3 (2x + 1)
= (4x + 3) (2x + 1)

Example
Factorize

Solution
Look for two number such that the product is 6 x 6 =36 and the sum is -13.
The numbers are -4 and – 9
Therefore,
=

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 =2x (3x -2)-3(3x-2)
= (2x-3) (3x- 2)

Quadratic Equations
In this section we are looking at solving quadratic equation using factor method.

Example
Solve

Solution
Factorize the left hand side

Note;
The product of two numbers should be - 54 and the sum 3

X - 6 = 0, x +9 = 0
Hence

Example
Expand the following expression and then factorize it

Solution
=
=

(You can factorize this expression further, find two numbers whose product is)
The numbers are 4xy and –ay

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Formation of Quadratic Equations
Given the roots
Given that the roots of quadratic equations are x = 2 and x = -3, find the quadratic equation
If x = 2, then x – 2 = 0
If x= -3, then x +3 =0
Therefore, (x – 2) (x + 3) =0

Example
A rectangular room is 4 m longer than it is wide. If its area is 12 find its dimensions.

Solution
Let the width be x m .its length is then (x + 4) m.
The area of the room is x (x+4)
Therefore x (x + 4) = 12

-6 is being ignored because length cannot be negative

The length of the room is x +4 = 2 +4

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

2 y 2  xy  x 2
1. Simplify
2x 2  2 y 2
(3mks)

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2. Solve the following quadratic equation giving your answer to 3 d.p. (3mks)

23 1
  120  0.
x x2

3. Simplify
(3 mks)

16x2 - 4 ÷ 2x – 2
4x2 + 2x - 2 x +1

(4 x  2 y ) 2  (2 y  4 x) 2
4. Simplify as simple as possible
(2 z  y ) 2  ( y  2 x) 2

5. The sum of two numbers x and y is 40. Write down an expression, in terms of x, for the sum of the
squares of the two numbers.Hence determine the minimum value of x2 + y2

6. Mary has 21 coins whose total value is Kshs 72. There are twice as many five shillings coins as
there are ten shillings coins. The rest one shilling coins. Find the number of ten shilling coins that Mary
has.

7. Four farmers took their goats to the market Mohamed had two more goats than Ali Koech had 3
times as many goats as Mohamed. Whereas Odupoy had 10 goats less than both Mohamed and Koech.
I.) Write a simplified algebraic expression with one variable. Representing the total number of goats
II.) Three butchers bought all the goats and shared them equally. If each butcher got 17 goats. How
many did Odupoy sell to the butchers?

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 CHAPTER THIRTY NINE

LINEAR INEQUALITIES
Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a.) Identify and use inequality symbols
b.) Illustrate inequalities on the number line
c.) Solve linear inequalities in one unknown
d.) Represent the linear inequalities graphically
e.) Solve the linear inequalities in two unknowns graphically
f.) Form simple linear inequalities from inequality graphs.
Contents
a.) Inequalities on a number line
b.) Simple and compound inequality statements e.g. x > a and x < b = > a < x < b
c.) Linear inequality in one unknown
d.) Graphical representation of linear inequalities
e.) Graphical solutions of simultaneous linear inequalities
f.) Simple linear inequalities from inequality graphs.

Introduction
Inequality symbols

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Statements connected by these symbols are called inequalities

Simple statements
Simple statements represents only one condition as follows

X = 3 represents specific point which is number 3, while x >3 does not it represents all numbers to the right
of 3 meaning all the numbers greater than 3 as illustrated above. X< 3 represents all numbers to left of 3
meaning all the numbers less than 3.The empty circle means that 3 is not included in the list of numbers to
greater or less than 3.
The expression means that means that 3 is included in the list and the circle is shaded to show that 3 is
included.

Compound statement
A compound statement is a two simple inequalities joined by “and” or “or.” Here are two examples.
Combined into one to form -3

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Solution to simple inequalities
Example
Solve the inequality

Solution
Adding 1 to both sides gives ;
X–1+1>2+1
Therefore, x > 3

Note;
In any inequality you may add or subtract the same number from both sides.

Example
Solve the inequality.
X+3<8

Solution
Subtracting three from both sides gives
X + 3 – 3 < 8-3
X<5

Example
Solve the inequality

Subtracting three from both sides gives

2x+3–3

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Divide both sides by 2 gives

Example
Solve the inequality

Solution
Adding 2 to both sides

Multiplication and Division by a Negative Number

Multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequality by positive number leaves the inequality sign unchanged
Multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequality by negative number reverses the sense of the inequality
sign.

Example
Solve the inequality 1 -3x < 4

Solution
- 3x – 1 < 4 – 1
-3x < 3

Note that the sign is reversed X >-1

Simultaneous inequalities
Example
Solve the following
3x -1 > -4
2x +1

Solution
Solving the first inequality

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3x – 1 > _ 4
3x > -3
X > -1
Solving the second inequality

Therefore The combined inequality is

Graphical Representation of Inequality

Consider the following;

The line x = 3 satisfy the inequality , the points on the left of the line satisfy the inequality.
We don’t need the points to the right hence we shade it

Note:
We shade the unwanted region

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The line is continues because it forms part of the region e.g it starts at 3.for inequalities the line must be
continuous

For the line is not continues its dotted.This is because the value on the line does
Not satisfy the inequality.

Linear Inequality of Two Unknown

Consider the inequality y the boundary line is y = 3x + 2

If we pick any point above the line eg (-3 , 3 ) then substitute in the equation y – 3x we get 12 which is
not true so the values lies in the unwanted region hence we shade that region .

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Intersecting Regions
These are identities regions which satisfy more than one inequality simultaneously. Draw a region which
satisfy the following inequalities

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. Find the range of x if 2≤ 3 – x <5
2. Find all the integral values of x which satisfy the inequalities:
2(2-x) <4x -9<x + 11
3. Solve the inequality and show the solution

3 – 2x  x ≤ 2x + 5 on the number line

3
4. Solve the inequality x – 3 + x – 5 ≤ 4x + 6 -1
4 6 8
5. Solve and write down all the integral values satisfying the inequality.
X – 9 ≤ - 4 < 3x – 4

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 6. Show on a number line the range of all integral values of x which satisfy the following pair of
inequalities:
3–x≤1–½x
-½ (x-5) ≤ 7-x

7. Solve the inequalities 4x – 3  6x – 1  3x + 8; hence represent your solution on a number line

8. Find all the integral values of x which satisfy the inequalities

2(2-x) < 4x -9< x + 11

9. Given that x + y = 8 and x²+ y²=34

Find the value of:- a) x²+2xy+y²
b) 2xy
10. Find the inequalities satisfied by the region labelled R

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11. The region R is defined by x  0, y  -2, 2y + x  2. By drawing suitable straight line
on a sketch, show and label the region R
12. Find all the integral values of x which satisfy the inequality
3(1+ x) < 5x – 11 <x + 45

13. The vertices of the unshaded region in the figure below are O(0, 0) , B(8, 8) and A (8, 0). Write
down the inequalities which satisfy the unshaded region
y B(8, 8)

x
14. O(0,
Write down0)the inequalities
A(8,
that 0)
satisfy the given region simultaneously. (3mks)

15. Write down the inequalities that define the unshaded region marked R in the figure below. (3mks)
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16. Write down all the inequalities represented by the regions R. (3mks)

17. a) On the grid provided draw the graph of y = 4 + 3x – x2 for the integral values of x in the
interval -2  X  5. Use a scale of 2cm to represent 1 unit on the x – axis and 1 cm to represent 1 unit on
the y – axis. (6mks)
b) State the turning point of the graph. (1mk)
c) Use your graph to solve.
(i) -x2 + 3x + 4 = 0
(ii) 4x = x2

CHAPTER FOURTY
LINEAR MOTION 277
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Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a.) Define displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration
a.) Distinguish between:
 distance and displacement
 speed and velocity
b.) Determine velocity and acceleration
c.) Plot and draw graphs of linear motion (distance and velocity time graphs)
d.) Interpret graphs of linear motion
e.) Define relative speed
f.) Solve the problems involving relative speed.
Content
a.) Displacement, velocity, speed and acceleration
b.) Determining velocity and acceleration
c.) Relative speed
d.) Distance - time graph
e.) Velocity time graph
f.) Interpretation of graphs of linear motion
g.) Solving problems involving relative speed

Introduction

Distance between the two points is the length of the path joining them while displacement is the distance
in a specified direction

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Speed
Average speed

Example
A man walks for 40 minutes at 60 km/hour, then travels for two hours in a minibus at 80 km/hour. Finally,
he travels by bus for one hour at 60 km/h. Find his speed for the whole journey .

Solution
Average speed
Total distance =
Total time =
Average speed
=

Velocity and acceleration

For motion under constant acceleration;

Example
A car moving in a given direction under constant acceleration. If its velocity at a certain time is 75 km /h
and 10 seconds later its 90 km /hr.

Solution

Example
A car moving with a velocity of 50 km/h then the brakes are applied so that it stops after 20 seconds .in this
case the final velocity is 0 km/h and initial velocity is 50 km/h.

Solution
Acceleration =

Negative acceleration is always referred to as deceleration or retardation

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Distance time graph.
When distance is plotted against time, a distance time graph is obtained.

Velocity—time Graph
When velocity is plotted against time, a velocity time graph is obtained.

Relative Speed
Consider two bodies moving in the same direction at different speeds. Their relative speed is the difference
between the individual speeds.

Example
A van left Nairobi for kakamega at an average speed of 80 km/h. After half an hour, a car left Nairobi for
Kakamega at a speed of 100 km/h.

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 a.) Find the relative speed of the two vehicles.
b.) How far from Nairobi did the car over take the van
Solution
Relative speed = difference between the speeds
= 100 – 80
= 20 km/h

Distance covered by the van in 30 minutes

Distance =
Time taken for car to overtake matatu

= 2 hours
Distance from Nairobi = 2 x 100 =200 km

Example
A truck left Nyeri at 7.00 am for Nairobi at an average speed of 60 km/h. At 8.00 am a bus left Nairobi for
Nyeri at speed of 120 km/h .How far from nyeri did the vehicles meet if Nyeri is 160 km from Nairobi?

Solution
Distance covered by the lorry in 1 hour = 1 x 60
= 60 km
Distance between the two vehicle at 8.00 am = 160 – 100
= 100km
Relative speed = 60 km/h + 120 km/h
Time taken for the vehicle to meet =
=
Distance from Nyeri = 60 x x 60
= 60 + 33.3
= 93.3 km

End of topic

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If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

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Past KCSE Questions on the topic.
1. A bus takes 195 minutes to travel a distance of (2x + 30) km at an average speed of
(x -20) km/h Calculate the actual distance traveled. Give your answers in
kilometers.
2.) The table shows the height metres of an object thrown vertically upwards varies with the time t seconds.
The relationship between s and t is represented by the equations s = at2 + bt + 10 where b are constants.

t 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
s 45.1

I.) Using the information in the table, determine the values of a and b ( 2 marks)
II.) Complete the table ( 1 mark)

(b) (i) Draw a graph to represent the relationship between s and t ( 3 marks)
(ii) Using the graph determine the velocity of the object when t = 5 seconds
(2 marks)
3.) Two Lorries A and B ferry goods between two towns which are 3120 km apart. Lorry A traveled at
km/h faster than lorry B and B takes 4 hours more than lorry A to cover the distance.Calculate the speed of
lorry B
4.) A matatus left town A at 7 a.m. and travelled towards a town B at an average speed of 60 km/h. A
second matatus left town B at 8 a.m. and travelled towards town A at 60 km/h. If the distance between the
two towns is 400 km, find;
I.) The time at which the two matatus met
II.) The distance of the meeting point from town A

5. The figure below is a velocity time graph for a car.

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 y

80
Velocity (m/s)

0 4 20 24 x
Time (seconds)
(a) Find the total distance traveled by the car. (2 marks)
(b) Calculate the deceleration of the car. (2 marks)
6. A bus started from rest and accelerated to a speed of 60km/h as it passed a billboard. A car moving
in the same direction at a speed of 100km/h passed the billboard 45 minutes later. How far from the billboard
did the car catch up with the bus? (3mks)
7. Nairobi and Eldoret are each 250km from Nakuru. At 8.15am a lorry leaves Nakuru for Nairobi.
At 9.30am a car leaves Eldoret for Nairobi along the same route at 100km/h. Both vehicles arrive
at Nairobi at the same time.
(a) Calculate their time of arrival in Nairobi (2mks)
(b) Find the cars speed relative to that of the lorry. (4mks)
(c) How far apart are the vehicles at 12.45pm. (4mks)

8. Two towns P and Q are 400 km apart. A bus left P for Q. It stopped at Q for one hour and then
started the return journey to P. One hour after the departure of the bus from P, a trailer also heading
for Q left P. The trailer met the returning bus ¾ of the way from P to Q. They met t hours after the
departure of the bus from P.
(a) Express the average speed of the trailer in terms of t
(b) Find the ration of the speed of the bus so that of the trailer.
9. The athletes in an 800 metres race take 104 seconds and 108 seconds respectively to complete the
race. Assuming each athlete is running at a constant speed. Calculate the distance between them
when the faster athlete is at the finishing line.
10. A and B are towns 360 km apart. An express bus departs form A at 8 am and maintains an average
speed of 90 km/h between A and B. Another bus starts from B also at 8 am and moves towards A
making four stops at four equally spaced points between B and A. Each stop is of duration 5 minutes

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 and the average speed between any two spots is 60 km/h. Calculate distance between the two buses
at 10 am.
11. Two towns A and B are 220 km apart. A bus left town A at 11. 00 am and traveled towards B at 60
km/h. At the same time, a matatu left town B for town A and traveled at 80 km/h. The matatu
stopped for a total of 45 minutes on the way before meeting the bus. Calculate the distance covered
by the bus before meeting the matatu.
12. A bus travels from Nairobi to Kakamega and back. The average speed from Nairobi to Kakamega
is 80 km/hr while that from Kakamega to Nairobi is 50 km/hr, the fuel consumption is 0.35 litres
per kilometer and at 80 km/h, the consumption is 0.3 litres per kilometer .Find
i) Total fuel consumption for the round trip
ii) Average fuel consumption per hour for the round trip.
13. The distance between towns M and N is 280 km. A car and a lorry travel from M to N. The average
speed of the lorry is 20 km/h less than that of the car. The lorry takes 1h 10 min more than the car
to travel from M and N.
(a) If the speed of the lorry is x km/h, find x (5mks)
(b) The lorry left town M at 8: 15 a.m. The car left town M and overtook the lorry at 12.15 p.m.
Calculate the time the car left town M.
14. A bus left Mombasa and traveled towards Nairobi at an average speed of 60 km/hr. after 21/2
hours; a car left Mombasa and traveled along the same road at an average speed of 100 km/ hr. If
the distance between Mombasa and Nairobi is 500 km, Determine
(a) (i) The distance of the bus from Nairobi when the car took off (2mks)
(ii) The distance the car traveled to catch up with the bus
(b) Immediately the car caught up with the bus
(c) The car stopped for 25 minutes. Find the new average speed at which the car traveled in
order to reach Nairobi at the same time as the bus.
15. A rally car traveled for 2 hours 40 minutes at an average speed of 120 km/h. The car consumes an
average of 1 litre of fuel for every 4 kilometers.
A litre of the fuel costs Kshs 59
Calculate the amount of money spent on fuel

16. A passenger notices that she had forgotten her bag in a bus 12 minutes after the bus had left. To
catch up with the bus she immediately took a taxi which traveled at 95 km/hr. The bus maintained
an average speed of 75 km/ hr. determine
(a) The distance covered by the bus in 12 minutes
(b) The distance covered by the taxi to catch up with the bus

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17. The athletes in an 800 metre race take 104 seconds and 108 seconds respectively to complete the
race. Assuming each athlete is running at a constant speed. Calculate the distance between them
when the faster athlete is at the finishing line.
18. Mwangi and Otieno live 40 km apart. Mwangi starts from his home at 7.30 am and cycles towards
Otieno’s house at 16 km/ h Otieno starts from his home at 8.00 and cycles at 8 km/h towards
Mwangi at what time do they meet?

19. A train moving at an average speed of 72 km/h takes 15 seconds to completely cross a bridge that
is 80m long.
(a) Express 72 km/h in metres per second
(b) Find the length of the train in metres

CHAPTER FOURTY ONE

STATISTICS (I)

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a.) Define statistics
b.) Collect and organize data
c.) Draw a frequency distribution table
d.) Group data into reasonable classes
e.) Calculate measures of central tendency
f.) Represent data in form of line graphs, bar graphs, pie-charts, pictogram,histogram and frequency
polygons
g.) Interpret data from real life situations.
Content
a.) Definition of statistics
b.) Collection and organization of data
c.) Frequency distribution tables (for grouped and ungrouped data)
d.) Grouping data
e.) Mean, mode and median for ungrouped and grouped data
f.) Representation of data: line graph, Bar graph, Pie chart, Pictogram, Histogram, Frequency polygon
interpretation of data.

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Introduction

This is the branch of mathematics that deals with the collection, organization, representation and
interpretation of data. Data is the basic information.

Frequency Distribution table

A data table that lists a set of scores and their frequency

Tally
In tallying each stroke represent a quantity.

Frequency
This is the number of times an item or value occurs.

Mean
This is usually referred to as arithmetic mean, and is the average value for the data

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The mean

Mode
This is the most frequent item or value in a distribution or data. In the above table its 7 which is the most
frequent.

Median
To get the median arrange the items in order of size. If there are N items and N is an odd number, the item
occupying.
If N is even, the average of the items occupying

Grouped data
Then difference between the smallest and the biggest values in a set of data is called the range. The data
can be grouped into a convenient number of groups called classes. 30 – 40 are called class boundaries.
The class with the highest frequency is called the modal class. In this case its 50, the class width or interval
is obtained by getting the difference between the class limits. In this case, 30 – 40 = 10, to get the mid-point
you divide it by 2 and add it to the lower class limit.

The mean mass in the table above is

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Mean

Representation of statistical data

The main purpose of representation of statistical data is to make collected data more easily understood.
Methods of representation of data include.

Bar graph
Consist of a number of spaced rectangles which generally have major axes vertical. Bars are uniform width.
The axes must be labelled and scales indicated.

The students’ favorite juices are as follows

Red 2
Orange 8
Yellow 10
Purple 6

Pictograms
In a pictogram, data is represented using pictures.

Consider the following data.

The data shows the number of people who love the following animals
Dogs 250, Cats 350, Horses 150 , fish 150

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Pie chart
A pie chart is divided into various sectors .Each sector represent a certain quantity of the item being
considered .the size of the sector is proportional to the quantity being measured .consider the export of US
to the following countries. Canada $ 13390, Mexico $ 8136, Japan $5824, France $ 2110 .This information
can be represented in a pie chart as follows
Canada angle

Mexico

Japan France

Line graph
Data represented using lines

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Histograms
Frequency in each class is represented by a rectangular bar whose area is proportional to the frequency
.when the bars are of the same width the height of the rectangle is proportional to the frequency .

Note;
The bars are joined together.
The class boundaries mark the boundaries of the rectangular bars in the histogram

Histograms can also be drawn when the class interval is not the same

The below information can be represented in a histogram as below

Marks 10- 14 15- 24 25 - 29 30 - 44

No.of 5 16 4 15
students
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Note ;
When the class is doubled the frequency is halved

Frequency polygon
It is obtained by plotting the frequency against mid points.

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 End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. The height of 36 students in a class was recorded to the nearest centimeters as follows.
148 159 163 158 166 155 155 179 158 155 171 172
156 161 160 165 157 165 175 173 172 178 159 168
160 167 147 168 172 157 165 154 170 157 162 173
(a) Make a grouped table with 145.5 as lower class limit and class width of 5. (4mks)

2. Below is a histogram, draw.

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 5.0
4.5
4.0
Frequency density

3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5

11.5 13. 17. 15. 23.5

Length
5 5 5

Use the histogram above to complete the frequency table below:

Length Frequency
11.5 ≤ x ≤13.5
13.5 ≤ x ≤15.5 3.
Kambui
15.5 ≤ x ≤ 17.5
spent her salary as
follows: 17.5 ≤ x ≤23.5

Food 40%
Transport 10%

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 Education 20%

Clothing 20%
Rent 10%

Draw a pie chart to represent the above information

4. The examination marks in a mathematics test for 60 students were as follows;-

60 54 34 83 52 74 61 27 65 22

70 71 47 60 63 59 58 46 39 35

69 42 53 74 92 27 39 41 49 54

25 51 71 59 68 73 90 88 93 85
46 82 58 85 61 69 24 40 88 34

30 26 17 15 80 90 65 55 69 89

Class Tally Frequency Upper class limit

10-29
30-39
40-69
70-74
75-89
90-99

From the table;

(a) State the modal class
(b) On the grid provided , draw a histogram to represent the above information
5. The marks scored by 200 from 4 students of a school were recorded as in the table below.

Marks 41 – 50 51 – 55 56 – 65 66 – 70 71 – 85

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 Frequency 21 62 55 50 12

a.) On the graph paper provided, draw a histogram to represent this information.
b.) On the same diagram, construct a frequency polygon.
c.) Use your histogram to estimate the modal mark.
6. The diagram below shows a histogram representing the marks obtained in a certain test:-

6
Frequency Density

1
0
4.5 9.5 Marks 19.5 39.5 49.5

(a) If the frequency of the first class is 20, prepare a frequency distribution table for the data
(b) State the modal class
(c) Estimate: (i) The mean mark
(ii) The median mark

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CHAPTER FOURTY TWO
ANGLE PROPERTIES OF A CIRCLE

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a.) Identify an arc, chord and segment
b.) Relate and compute angle subtended by an arc at the circumference;
c.) Relate and compute angle subtended by an arc at the centre and at the circumference
d.) State the angle in the semi-circle
e.) State the angle properties of a cyclic quadrilateral
f.) Find and compute angles of a cyclic quadrilateral.
Content
a.) Arc, chord and segment.
b.) Angle subtended by the same arc at the circumference
c.) Relationship between angle subtended at the centre and angle subtended on the circumference by
the same arc
d.) Angle in a semi-circle
e.) Angle properties of a cyclic quadrilateral
f.) Finding angles of a cyclic quadrilateral.

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Introduction

Arc, Chord and Segment of a circle

Arc
Any part on the circumference of a circle is called an arc. We have the major arc and the minor Arc as
shown below.

Chord
A line joining any two points on the circumference. Chord divides a circle into two regions called segments,
the larger one is called the major segment the smaller part is called the minor segment.

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Angle at the centre and Angle on the circumference
The angle which the chord subtends to the centre is twice that it subtends at any point on the circumference
of the circle.

Angle in the same segments

Angles subtended on the circumference by the same arc in the same segment are equal. Also note that equal
arcs subtend equal angles on the circumference

Cyclic quadrilaterals
Quadrilateral with all the vertices lying on the circumference are called cyclic quadrilateral

Angle properties of cyclic quadrilateral

 The opposite angles of cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary hence they add up to.
 If a side of quadrilateral is produced the interior angle is equal to the opposite exterior angle.

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Example
In the figure below find

Solution
Using this rule, If a side of quadrilateral is produced the interior angle is equal to the opposite exterior angle.
Find

Angles formed by the diameter to the circumference is always

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Summary
 Angle in semicircle = right angle
 Angle at centre is twice than at circumference
 Angles in same segment are equal
 Angles in opposite segments are supplementary

Example

1.) In the diagram, O is the centre of the circle and AD is parallel to BC. If angle ACB =50o
and angle ACD = 20o.
C

o
20o 50

D O
Calculate; (i) OAB

(ii) ADC

A B
Solution i) ∠ AOB = 2 ∠ ACB
= 100o
∠ OAB = 180 – 100 Base angles of Isosceles ∆
2
= 400
(ii) ∠B AD = 1800 - 700
= 110

End of topic

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If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

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Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. The figure below shows a circle centre O and a cyclic quadrilateral ABCD. AC = CD, angle
ACD is 80o and BOD is a straight line. Giving reasons for your answer, find the size of :-

80
o
B

O
A
C

(i) Angle ACB

(ii) Angle AOD
(iii) Angle CAB
(iv) Angle ABC
(v) Angle AXB

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2 In the figure below CP= CQ and <CQP =
1600. If ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral, find < BAD.

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3 In the figure below AOC is a diameter of the
circle centre O; AB = BC and < ACD = 250, EBF is a tangent to the circle at B.G is a point on
the minor arc CD.

(a) Calculate the size of

(i) < BAD

(ii) The Obtuse < BOD

(iii) < BGD

(b) Show the < ABE = < CBF. Give reasons

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4 In the figure below PQR is the tangent
to circle at Q. TS is a diameter and TSR and QUV are straight lines. QS is parallel to TV.
Angles SQR = 400 and angle TQV = 550

Find the following angles, giving reasons for each answer

(a) QST
(b) QRS
(c) QVT
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 (d) UTV

4. In the figure below,

QOT is a diameter. QTR = 480, TQR = 760 and SRT = 370

Calculate
(a) <RST
(b) <SUT
(c) Obtuse <ROT
5. In the figure below, points O and P are centers of intersecting circles ABD and
BCD respectively. Line ABE is a tangent to circle BCD at B. Angle BCD = 420

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 (a) Stating reasons, determine the size of
(i) <CBD
(ii) Reflex <BOD
(b) Show that ∆ ABD is isosceles
6. The diagram below shows a circle ABCDE. The line FEG is a tangent to the circle at point E.
Line DE is parallel to CG, < DEC = 280 and < AGE = 320

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 Calculate:
(a) < AEG
(b) < ABC
7. In the figure below R, T and S are points on a circle centre OPQ is a tangent
to

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 the circle at T. POR
is a straight line and  QPR = 20 0

Find the size of  RST

CHAPTER FOURTY THREE

VECTORS

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a.) Define vector and scalar
b.) Use vector notation
c.) Represent vectors both single and combined geometrically

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 d.) Identify equivalent vectors
e.) Add vectors
f.) Multiply vectors by scalars
g.) Define position vector and column vector
h.) Find magnitude of a vector
i.) Find mid-point of a vector
j.) Define translation as a transformation.
Content
a.) Vector and scalar quantities
b.) Vector notation
c.) Representation of vectors
d.) Equivalent vectors
e.) Addition of vectors
f.) Multiplication of a vector by a scalar
g.) Column vectors
h.) Position vectors
i.) Magnitude of a vector
j.) Midpoint of a vector
k.) Translation vector.

Introduction

A vector is a quantity with both magnitude and direction, e.g. acceleration velocity and force. A quantity
with magnitude only is called scalar quantity e.g. mass temperature and time.

Representation of vectors
A vector can be presented by a directed line as shown below:

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The direction of the vector is shown by the arrow.
Magnitude is the length of AB
Vector AB can be written as
Magnitude is denoted by |AB|
A is the initial point and B the terminal point

Equivalent vectors
Two or more vectors are said to be equivalent if they have:
 Equal magnitude
 The same direction.

Addition of vectors
A movement on a straight line from point A to B can be represented using a vector. This movement is called
displacement
Consider the displacement from followed by

The resulting displacement is written as

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Zero vector

Consider a diplacement from A to B and back to A .The total displacement is zero denoted by O
This vector is called a Zero or null vector.
AB + BA = O
If a + b = 0 , b = -a or a = - b

Multiplication of a vector by a scalar

Positive Scalar
If AB= BC =CD=a
A______B______C______D>
AD = a + a +a =3a
Negative scalar
Subtraction of one vector from another is performed by adding the corresponding negative
Vector. That is, if we seek a − b we form a + (−b).
DA = (- a) + (-a) + (-a)
= -3a
The zero Scalar
When vector a is multiplied by o, its magnitude is zero times that of a. The result is zero vector.
a.0 = 0.a = 0
Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar
If k is any positive scalar and a is a vector then ka is a vector in the same direction as a but k times longer.
If k is negative, ka is a vector in the opposite direction to a andk times longer.

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More illustrations……………………………………………

A vector is represented by a directed line segment, which is a segment

with an arrow at one end indicating the direction of
movement. Unlike a ray, a directed line segment has a specific
length.
The direction is indicated by an arrow pointing from thetail(the
initial point) to the head (the terminal point). If the tail is at point A
and the head is at point B, the vector from A to B is written as:

notation:
(Vectors may also be labeled as a single bold face letter, such as
vector v.)

The length (magnitude) of a vector v is written |v|. Length is always

a non-negative real number.
As you can see in the diagram at the right, the length of a vector can
be found by forming a right triangle and utilizing the Pythagorean
Theorem or by using the Distance Formula.
The vector at the right translates 6 units to the right and 4 units

upward. The magnitude of the vector is from the Pythagorean

Theorem, or from the Distance Formula:

| |

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The direction of a vector is determined by the angle it makes with a
horizontal line.
In the diagram at the right, to find the direction of the vector (in
degrees) we will utilize trigonometry. The tangent of the angle formed
by the vector and the horizontal line (the one drawn parallel to the x-
axis) is 4/6 (opposite/adjacent).

A free vector is an infinite set of parallel directed line segments and can be thought of as a
translation. Notice that the vectors in this translation which connect the pre-image vertices to the image
vertices are all parallel and are all the same length.
You may also hear the terms "displacement" vector or "translation" vector when working with translations.

Position vector:
To each free vector (or translation), there corresponds a position vector which is the image of the origin
under that translation.
Unlike a free vector, a position vector is "tied" or "fixed" to the origin. A position vector describes the
spatial position of a point relative to the origin.
TRANSLATION VECTOR
Translation vector moves every point of an object by the same amount in the given vector direction. It can
be simply be defined as the addition of a constant vector to every point.

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 Translations and vectors: The translation at the left
shows a vector translating the top triangle 4 units to the
right and 9 units downward. The notation for such vector
movement may be written as:

or

Vectors such as those used in translations are what is

known as free vectors. Any two vectors of the same length
and parallel to each other are considered identical. They
need not have the same initial and terminal points.

Example
The points A (-4 ,4 ) , B (-2 ,3) , C (-4 , 1 ) and D ( - 5 , 3) are vrtices of a quadrilateral. If the quadrilateral
is given the translation T defined by the vector

Solution

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 Summary on vectors
y
Components of a Vector in 2 dimensions:
B
To get from A to B you would move: u
4
2 units in the x direction (x- A
2
component)
x
4 units in the y direction (y- y
component)
D
v
2
-3 C
The components of the vector are these
moves in the form of a column vector.  x
x A 2-dimensional column vector is of the form  
 y
 2  2
thus AB    or u   
 4  4

 3   3 
Similarly: CD    or v   
 2 2

Magnitude of a Vector in 2 dimensions:

We write the magnitude of u as | u | The magnitude of vector u is |u| (the length of PQ)
y
 x
u    then u  x 2  y 2 Q
 y u
4

P
8

x The length of PQ is written as PQ

The magnitude of a vector is the length of
the directed line segment which represents 8 2
it. PQ    then PQ  82  42
 4

and so PQ  8  4  80  8.9
2 2
Use Pythagoras’ Theorem
to calculate the length of the vector.

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Examples: 1

1. Draw a directed line segment 3 Solutions:

representing  3  y

1 Q (6, 4)

3
 4
2. PQ   and P is (2, 1), find co- P
(2, 1) 4
 3 x

ordinates of Q
1.

3. P is (1, 3) and Q is (4, 1) find PQ

2. Q is ( 2 + 4, 1 + 3)  Q(6, 4)

P (1, 3)

-2
Q (4, 1)
3

 4 1  3 
3. PQ      
 13   2 

Vector: Examples:
A quantity which has magnitude and Displacement, force, velocity, acceleration.
direction.
Examples:
Scalar:
Temperature, work, width, height, length, time of day.
A quantity which has magnitude only.

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 End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

10    14 
1. Given that 4 p  3q    and p  2q    find
5  15 

c) (i) p and q (3 mks)

 

(ii) | p  2q | (3 mks)
(b) Show that A (1, -1), B (3, 5) and C (5, 11) are collinear (4 mks)

 1   6    3
      1
2. Given the column vectors a    2 b    3 c   2  and that p  2a  b  c
 1   9   3  3
     

(c) (i) Express p as a column vector (2mks)

(d) (ii) Determine the magnitude of p (1mk)
3. Given the points P(-6, -3), Q(-2, -1) and R(6, 3) express PQ and QR as column vectors. Hence
show that the points P, Q and R are collinear. (3mks)

4. The position vectors of points x and y are x  2i  j  3k and y  3i  2 j  2k respectively.

Find x y as a column vector (2 mks)

1   4  3
5. Given that a    , b    , c    and P  2 a  b  3 c . find p (3mks)
~
2 ~  5  ~   2  ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

6. The position vectors of A and B are 2 and 8 respectively. Find the coordinates of M
5 -7
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 which divides AB in the ratio 1:2. (3 marks)

7. The diagram shows the graph of vectors EF , FG and GH .

~ ~ ~

Find the column vectors;

(a) EH (1mk)
~

(b) | EH | (2mks)
~

8. OA  2 i  4 k and OB  2 i  j  k . Find AB (2mks)

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

9. Find scalars m and n such that

m 4 + n -3 =5
3 2 8

10. Given that p = 2i – j + k and q = i + j +2k, determine

(a.) │p + q│ (1 mk)

(b) │ ½ p – 2q │ (2 mks)

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 MATHEMATICS (121)
PAPER TWO
ALTERNATIVE A
INTRODUCTION
 Questions in this paper will mainly test topics from Form 3 and 4. However knowledge and skills
acquired in form 1 and form 2 will be required
 The time allocated for this paper is 2 ½ hours
 The paper consist of a total of 100 marks
 The paper shall consist of two section: : Section 1 and II

Section I
This section will have 50 marks and sixteen (16) compulsory short- answer questions
Section II

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This section will have 50 marks and a choice of eight (8) open ended question, for candidates to answer
any five (5).The students should note that any attempted questions in this section will be marked if they are
not cancelled

CHAPTER FOURTY FOUR

QUADRATIC EXPRESSION AND EQUATIONS

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) Factorize quadratic expressions;

(b) Identify perfect squares;
(c) Complete the square;
(d) Solving quadratic equations by completing the square;
(e) Derive the quadratic formula;
(f) Solve quadratic equations using the formula;
(g) Form and solve quadratic equations from roots and given situations;
(h) Make tables of values from a quadratic relation;

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(i) Draw the graph of a quadratic relation;
(j) Solve quadratic equations using graphs;
(k) Solve simultaneous equations (one linear and one quadratic) analytically and graphically;
(1) Apply the knowledge of quadratic equations to real life situations.

Content
(a) Factorization of quadratic expressions
(b) Perfect squares
(c) Completion of the squares
(d) Solution of quadratic equations by completing the square
(e) Quadratic formula x = -b ±
(f) Solution of quadratic equations using the formula.
(g) Formation of quadratic equations and solving them
(h) Tables of values for a given quadratic relation
(i) Graphs of quadratic equations
(j) Simultaneous equation - one linear and one quadratic
(k) Application of quadratic equation to real life situation.

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Perfect square
Expressions which can be factorized into two equal factors are called perfect squares.

Completing the square

Any quadratic expression can be simplified and written in the form where a, b and c are constant and a is
not equal to zero. We use the expression to make a perfect square.
We are first going to look for expression where coefficient of x = 1

Example
What must be added to + 10 x to make it a perfect square?

Solution
 Let the number to be added be a constant c.
 Then + 10x + c is a perfect square.
 Using
 (10 /2 = c
 C = 25 (25 must be added)
Example
What must be added to + _ + 36 to make it a perfect square

Solution
 Let the term to be added be bx where b is a constant
 Then + bx +36 is a perfect square.
 Using

 b =12 x or -12 x

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We will now consider the situations where a eg

In the above you will notice that ac . We use this expression to make perfect squares where a is not one
and its not zero.

Example
What must be added to + _ + 9 to make it a perfect square?

Solution
 Let the term to be added be bx.
 Then, + bx + 9 is a perfect square.
 .


 The term to be added is thus.
Example
What must be added to _ - 40x + 25 to make it a perfect square?

Solution
 Let the term to be added be a
 Then - 40x + 25 is a perfect square.
 Using




Solutions of quadratic equations by completing the square methods

Example
Solve + 5x+ 1 = 0 by completing the square.

solution
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+ 5x+ 1 = 0 Write original equation.
+ 5x = -1 Write the left side in the form + bx.
+ 10x + ( = ( Add to both sides
+ 10x + =
= Take square roots of each side and factorize the left side
=Solve for x.
Simplify
Therefore x = - 0.2085 or 4.792

Cannot be solved by factorization.

Example
Solve + 4x+ 1 = 0 by completing the square

Solution
+ 4x =-1 make cooeffiecient of one by dividing both sides by 2
+ 2x = -1/2
+ 2x + 1 = - + 1
Adding 1 to complete the square on the LHS

The quadratic formula

Example
Using quadratic formula solve

Solution
Comparing this equation to the general equation we get;a =2 b =-5 c =-5

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Substituting in the quadratic formulae
X=

=
=

X = 3 or -

Formation of quadratic equations

Peter travels to his uncle’s home,30 km away from his place. He travels for two thirds of the journey before
the bicycle developed mechanical problems an he had to push it for the rest of the journey. If his cycling
speed is 10 km\h faster than his walking speed and he completes the journey in 3 hours 30 minutes,
determine his cycling speed .

Solution
Let Peters cycling speed be x km\ h , then his walking speed is (x-10 ) km/h.
Time taken in cycling

Time taken in walking = (30 – 20)( x -10 )

Total time h
Therefore

60(x-10) + 30 (x) = 10(x) (x-10)

– 190x + 600 = 0
- 19x + 60 = 0

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If his cycling speed is 4 km/h , then his walking speed is (4 -10 ) km/h, which gives – 6 km/h.Thus,
4 is not a realistic answer to this situation.therefore his cycling speed is 15 km/h.

Example
A posite two digit number is such that the product of the digit is 24.When the digits are reversed , the
number formed is greater than than the original number by 18. Find the number

Solution
Let the ones digit of the number be y and the tens digit be x,
Then , xy = 24…………..1
When the number is reversed, the ones digit is x and the tens digit is y.
Therefore;

(10y + x) – (10x +y) = 18

9y- 9x = 18

Substituting 2 in equation 1 gives;

Since the required number is positive x =4 and y = 4 + 2 =6

Therefore the number is 46

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Graphs of quadratic functions
A quadratic function has the form y = ax2 + bx + c where a ≠ 0. The graph of a quadratic function isU-
shaped and is called a parabola. For instance, the graphs of y = and y = e
Shown below. The origin (0, 0) is the lowest point on the graph of y = and the highest point on the graph
of y = . The lowest or highest point on the graph of a quadratic function is called the vertex.
The graphs of y = and y = are symmetric about the y-axis, called the axis of symmetry. In general, the axis
of symmetry for the graph of a quadratic function is the vertical line through the vertex..

Notes;
The graph of y = and y =or .

Example
Draw the graph of y =

Solution
Make a table showing corresponding value of x and y.

X -1 0 1 2 3
Y -8 -1 2 1 -4

Note ; To get the values replace the value of x in the equation to get the corresponding value of x

E. g y = -2 ( -1

y = -2 ( 0

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Example
Draw the graph of y =

x 0 1 2 3 5 7
y 2 -4 -8 -10 -8 2

Graphical solutions of simultaneous equations

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We should consider simultaneous equation one of which is linear and the other one is quadratic.

Example
Solve the following simultaneous equations graphically:

Solution
Corresponding values of x and y
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x
y 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 y

We use the table to draw the graph as shown below, on the same axis the line y = 5-2x is drawn. Points
where the line y =5 -2x and the curve intersect give the solution. The points are (- 2, 9) and (2,1).Therefore
, when x = -2, y = 9 and when x = 2, y= 1
End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. The table shows the height metres of an object thrown vertically upwards varies with the time t
seconds
The relationship between s and t is represented by the equations s = at 2 + bt + 10 where b are
constants.

t 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
s 45.1

(a) (i) Using the information in the table, determine the values of a and b
(2 marks)
(ii) Complete the table (1 mark)
(b)(i) Draw a graph to represent the relationship between s and t (3 marks)

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 (ii) Using the graph determine the velocity of the object when t = 5 seconds
2. (a) Construct a table of value for the function y = x2 – x – 6 for -3≤ x ≤ 4
(b) On the graph paper draw the graph of the function
Y=x2 – x – 6 for -3 ≤ x ≤4
(c) By drawing a suitable line on the same grid estimate the roots of the equation x2 + 2x
– 2 =0
3. (a) Draw the graph of y= 6+x-x2, taking integral value of x in -4 ≤ x ≤ 5. (The
grid is provided. Using the same axes draw the graph of y = 2 – 2x
(b) From your graphs, find the values of X which satisfy the simultaneous
equations y = 6 + x - x2
y = 2 – 2x
(c) Write down and simplify a quadratic equation which is satisfied by the
values of x where the two graphs intersect.
4. (a) Complete the following table for the equation y = x3 – 5x2 + 2x + 9
x -2 -1.5 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x2 -3.4 -1 0 1 27 64 125

-5x2 -20 -11.3 -5 0 -1 -20 -45

2x -4 -3 0 2 4 6 8 10

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 99
-8.7 9 7 -3

(b) On the grid provided draw the graph of y = x3 – 5x2 + 2x + 9 for -2 ≤ x ≤ 5

(c) Using the graph estimate the root of the equation x3 – 5x2 + 2 + 9 = 0 between x =
2 and x = 3
(d) Using the same axes draw the graph of y = 4 – 4x and estimate a solution to the
equation x2 – 5x2 + 6x + 5 =0
5. (a) Complete the table below, for function y = 2x2 + 4x -3
x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
2x2 32 8 2 0 2

4x - 3 -11 -3 5

y -3 3 13

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 (b) On the grid provided, draw the graph of the function y=2x2 + 4x -3 for
-4 ≤ x ≤ 2 and use the graph to estimate the rots of the equation 2x2+4x – 3 = 0 to 1 decimal
place. (2mks)
(c) In order to solve graphically the equation 2x2 +x -5 =0, a straight line must be drawn to
intersect the curve y = 2x2 + 4x – 3. Determine the equation of this straight line, draw the
straight line hence obtain the roots.
2x2 + x – 5 to 1 decimal place.
6. (a) (i) Complete the table below for the function y = x3 + x2 – 2x (2mks)

x -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 2 2.5

x3 15.63 -0.13 1

x2 4 0.25 6.25

-2x 1 -2

y 1.87 0.63 16.88

(ii) On the grid provided, draw the graph of y = x3 + x2 – 2x for the values of x in the
interval – 3 ≤ x ≤ 2.5
(iii) State the range of negative values of x for which y is also negative
(b) Find the coordinates of two points on the curve other than (0, 0) at which x- coordinate and
y- coordinate are equal
7. The table shows some corresponding values of x and y for the curve represented by Y = ¼ x3 -2

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Y -8.8 -4 -2.3 -2 -1.8 0 4.8

On the grid provided below, draw the graph of y = ¼ x2 -2 for -3 ≤ x ≤3. Use the graph to estimate
the value of x when y = 2
8. A retailer planned to buy some computers form a wholesaler for a total of Kshs 1,800,000. Before
the retailer could buy the computers the price per unit was reduced by Kshs 4,000. This reduction
in price enabled the retailer to buy five more computers using the same amount of money as
originally planned.
(a) Determine the number of computers the retailer bought
(b) Two of the computers purchased got damaged while in store, the rest were sold and the
retailer made a 15% profit Calculate the profit made by the retailer on each computer sold

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9. The figure below is a sketch of the graph of the quadratic function y = k

( x+1) (x-2)

Find the value of k

10. (a) Draw the graph of y= x2 – 2x + 1 for values -2 ≤ x ≤ 4
(b) Use the graph to solve the equations x2 – 4= 0 and line y = 2x +5
11. (a) Draw the graph of y = x3 + x2 – 2x for -3≤ x ≤ 3 take scale of 2cm to
represent 5 units as the horizontal axis
(b) Use the graph to solve x3 + x 2 – 6 -4 = 0 by drawing a suitable linear graph on the same
axes.

12. Solve graphically the simultaneous equations 3x – 2y = 5 and 5x + y = 17

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 CHAPTER FOURTY TWO

APPROXIMATION AND ERROR

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) Perform various computations using a calculator;

(b) Make reasonable approximations and estimations of quantities incomputations and
measurements;
(c) Express values to a given number of significant figures;
(d) Define absolute, relative, percentage, round-off and truncation errors;
(e) Determine possible errors made from computations;
(f) Find maximum and minimum errors from operations.

Content
(a) Computing using calculators
(b) Estimations and approximations
(c) Significant figures
(d) Absolute, relative, percentage, round-off (including significant figures)and truncation errors
(e) Propagation of errors from simple calculations
(f) Maximum and minimum errors.

Approximation
Approximation involves rounding off and truncating numbers to give an estimation

Rounding off

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In rounding off the place value to which a number is to be rounded off must be stated. The digit occupying
the next lower place value is considered. The number is rounded up if the digit is greater or equal to 5 and
rounded down if it’s less than 5.
Example
Round off 395.184 to:
a. The nearest hundreds
b. Four significant figures
c. The nearest whole number
d. Two decimal places
Solution
a. 400
b. 395 .2
c. 395
d. 395.18

Truncating
Truncating means cutting off numbers to the given decimal places or significant figures, ignoring the rest.
Example
Truncate 3.2465 to
a. 3 decimal places
b. 3 significant figures
Solution
a. 3.246
b. 3.24

Estimation
Estimation involves rounding off numbers in order to carry out a calculation faster to get an approximate
answer .This acts as a useful check on the actual answer.
Example
Estimate the answer to
Solution
The answer should be close to
The exact answer is 1277.75. 1277.75 writen to 2 significant figures is 1300 which is close to the estimated
answer.

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ACCURACY AND ERROR
Absolute error
The absolute error of a stated measurement is half of the least unit of measurement used. When a
measurement is stated as 3.6 cm to the nearest millimeter ,it lies between 3.55 cm and 3.65 cm.The least
unit of measurement is milliliter, or 0.1 cm.The greatest possible error is 3.55 - 3.6 = -0.05 or 3.65 - 3.6 =
+ 0.05.
To get the absolute error we ignore the sign. So the absolute error is 0.05 thus,|-0.05| =| +0.05|= 0.05.When
a measurement is stated as 2.348 cm to the nearest thousandths of a centimeters (0.001) then the absolute
error is .

Relative error
Relative error =

Example
An error of 0.5 kg was found when measuring the mass of a bull.if the actual mass of the bull was found to
be 200kg.Find th relative error
Solution
Relative error =

Percentage error
Percentage error = relative error x 100%

Example
The thickness of a coin is 0.20 cm.
a. The percentage error
b. What would be the percentage error if the thickness was stated as 0.2 cm ?

Solution
The smallest unit of measurement is 0.01
Absolute error

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Percentage error

The smallest unit of measurement is 0.1

Absolute error
Percentage error
= 25 %

Rounding off and truncating errors

An error found when a number is rounded off to the desired number of decimal places or significant figures,
for example when a recurring decimal 1. is rounded to the 2 significant figures, it becames 1.7 the rounde
off error is;
1.7 -1.

Note;
1.6 converted to a fraction.

Truncating error
The error introduced due to truncating is called a truncation error.in the case of 1.6 truncated to 2 S.F., the
truncated error is; |1.6 -1.| =

Propagation of errors
Addition and subtraction
What is the error in the sum of 4.5 cm and 6.1 cm, if each represent a measure measurement.
Solution
The limits within which the measurements lie are 4.45, i.e. ., 4.55 or and 6.05 to 6.15, i.e. 6.1.
The maximum possible sum is 4.55 10.7cm
The minimum possible sum is 4.45 10.5 cm
The working sum is 4.5 + 6.1 = 10.6
The absolute error = maximum sum – working sum
=| 10.7 – 10.6 |
=0.10
Example
What is the error in the difference between the measurements 0.72 g and 0.31 g?
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Solution
The measurement lie within and respectively the maximum possible difference will be obtained if we
substract the minimum value of the second measurement from the maximum value of the first, i.e ;
0.725 – 0.305 cm
The minimum possible difference is 0.715 – 0.315 = 0.400.the working difference is 0.72 – 0.31 =0.41 ,
which has an absolute error of |0.420 -0.41| or |0.400 – 0.41| = 0.10. Since our working difference is 0.41,
we give the absolute error as 0.01 (to 2 s.f)

Note:
In both addition and subtraction, the absolute error in the answer is equal to the sum of the absolute errors
in the original measurements.

Multiplication
Example
A rectangular card measures 5.3 cm by 2.5 cm. find
a. The absolute error in the rea of the card
b. The relative error in the area of the cord
Solution
a.) The length lies within the limits
b.) The length lies within the limits
The maximum possible area is 2.55 x 5.35 =13.6425
The minimum possible area is 2.45 x 5.25 =12.8625
The working area is 5.3 x 2.5 = 13.25
Maximum area – working area = 13.6425 – 1325 = 0.3925.
Working area minimum area = 13.25 – 12.8625 = 0.3875
We take the absolute error as the average of the two.
Thus, absolute error
= 0.3900
The same can also be found by taking half the interval between the maximum area and the minimum area

The relative error in the area is :

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Division
Given 8.6 cm .Find:
a. The absolute error in the quotient
b. The relative error in the quotient

Solution
a. 8.6 cm has limits 8.55 cm and 8.65 cm. 3.4 has limits 3.35 cm and 3.45 cm.The maximum possible
quotient will be given by the maximum possible value of the numerator and the smallest possible
value of the denominator, i.e.,

= 2.58 (to 3 s.f)

The minimum possible quotient will be given by the minimum possible value of the numerator ad
the biggest possible value of the denominator, i.e.

= 2.48 (to 3 s.f)

The working quotient is; = 2.53 (to 3 .f.)
The absolute error in the quotient is;
X 0.10

b. Relative error in the working quotient ;

= 0.0197
= 0.020 (to 2 s.f )

Alternatively
Relative error in the numerator is
Relative error in the denominator is
Sum of the relative errors in the numerator and denominator is
0.00581 + 0.0147 = 0.02051s
=0.021 to 2 S.F

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

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Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. (a) Work out the exact value of R = 1_________

0.003146 - 0.003130
(b) An approximate value of R may be obtained by first correcting each of the decimal in the
denominator to 5 decimal places
(i) The approximate value
(ii) The error introduced by the approximation
2. The radius of circle is given as 2.8 cm to 2 significant figures
(a) If C is the circumference of the circle, determine the limits between which C/π lies
(b) By taking ∏ to be 3.142, find, to 4 significant figures the line between which the circumference
lies.
3. The length and breadth of a rectangular floor were measured and found to be 4.1 m and 2.2 m
respectively. If possible error of 0.01 m was made in each of the measurements, find the:
(a) Maximum and minimum possible area of the floor
(b) Maximum possible wastage in carpet ordered to cover the whole floor
4. In this question Mathematical Tables should not be used
The base and perpendicular height of a triangle measured to the nearest centimeter
are 6 cm and 4 cm respectively.

Find
(a) The absolute error in calculating the area of the triangle
(b) The percentage error in the area, giving the answer to 1 decimal place
5. By correcting each number to one significant figure, approximate the value of 788 x 0.006. Hence
calculate the percentage error arising from this approximation.
6. A rectangular block has a square base whose side is exactly 8 cm. Its height measured to the nearest
millimeter is 3.1 cm
Find in cubic centimeters, the greatest possible error in calculating its volume.
7. Find the limits within the area of a parallegram whose base is 8cm and height is 5 cm lies. Hence
find the relative error in the area
8. Find the minimum possible perimeter of a regular pentagon whose side is 15.0cm.
9. Given the number 0.237

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 (i) Round off to two significant figures and find the round off error
(ii) Truncate to two significant figures and find the truncation error
10. The measurements a = 6.3, b= 15.8, c= 14.2 and d= 0.00173 have maximum possible errors of 1%,
2%, 3% and 4% respectively. Find the maximum possible percentage error in ad/bc correct to 1sf.

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 CHAPTER FOURTY THREE

TRIGONOMETRY

Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) Define and draw the unit circle;

(b) Use the unit circle to find trigonometric ratios in terms of co-ordinates of points for 0 < 9 <
360°;
(c) Find trigonometric ratios of negative angles;
(d) Find trigonometric ratios of angles greater than 360° using the unit circle;
(e) Use mathematical tables and calculators to find trigonometric ratios of angles in the range 0 <
9 < 360°;
(f) Define radian measure;
(g) Draw graphs of trigonometric functions; y = sin x, y = cos x and y ~ tan x using degrees and
radians;
(h) Derive the sine rule;
(i) Derive the cosine rule;
(j) Apply the sine and cosine rule to solve triangles (sides, angles and area),
(k) Apply the knowledge of sine and cosine rules in real life situations.

Content
(a) The unit circles
(b) Trigonometric rations from the unit circle
(c) Trigonometric ratios of angles greater than 360° and negative angles
(d) Use of trigonometric tables and calculations
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(e) Radian measure
(f) Simple trigonometric graphs
(g) Derivation of sine and cosine rule
(h) Solution of triangles
(i) Application of sine and cosine rule to real situation.

The unit circle

It is circle of unit radius and centre O (0, 0).

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An angle measured anticlockwise from positive direction of x – axis is positive. While an angle measured
clockwise from negative direction of x – axis is negative.

In general, on a unit circle

I.
II.
III.

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Trigonometric ratios of negative angles
In general
I.
II.
III.

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Use of calculators
Example
Use a calculator to find
I. Tan
Solution

 Key in tan
 Key in 30
 Screen displays 0.5773502
 Therefore tan = 0.5774
To find the inverse of sine cosine and tangent

 Key in shift
 Then either sine cosine or tangent
 Key in the number

Note;
Always consult the manual for your calculator. Because calculators work differently

Radians
One radian is the measure of an angle subtended at the centre by an arc equal in length to the radius of the
circle.
Because the circumference of a circle is 2πr, there are 2π radians in a full circle. Degree measure and radian
measure are therefore related by the equation 360° = 2π radians, or 180° = π radians.
The diagram shows equivalent radian and degree measures for special angles from 0° to 360° (0 radians to
2π radians).You may find it helpful to memorize the equivalent degree and radian measures of special
angles in the first quadrant. All other special angles are just multiples of these angles.

Example
Convert into radians
Solution
If = 57.29

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Therefore = = 2.182 to 4 S.F
Example
Convert the following degrees to radians, giving your answer in terms

Solution

Therefore

Example
What is the length of the arc that that subtends an angle of 0.6 radians at the centre of a circle of radius 20
cm.
Solution

Simple trigonometric graphs

Graphs of y=sin x
The graphs can be drawn by choosing a suitable value of x and plotting the values of y against
theCorresponding values of x.

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The black portion of the graph represents one period of the function and is called one cycle of the sine
curve.
Example

Sketch the graph of y = 2 sin x on the interval [–, 4].

Solution:
Note that y = 2 sin x = 2(sin x) indicates that the y-values for the key points will have twice the magnitude
of those on the graph of y = sin x.

x 3 2
Y=2sin x 2 0 -2 0
To get the values of y substitute the values of x in the equation y =2sin x as follows
y=2 sin (360) because 2 is equal to 36

Note;
 You can change the radians into degrees to make work simpler.
 By connecting these key points with a smooth curve and extending the curve in both directions
over the interval [–, 4], you obtain the graph shown in below.

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Example

Sketch the graph of y = cos x for using an interval of

Solution:
The values of x and the corresponding values of y are given in the table below

x
Y=cos 1 0.8660 0.5 0 -0.5 - -1 - -0.5
x 0.8660 0.8660

x
Y=cosx 0 0.5 0.8660 1

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Graph of tangents
Note;
 As the value of x approaches and 27 tan x becames very large
 Hence the graph of y =tan x approaches the lines x = without touching them.
 Such lines are called asymptotes

Solution of triangles
Sin rule

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If a circle of radius R is circumscribed around the triangle ABC ,then =2R.
The sine rule applies to both acute and obtuse –angled triangle.

Example
Solve triangle ABC, given that CAB =42., c= 14.6 cm and a =11.4 cm
Solution
To solve a triangle means to find the sides and angles not given

Sin c = = 0.8720
Therefore c =60.6
Note;
The sin rule is used when we know
 Two sides and a non-included angle of a triangle
 All sides and at least one angle
 All angles and at least one side.

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Cosine rule

Example
Find AC in the figure below, if AB= 4 cm , BC = 6 cm and ABC =7

Solution
Using the cosine rule

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 = 16 + 36 – 48
= 52 – 9.979
= 42.02 cm
Note;
The cosine rule is used when we know
 Two sides and an included angle
 All three sides of a triangle

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. Solve the equation

Sin 5 θ = -1 for 00 ≤ 0 ≤ 1800
2 2
2. Given that sin θ = 2/3 and is an acute angle find:
(a) Tan θ giving your answer in surd form
(b) Sec2 θ
3. Solve the 1
equation 2 sin2(x-300) = cos 600 for – 1800 ≤ x ≤ 1800
4. Given that sin (x + 30)0 = cos 2x0for 00, 00 ≤ x ≤900 find the value of x. Hence find the value of cos
2
3x0.
5. Given that sin a =1 where a is an acute angle find, without using
√5
Mathematical tables
(a) Cos a in the form of a√b, where a and b are rational numbers

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 (b) Tan (900 – a).
6. Give that xo is an angle in the first quadrant such that 8 sin2 x + 2 cos x -5=0
Find:
a) Cos x
b) tan x
7. Given that Cos 2x0 = 0.8070, find x when 00 ≤ x ≤ 3600

8 The figure below shows a

quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = 8 cm, DC = 12 cm, < BAD = 450, < CBD = 900 and BCD =
300.

Find:
(a) The length of BD
(b) The size of the angle ADB

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9. The diagram below represents a school gate with double shutters. The shutters are such opened
through an angle of 630.
The edges of the gate, PQ and RS are each 1.8 m

Calculate the shortest distance QS, correct to 4 significant figures

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 10…The figure below
represents a quadrilateral piece of land ABCD divided into three triangular plots. The lengths BE
and CD are 100m and 80m respectively. Angle ABE = 300ACE = 450 and  ACD = 1000

(a) Find to four significant figures:

(i) The length of AE
(ii) The length of AD
(iii) The perimeter of the piece of land

(b) The plots are to be fenced with five strands of barbed wire leaving an entrance of 2.8 m wide to
each plot. The type of barbed wire to be used is sold in rolls of lengths 480m. Calculate the number
of rolls of barbed wire that must be bought to complete the fencing of the plots.

11. Given that x is an acute angle and cos x = 2 5, find without using mathematical
5
tables or a calculator, tan ( 90 – x)0.

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 12. In the figure below A = 620, B = 410, BC = 8.4 cm
and CN is the bisector of ACB.

Calculate the length of CN to 1 decimal place.

13. In the diagram below PA represents an electricity post of height 9.6 m. BB and RC represents two
storey buildings of heights 15.4 m and 33.4 m respectively. The angle of depression of A from B
is 5.50 While the angle of elevation of C from B is 30.50 and BC = 35m.

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 (a) Calculate, to the nearest metre, the distance AB
(b) By scale drawing find,
(i) The distance AC in metres

(ii)  BCA and hence determine the angle of depression of A from C

More questions

1. Solve the equation: (2 mks)

Sin 5 X   1 for 0  X  180

0 0
2 2

2. (a) Complete the table below, leaving all your values correct to 2 d.p. for the functions y = cos x
and y = 2cos (x + 30)0 (2 mks)
X0 00 600 1200 1800 2400 3000 3600 4200 4800 5400
cosX 1.00 -1.00 0.50

2cos(x+30) 1.73 -1.73 0.00

(b) For the function y = 2cos(x+30)0

State:
(i) The period (1 mk)
(ii) Phase angle (1 mk)
(c) On the same axes draw the waves of the functions y = cos x and y = 2cos(x+30) 0 for
00  x  5400 . Use the scale 1cm rep 300 horizontally and 2 cm rep 1 unit vertically
(4 mks)

(d) Use your graph above to solve the inequality  

2 cos x  300  cos x (2 mks)

3. Find the value of x in the equation.

Cos(3x - 180o) = √3 in the range Oo < x < 180o (3 marks)
2
11
4. Given that tan   and ө is an acute angle, find without using tables cos (90 –ө)
60
(2mks)
5. Solve for ө if -¼ sin (2x + 30) = 0.1607, 0 ≤ө≥ 3600 (3mks)

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6. Given that Cos  = 5/13 and that 2700 3600 , work out the value of Tan  + Sin  without using a calculator
or mathematical tables. (3 marks)

7. Solve for x in the range 00 x  1800

(4mks)
-8 sin2x – 2 cos x = -5.
8. If tan xo = 12/5 and x is a reflex angle, find the value of 5sin x + cos x without using a
calculator or mathematical tables

9. Find  given that 2 cos 3 -1 = 0 for 0o  360o

10. Without a mathematical table or a calculator, simplify: Cos300o x Sin120ogiving your answer in
Cos330o – Sin 405orationalized surd form.
11. Express in surds form and rationalize the denominator.
1
Sin 60o Sin 45o - Sin 45o

12. Simplify the following without using tables;

Tan 45 + cos 45sin 60

CHAPTER FOURTY FOUR

SURDS
Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
(a) Define rational and irrational numbers,
(b) Simplify expressions with surds;
(c) Rationalize denominators with surds.

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Content
(a) Rational and irrational numbers
(b) Simplification of surds
(c) Rationalization of denominators.

Rational and irrational numbers

Rational numbers
A rational number is a number which can be written in the form , where p and q are integers and q.The
integer’s p and q must not have common factors other than 1.
Numbers such as 2, are examples of rational numbers .Recurring numbers are also rational numbers.
Irrational numbers
Numbers that cannot be written in the form .Numbers such as are irrational numbers.
Surds
Numbers which have got no exact square roots or cube root are called surds e.g. ,,
The product of a surd and a rational number is called a mixed surd. Examples are ;
, and
Order of surds

,
,

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Simplification of surds
A surd can be reduced to its lowest term possible, as follows ;
Example
Simplify
a)
b)
Solution

Operation of surds
Surds can be added or subtracted only if they are like surds (that is, if they have the same value under the
root sign).
Example 1
Simplify the following.
i. 3 √2 + 5√2
ii. 8 √5 − 2√5

Solution

i. 3 √2 + 5√2 = 8 √2
ii. 8 √5 − 2√5 = 6√5
Summary
Let a =
Therefore = a + a
=2 a
But a =
Hence =

Multiplication and Division of surds

Surds of the same order can be multiplied or divided irrespective of the number under the root sign.

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Law 1: √a x √b = √ab When multiplying surds together, multiply their values together.

e.g.1 √3 x √12 = √ (3 x 12) = √36 = 6

e.g.2 √7 x √5 = √35

This law can be used in reverse to simplify expressions…

e.g.3 √12 = √2 x √6 or √4 x √3 = 2√3

Law 2:√a ÷ √b or = √(a/b) When dividing surds, divide their values (and vice versa).

e.g.1 √12 = √(12 ÷ 3) = √4 = 2

√3

e.g.2

Law 3: √ (a2) or (√a) 2 = a When squaring a square-root, (or vice versa), the symbols cancel

Each other out, leaving just the base.

e.g.1 √122 = 12

e.g.2 √7 x √7 = √72 = 7

Note:
If you add the same surds together you just have that number of surds. E.g.
√2 + √2 + √2= 3√2
If a surd has a square number as a factor you can use law 1 and/or law 2 and work backwards to take that
out and simplify the surd. E.g. √500 = √100 x √5 = 10√5

Rationalization of surds
Surds may also appear in fractions. Rationalizing the denominator of such a fraction means finding an
equivalent fraction that does NOT have a surd on the bottom of the fraction (though it CAN have a surd on
the top!).
If the surd contains a square root by itself or a multiple of a square root, to get rid of it, you must multiply
BOTH the top and bottom of the fraction by that square root value.

e.g. 6 x √7 = 6√7
√7 x √7 7

e.g.2 6 + √2 x √3 = 6√3 + √2 x √3 = 6√3 + √6

2√3 x √3 2 x √3 x √3 6
i.e. 2 x 3

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If the surd on the bottom involves addition or subtraction with a square root, to get rid of the square root
part you must use the ‘difference of two squares’ and multiply BOTH the top and bottom of the fraction by
the bottom surd’s expression but with the inverse operation.

e.g.3 7 x (2 - √2) = 14 - 7√2 = 14 - 7√2

2 + √2 x (2 - √2) 22 – (√2)2 2
i.e. 4 – 2

Notes on the ‘Difference of two squares’…

Squaring… (2 + √2)(2 + √2) = 2(2 + √2) + √2(2 + √2)

(ops the same) = 4 + 2√2 + 2√2 + √2√2
= 4 + 4√2 + 2 = 6 + √2 (still a surd)

Multiplying… (2 + √2)(2 - √2) = 2(2 - √2) + √2(2 - √2)

(opposite ops) = 4 - 2√2 + 2√2 - √2√2
= 4 (cancel out) - 2 = 2 (not a surd)

In essence, as long as the operation in each brackets is the opposite, the middle terms will always cancel
each other out and you will be left with the first term squared subtracting the second term squared.
i.e. (5 + √7)(5 - √7)  52 – (√7)2 = 25 – 7 = 18

Example
Simplify by rationalizing the denominator

Solution

Note
If the product of the two surds gives a rational number then the product of the two surds gives conjugate
surds.

End of topic

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 Did you understand everything?
If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. Without using logarithm tables, find the value of x in the equation
Log x3 + log 5x = 5 log2 – log 2
5
2. Simplify (1 ÷ √3) (1 - √3)
Hence evaluate 1 to 3 s.f. given that √3 = 1.7321
1 + √3
3. If √14 - √ 14 = a√7 + b√2
√7-√2 √7+√2
Find the values of a and b where a and b are rational numbers.
4. Find the value of x in the following equation 49(x+1) + 7(2x) = 350
5. Find x if 3 log 5 + log x2 = log 1/125
6. Simplify as far as possible leaving your answer inform of a surd

1 - 1
√14 - 2 √3 √14 + 2 √3
7. Given that tan 750 = 2 + √3, find without using tables tan 150 in the form p+q√m, where p,
q and m are integers.
8. Without using mathematical tables, simplify

63 + 72
32 + 28
9. Simplify 3 + 1 leaving the answer in the form a + b c, where a, b and c 5 -2
5 are rational numbers

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 CHAPTER FOURTY FIVE

FURTHER LOGARITHMS
Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) Derive logarithmic relation from index form and vice versa;
(b) State the laws of logarithms;
(c) Use logarithmic laws to simplify logarithmic expressions and solvelogarithmic equations;
(d) Apply laws of logarithms for further computations.
Content
(a) Logarithmic notation (eg. an=b, log ab=n)
(b) The laws of logarithms: log (AB) = log A + log B, log(A^B) = log A -log B and Log A n = n
x log A.
(c) Simplifications of logarithmic expressions
(d) Solution of logarithmic equations
(e) Further computation using logarithmic laws.

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If y  a x then we introduce the inverse function logarithm and define log a y  x
(Read as log base a of y equals x ).

In general y  a x  log a y  x

Where  means “implies and is implied by” i.e. it works both ways!

Note this means that, going from exponent form to logarithmic form:

102  100  log10 (100)  2 10 2  0.01  log10 (0.01)  2

10 0  1  log10 (1)  0 25  32 
log 2 (32)  5

log 9 (3)  1 log8 ( 4)  2

1 2
92  3  2 83  4  3

And in going from logarithmic form to exponent form:

log10 (10)  1  101  10 log10 (0.001)  3 

103  0.001
log 2 (1)  0  log 3 (81)  4  34  81
20  1
log100 (10)  1  log 5 (5 5 )  3 
1 3
2 1002  10 2 52  5 5

Laws of logarithms
Product and Quotient Laws of Logarithms:

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log a  M  N   log a M  log a N The Product Law

M 
log a    log a M  log a N The Quotient Law
N 

Example.

log 6 9  log 6 8  log 6 2

 log 6  72   log 6 2

 72 
 log 6    log 6  36 
 2
=2

The Power Law of Logarithms:

log a M n  n log a M

Example.
2log 5 + 2log 2

 log52  log 22
 log 25  log 4

 log100  log10 100

=2

Logarithm of a Root

1
1
logb x  logb x
n
or log b n
x
log b x
n n

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Example.
1
1 1 3
log3 27  log3 27  log3 27 
5 5
 3 
5 5 5
PROOF OF PROPERTIES
Property Proof Reason for Step

1. logb b = 1 and logb 1 = 0 b1 0

Definition of logarithms
2.(product rule) a. Let logb x = m and logb y = n a. Setup
logb xy = logb x + logb y b. x = bm and y = b n b. Rewrite in exponent form
c. xy = bm * bn c. Multiply together
d. xy = b m + n d. Product rule for exponents
e. logb xy = m + n e. Rewrite in log form
f logb xy = logb x + logb f. Substitution

3. (quotient rule) a. Let logb x = m and logb y = n a. Given: compact form

x b. x = bm and y = b n b. Rewrite in exponent form
logb y = logb x - logb y
x bm
c.
y = bn c. Divide

x
m-n
d. y=b d. Quotient rule for exponents

x
e. logb y =m-n e. Rewrite in log form

x
 f. Substitution
f. logb y logb x - logb

4. (power rule) a. Let m = logb x so x = bm a. Setup

n
logb x = n logb x
b. xn = bmn b. Raise both sides to the nth
power
c. logb x n = mn
c. Rewrite as log
d. logb xn = n logb x

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 d. Substitute
5. Properties used to solve log
equations:

a. if bx = by, then x = y
a. This follows directly from the
properties for exponents.

b. if logb x = logb y, then x =

y b. i. logb x - logb y = 0
b. i. Subtract from both sides
x
0
ii. logb y
ii. Quotient rule
x
iii. y =b0

x iii. Rewrite in exponent form


iv. y 1 so x = y

iv. b0 = 1

Solving exponential and logarithmic equations

By taking logarithms, and exponential equation can be converted to a linear equation and solved. We will
use the process of taking logarithms of both sides.

Example.

a) 4x  12

log 4 x  log12
x log 4  log12

log12
x x = 1.792
log 4
Note;

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A logarithmic expression is defined only for positive values of the argument. When we solve a logarithmic
equation it is essential to verify that the solution(s) does not result in the logarithm of a negative number.
Solutions that would result in the logarithm of a negative number are called extraneous, and are not valid
solutions.

Example.
Solve for x:

log5  x  1  log5  x  3  1  (the one becomes an exponent : 51 )

log5  x  1 x  3  5

x2  2 x  3  5  0

x2  2 x  8  0

 x  4 x  2  0  x  4, x  2  extraneous 

Verify:
log 5 (4  1)  log 5 (4  3)  1 log 5 (2  1)  log 5 (2  3)  1
log 5 5  log 5 1  1 log 5 (1)  log 5  5  not possible
1 0  1

Solving equations using logs

Examples
x
(i) Solve the equation 10  3.79

The definition of logs says if y  a x then log a y  x or y  a x  x  log a y

Hence 10 x  3.79  x  log10 3.79  0.57864 (to 5 decimal places)

Check 100.57864  3.79000(to 5 decimal places)

x
In practice from 10  3.79 we take logs to base 10 giving

 
log10 10 x  log3.79
x log10 10  log3.79
x  0.57864

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(ii) Solve the equation 32 x  56

 
log 10 3 2 x  log 10 56
2 x log 10 3  log 10 56
log 10 56
2x   3.66403...
log 10 3
x  1.83201....

3 4 2x
Check 3  27 , 3  81, we want 3 so the value of 2x lies between 3 and 4 or 3  2x  4 which
means x lies between 1.5 and 2. This tells us that x  1.83201... is roughly correct.

x x1
(iii) Solve the equation 4  3

4 x  3 x 1
x log 10 4  x  1 log 10 3
 x log 10 3  log 10 3
x log 10 4  x log 10 3  log 10 3
xlog 10 4  log 10 3  log 10 3
log 10 3
x  3.8188..
log 10 4  log 10 3

4 x  43.8188..  44  256

Check  x 1  very close!
 3
4.8188..
3 5 
 3  243 
Note you could combine terms, giving,

log10 3 log10 3
x   3.8188..
log10 4  log10 3 log10 4
3


(iv) Solve the equation 4 x  6  35 2 x

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 4 x  6  35  2 x
x  6log 4  5  2 x log 3
Take logs of both sides x log 4  6 log 4  5 log 3  2 x log 3
Expand brackets x log 4  2 x log 3  5 log 3  6 log 4
Collect terms
xlog 4  2 log 3  5 log 3  6 log 4
5 log 3  6 log 4
Factorise the left hand side x  -0.78825
log 4  2 log 3

divide
(Note you get the same answer by using the ln button on your calculator.)

Check 4 x  6  40.78825 6  45.21175  1373.368 and

352 x  352(.78825)  36.576498  1373.368

Notice that you could combine the log-terms in

5 log 3  6 log 4 
log 35  4 6 
x
log 4  2 log 3
to give x 

log 4  3 2 
It does not really simplify things here but, in some cases, it can.

  
(v) Solve the equation 7 3 x 1  2 52 x 1 
  
7 3 x 1  2 5 2 x  1 
log 7  x  1log 3  log 2  2 x  1log 5
Take logs of both sides log 7  x log 3  log 3  log 2  2 x log 5  log 5
Expand brackets x log 3  2 x log 5  log 2  log 5  log 7  log 3
Collect terms  7 
xlog 3  2 log 5  log 2  5 3

x log  3   log 30 

25 7
Factorize left hand side log  
30
0.632023
x 7
  0.686371
log  3   0.920819
25
simplify

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 divide

Check

LHS =  
7 3x 1  7  31.7 
7
2
3

7
9
(taking 31.7  32  9 )

RHS =  
2 52 x 1  2  50.4 
0.4
5
2

2
5
1 (taking 5
0.4
 50.5  5  2.2... )

The values of LHS and RHS are roughly the same. A more exact check could be made using a calculator.

Logarithmic equations and expressions

Consider the following equations

The value of x in each case is established as follows

Therefore

X =4

Example
Solve
Solution

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Let = t. then = 2
Introducing logarithm to base 10 on both sides

Therefore

Example

Taking logs on both sides cannot help in getting the value of x, since cannot be combined into a single
expression. However if we let then the equation becomes quadratic in y.
Solution
Thus, let …………….. (1)
Therefore

Substituting for y in equation (1);

Let or let
There is no real value of x for which hence

Example
Solve for x in
Solution
Let
Therefore
solve the quadratic equation using any method

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Substituting for t in the equation (1).

=x

Note;

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. Solve for ( – ½ = 3/2

2. Find the values of x which satisfy the equation 52x – 6 (5x) + 5 =0

3. Solve the equation

Log (x + 24) – 2 log 3 = log (9-2x)
4. Find the value of x in the following equation 49(x+1) + 7(2x) = 350
5. Find x if 3 log 5 + log x2 = log 1/125
6. Without using logarithm tables, find the value of x in the equation
Log x3 + log 5x = 5 log2 – log 2
5
7. Given that P = 3y express the questions 32y -1) + 2 x 3(y-1) = 1 in terms of P
8. Hence or otherwise find the value of y in the equation: 3(2y-1) + 2 x 3(y-1) =1

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 CHAPTER FOURTY SIX

COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC II
Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) Define principal, rate and time in relation to interest;
(b) Calculate simple interest using simple interest formula;
(c) Calculate compound interest using step by step method;
(d) Derive the compound interest formula;
(e) Apply the compound interest formula for calculating interest;
(f) Define appreciation and depreciation;
(g) Use compound interest formula to calculate appreciation and depreciation;
(h) Calculate hire purchase;
(i) Calculate income tax given the income tax bands.
Content
(a) Principal rate and time
(b) Simple interest
(c) Compound interest using step by step method
(d) Derivation of compound interest formula
(e) Calculations using the compound interest formula
(f) Appreciation and depreciation
(g) Calculation of appreciation and depreciation using the compound interestformula
(h) Hire purchase
(i) Income tax.

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Simple interest
Interest is the money charged for the use of borrowed money for a specific period of time. If money is
borrowed or deposited it earns interest, Principle is the sum of money borrowed or deposited P, Rate is the
ratio of interest earned in a given period of time to the principle.
The rate is expressed as a percentage of the principal per annum (P.A).When interest is calculated using
only the initial principal at a given rate and time, it is called simple interest (I).
Simple interest formulae
Simple interest =

Example
Franny invests ksh 16,000 in a savings account. She earns a simple interest rate of 14%, paid annually on
her investment. She intends to hold the investment for 1 years. Determine the future value of the investment
at maturity.

Solution
I=
= sh. 16000 x
= sh 3360
Amount = P + I
= sh.16000 + sh 3360
= sh.19360
Example
Calculate the rate of interest if sh 4500 earns sh 500 after 1 years.

Solution
From the simple interest formulae
I=

R=

P = sh 4500
I = sh 500
T = 1 years

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Therefore R =
R 7.4 %
Example
Esha invested a certain amount of money in a bank which paid 12% p.a. simple interest. After 5 years, his
total savings were sh 5600.Determine the amount of money he invested initially.
Solution
Let the amount invested be sh P
T = 5 years
R = 12 % p.a.
A =sh 5600
But A = P + I
Therefore 5600 = P + P X
= P + 0.60 P
= 1.6 P
Therefore p =
= sh 3500

Compound interest
Suppose you deposit money into a financial institution, it earns interest in a specified period of time. Instead
of the interest being paid to the owner it may be added to (compounded with) the principle and therefore
also earns interest. The interest earned is called compound interest. The period after which its compounded
to the principle is called interest period.
The compound interest maybe calculated annually, semi-annually, quarterly, monthly etc. If the rate of
compound interest is R% p.a and the interest is calculated n times per year, then the rate of interest per
period is
Example
Moyo lent ksh.2000 at interest of 5% per annum for 2 years. First we know that simple interest for 1st year
and 2nd year will be same
i.e. = 2000 x 5 x 1/100 = Ksh. 100
Total simple interest for 2 years will be = 100 + 100 = ksh. 200
In Compound Interest (C I) the first year Interest will be same as of Simple Interest (SI) i.e. Ksh.100. But
year II interest is calculated on P + SI of 1st year i.e. on ksh. 2000 + ksh. 100 = ksh. 2100.

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So, year II interest in Compound Interest becomes
= 2100 x 5 x 1/100 = Ksh. 105
So it is Ksh. 5 more than the simple interest. This increase is due to the fact that SI is added to the principal
and this ksh. 105 is also added in the principal if we have to find the compound interest after 3 years. Direct
formula in case of compound interest is
A = P (1 + )t
Where A = Amount
P = Principal
R = Rate % per annum
T = Time
A = P + CI
P (1 +) t = P + CI

Types of Question:
Type I: To find CI and Amount
Type II: To find rate, principal or time
Type III: When difference between CI and SI is given.
Type IV: When interest is calculated half yearly or quarterly etc.
Type V: When both rate and principal have to be found.

Type 1
Example
Find the amount of ksh. 1000 in 2 years at 10% per annum compound interest.
Solution.
A = P (1 + r/100)t
=1000 (1 + 10/100)2
= 1000 x 121/100
=ksh. 1210
Example
Find the amount of ksh. 6250 in 2 years at 4% per annum compound interest.
Solution.
A = P (1 + r/100) t

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= 6250 (1 + 4/100)2
=6250 x 676/625
= ksh. 6760
Example
What will be the compound interest on ksh 31250 at a rate of 4% per annum for 2 years?

Solution.
CI = P (1 + r/100) t - 1
=31250 { (1 + 4/100)2 - 1}
=31250 (676/625 - 1)
=31250 x 51/625 = ksh. 2550
Example
A sum amounts to ksh. 24200 in 2 years at 10% per annum compound interest.
Find the sum ?
Solution.
A = P (1 + r/100)t
24200 = P (1 + 10/100)2
= P (11/10)2
= 24200 x 100/121
= ksh. 20000

Type II
Example.
The time in which ksh. 15625 will amount to ksh. 17576 at 45 compound interest is?
Solution
A = P (1 + r/100)t
17576 = 15625 (1 + 4/100)t
17576/15625 = (26/25)t
(26/25)t = (26/25)3

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t = 3 years

Example
The rate percent if compound interest of ksh. 15625 for 3 years is Ksh. 1951.
Solution.
A = P + CI
= 15625 + 1951 = ksh. 17576
A = P (1 + r/100)t
17576 = 15625 (1 + r/100)3
17576/15625 = (1 + r/100)3
(26/25)3 = (1 + r/100)3
26/25 = 1 + r/100
26/25 - 1 = r/100
1/25 = r/100
r = 4%

Type IV
1. Remember
When interest is compounded half yearly then Amount = P (1 + R/2)2t
-----------
100
I.e. in half yearly compound interest rate is halved and time is doubled.
2. When interest is compounded quarterly then rate is made ¼ and time is made 4 times.
Then A = P [(1+R/4)/100]4t
3. When rate of interest is R1%, R2%, and R3% for 1st, 2nd and 3rd year respectively; then A = P (1 +
R1/100) (1 + R2/100) (1 + r3/100)

Example

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Find the compound interest on ksh.5000 at 205 per annum for 1.5 year compound half yearly.
Solution.
When interest is compounded half yearly
Then Amount = P [(1 +R/2)/100]2t
Amount = 5000 [(1 + 20/2)/100]3/2
= 5000 (1 + 10/100)3
=5000 x 1331/1000
= ksh 6655
CI = 6655 - 5000 = ksh. 1655
e.g.
Find compound interest ksh. 47145 at 12% per annum for 6 months, compounded quarterly.
Solution.
As interest is compounded quarterly
A =[ P(1 + R/4)/100)]4t
A = 47145 [(1 + 12/4)/100] ½ x 4
= 47145 (1 + 3/100)2
= 47145 x 103/100 x 103/100
= ksh. 50016.13
CI = 50016.13 - 47145
= ksh. 2871.13
Example
Find the compound interest on ksh. 18750 for 2 years when the rate of interest for 1st year is 45 and for 2nd
year 8%.

Solution.
A = P (1 + R1/100) (1 + R1/100)
= 18750 * 104/100 * 108/100
=ksh. 21060
CI = 21060 - 18750

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= ksh. 2310

Type V
Example
The compound interest on a certain sum for two years is ksh. 52 and simple interest for the same period at
same rate is ksh.50 find the sum and the rate.
Solution.
We will do this question by basic concept. Simple interest is same every year and there is no difference
between SI and CI for 1st year. The difference arises in the 2nd year because interest of 1st year is added in
principal and interest is now charged on principal + simple interest of 1st year.
So in this question
2 year SI = ksh. 50
1 year SI = ksh. 25
Now CI for 1st year = 52 - 25 = Rs.27
This additional interest 27 -25 = ksh. 2 is due to the fact that 1st year SI i.e. ksh. 25 is added in principal. It
means that additional ksh. 2 interest is charged on ksh. 25. Rate % = 2/25 x 100 = 8%
Shortcut:
Rate % = [(CI - SI)/ (SI/2)] x 100
= [(2/50)/2] x 100
2/25 x 100
=8%
P = SI x 100/R x T = 50 x 100/8 x 2
= ksh. 312.50
Example
A sum of money lent CI amounts in 2 year to ksh. 8820 and in 3 years to ksh. 9261. Find the sum and rate
%.
Solution.
Amount after 3 years = ksh. 9261
Amount after 2 years = ksh. 8820
By subtracting last year’s interest ksh. 441
It is clear that this ksh. 441 is SI on ksh. 8820 from 2nd to 3rd year i.e. for 1 year.
Rate % = 441 x 100/8820 x 1
=5 %

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Also A = P (1 + r/100)t
8820 = P (1 + 5/100)2
= P (21/20)2
P = 8820 x 400/441
= ksh. 8000

Appreciation and Depreciation

Appreciation is the gain of value of an asset while depreciation is the loss of value of an asset.
Example
An iron box cost ksh 500 and every year it depreciates by 10% of its value at the beginning of that that year.
What will its value be after value 4 years?

Solution
Value after the first year = sh (500 - x 500)
= sh 450
Value after the second year = sh (450 - x 450)
= sh 405
Value after the third year = sh (405 - x 405)
= sh 364.50
Value after the fourth year = sh (364.50 - x 364.50)
= sh 328.05
In general if P is the initial value of an asset, A the value after depreciation for n periods and r the rate of
depreciation per period.
A=P (
Example
A minibus cost sh 400000.Due to wear and tear, it depreciates in value by 2 % every month. Find its value
after one year,
Solution
A=P (

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Substituting P= 400,000 , r = 2 , and n =12 in the formula ;
A =sh.400000 (1- 0.02
=sh.400, 000(0.98
= sh.313700
Example
The initial cost of a ranch is sh.5000, 000.At the end of each year, the land value increases by 2%.What
will be the value of the ranch at the end of 3 years?
Solution
The value of the ranch after 3 years =sh 5000, 000(1 +
= sh. 5000000(
= sh 5,306,040

Hire Purchase
Method of buying goods and services by instalments. The interest charged for buying goods or services on
credit is called carrying charge.
Hire purchase = Deposit + (instalments x time)
Example
Aching wants to buy a sewing machine on hire purchase. It has a cash price of ksh 7500.She can pay a cash
price or make a down payment of sh 2250 and 15 monthly instalments of sh.550 each. How much interest
does she pay under the instalment plan?

Solution
Total amount of instalments = sh 550 x 15
= sh 8250
Down payment (deposit) = sh 2250
Total payment = sh (8250 + 2250)
= sh 10500
Amount of interest charged = sh (10500-7500)
= sh3000
Note;
Always use the above formula to find other variables.

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Income tax
Taxes on personal income is income tax. Gross income is the total amount of money due to the individual
at the end of the month or the year.
Gross income = salary + allowances / benefits
Taxable income is the amount on which tax is levied. This is the gross income less any special benefits on
which taxes are not levied. Such benefits include refunds for expenses incurred while one is on official
duty.
In order to calculate the income tax that one has to pay, we convert the taxable income into Kenya pounds
K£ per annum or per month as dictated by the by the table of rates given.
Relief
 Every employee in kenya is entitled to an automatic personal tax relief of sh.12672 p.a (sh.1056
per month)
 An employee with a life insurance policy on his life, that of his wife or child, may make a tax claim
on the premiums paid towards the policy at sh.3 per pound subject to a maximum claim of sh .3000
per month.
Example
Mr. John earns a total of K£12300 p.a.Calculate how much tax he should pay per annum.Using the tax
table below.

Income tax K£ per annum Rate (sh per pound)

1 -5808 2
5809 - 11280 3
11289 - 16752 4
16753 - 22224 5
Excess over 22224 6

Solution
His salary lies between £ 1 and £12300.The highest tax band is therefore the third band.
For the first £ 5808, tax due is sh 5808 x 2 = sh 11616
For the next £ 5472, tax due is sh 5472 x 2 = sh 16416
Remaining £ 1020, tax due sh. 1020 x 4 = sh 4080 +
Total tax due sh 32112

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Less personal relief of sh.1056 x 12 = sh.12672 -
Sh 19440
Therefore payable p.a is sh.19400.
Example
Mr. Ogembo earns a basic salary of sh 15000 per month.in addition he gets a medical allowance of sh 2400
and a house allowance of sh 12000.Use the tax table above to calculate the tax he pays per year.
Solution
Taxable income per month = sh (15000 + 2400 + 12000)
= sh.29400
Converting to K£ p.a = K£ 29400 x
= K£ 17640
Tax due
First £ 5808 = sh.5808 x 2 = sh.11616
Next £ 5472 = sh.5472 x 3 = sh.16416
Next £ 5472 = sh.5472 x 4 = sh.21888
Remaining £ 888 = sh.888 x 5 = sh 4440 +
Total tax due sh 54360
Less personal relief sh 12672 -
Therefore, tax payable p.a sh41688

PAYE
In Kenya, every employer is required by the law to deduct income tax from the monthly earnings of his
employees every month and to remit the money to the income tax department. This system is called Pay As
You Earn (PAYE).

Housing
If an employee is provided with a house by the employer (either freely or for a nominal rent) then 15% of
his salary is added to his salary (less rent paid) for purpose of tax calculation. If the tax payer is a director
and is provided with a free house, then 15% of his salary is added to his salary before taxation.
Example

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Mr. Omondi who is a civil servant lives in government house who pays a rent of sh 500 per month. If his
salary is £9000 p.a, calculate how much PAYE he remits monthly.
Solution
Basic salary £ 9000
Housing £
Less rent paid = £ 300
£ 1050 +
Taxable income £ 10050

Tax charged;
First £ 5808, the tax due is sh.5808 x 2 = sh 11616
Remaining £ 4242, the tax due is sh 4242 x 3 = sh 12726 +
Sh 24342
Less personal relief Sh 12672
Sh 11670
PAYE = sh

= sh 972.50
Example
Mr. Odhiambo is a senior teacher on a monthly basic salary of Ksh. 16000.On top of his salary he gets a
house allowance of sh 12000, a medical allowance of Ksh.3060 and a hardship allowance of Ksh 3060 and
a hardship allowance of Ksh.4635.He has a life insurance policy for which he pays Ksh.800 per month and
claims insurance relief.
i. Use the tax table below to calculate his PAYE.
Income in £ per month Rate %
1 - 484 10
485 - 940 15
941 - 1396 20
1397 - 1852 25
Excess over 1852 30

ii. In addition to PAYEE the following deductions are made on his pay every month
a) WCPS at 2% of basic salary
b) HHIF ksh.400
c) Co – operative shares and loan recovery Ksh 4800.
Solution

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 a) Taxable income = Ksh (16000 + 12000 +3060 +4635)
= ksh 35695
Converting to K£ =
=K
Tax charged is:
First £ 484 = £484 x = £ 48.40
Next £ 456 = £456 x = £ 68.40
Next £ 456 = £456 x = £ 91.20
Remaining £ 388 = £388 x = £ 97.00.
Total tax due = £305.00
= sh 6100
Insurance relief = sh = sh 120
Personal relief = sh 1056 +
Total relief sh 1176

Tax payable per month is sh 6100

Sh 1176 –
Sh 4924
Therefore, PAYE is sh 4924.
Note;
For the calculation of PAYE, taxable income is rounded down or truncated to the nearest whole number.
If an employee’s due tax is less than the relief allocated, then that employee is exempted from PAYEE
b) Total deductions are
Sh (
Net pay = sh (35695 – 11244)
= sh 24451

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

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Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. A business woman opened an account by depositing Kshs. 12,000 in a bank on 1st July 1995. Each
subsequent year, she deposited the same amount on 1st July. The bank offered her 9% per annum
compound interest. Calculate the total amount in her account on
(a) 30th June 1996
(b) 30th June 1997
2. A construction company requires to transport 144 tonnes of stones to sites A and
B. The company pays Kshs 24,000 to transport 48 tonnes of stone for every 28
km. Kimani transported 96 tonnes to a site A, 49 km away.
(a) Find how much he paid
(b) Kimani spends Kshs 3,000 to transport every 8 tonnes of stones to site.
Calculate his total profit.
(c) Achieng transported the remaining stones to sites B, 84 km away. If she made 44% profit,
find her transport cost.
3. The table shows income tax rates

Monthly taxable pay Rate of tax Kshs in 1 K£

1 – 435 2
436 – 870 3
871-1305 4
1306 – 1740 5
Excess Over 1740 6

A company employee earn a monthly basic salary of Kshs 30,000 and is also given taxable
allowances amounting to Kshs 10, 480.
(a) Calculate the total income tax
(b) The employee is entitled to a personal tax relief of Kshs 800 per month.
Determine the net tax.
(c) If the employee received a 50% increase in his total income, calculate the
corresponding percentage increase on the income tax.

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4. A house is to be sold either on cash basis or through a loan. The cash price is Kshs.750, 000. The
loan conditions area as follows: there is to be down payment
of 10% of the cash price and the rest of the money is to be paid through a loan
at 10% per annum compound interest.
A customer decided to buy the house through a loan.
a) (i) Calculate the amount of money loaned to the customer.
(ii) The customer paid the loan in 3 year’s. Calculate the total amount
paid for the house.
b) Find how long the customer would have taken to fully pay for the house
if she paid a total of Kshs 891,750.
5. A businessman obtained a loan of Kshs. 450,000 from a bank to buy a matatu valued at the same
amount. The bank charges interest at 24% per annum compound quarterly
a) Calculate the total amount of money the businessman paid to clear the loan in 1 ½ years.
b) The average income realized from the matatu per day was Kshs. 1500. The matatu worked
for 3 years at an average of 280 days year. Calculate the total income from the matatu.
c) During the three years, the value of the matatu depreciated at the rate of 16% per annum.
If the businessman sold the matatu at its new value, calculate the total profit he realized by
the end of three years.
6. A bank either pays simple interest as 5% p.a or compound interest 5% p.a on deposits. Nekesa
deposited Kshs P in the bank for two years on simple interest terms. If she had deposited the same
amount for two years on compound interest terms, she would have earned Kshs 210 more.
Calculate without using Mathematics Tables, the values of P
7. (a) A certain sum of money is deposited in a bank that pays simple interest at
a certain rate. After 5 years the total amount of money in an account is Kshs 358 400. The
interest earned each year is 12 800
Calculate
(i) The amount of money which was deposited (2mks)
(ii) The annual rate of interest that the bank paid (2mks)
(b) A computer whose marked price is Kshs 40,000 is sold at Kshs 56,000 on hire purchase
terms.
(i) Kioko bought the computer on hire purchase term. He paid a deposit of 25% of the hire
purchase price and cleared the balance by equal monthly installments of Kshs 2625.
Calculate the number of installments (3mks)

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 (ii) Had Kioko bought the computer on cash terms he would have been allowed a discount of
12 ½ % on marked price. Calculate the difference between the cash price and the hire
purchase price and express as a percentage of the cash price
(iii) Calculate the difference between the cash price and hire purchase price and express it as a
percentage of the cash price.
8. The table below is a part of tax table for monthly income for the year 2004

Monthly taxable income Tax rate percentage

In ( Kshs) (%) in each shillings

Under Kshs 9681 10%

From Kshs 9681 but under 18801 15%

From Kshs 18801 but 27921 20%

In the tax year 2004, the tax of Kerubo’s monthly income was Kshs 1916.
Calculate Kerubo’s monthly income
9. The cash price of a T.V set is Kshs 13, 800. A customer opts to buy the set on hire purchase terms
by paying a deposit of Kshs 2280.
If simple interest of 20 p. a is charged on the balance and the customer is required to repay by 24
equal monthly installments. Calculate the amount of each installment.
10. A plot of land valued at Ksh. 50,000 at the start of 1994.
Thereafter, every year, it appreciated by 10% of its previous years value find:
(a) The value of the land at the start of 1995
(b) The value of the land at the end of 1997

11. The table below shows Kenya tax rates in a certain year.

Income K £ per annum Tax rates Kshs per K £

1- 4512 2
4513 - 9024 3

9025 - 13536 4

13537 - 18048 5
18049 - 22560 6

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 Over 22560 6.5

In that year Muhando earned a salary of Ksh. 16510 per month. He was entitled to a monthly tax
relief of Ksh. 960
Calculate
(a) Muhando annual salary in K £
(b) (i) The monthly tax paid by Muhando in Ksh
14. A tailor intends to buy a sewing machine which costs Ksh 48,000. He borrows the money from a
bank. The loan has to be repaid at the end of the second year. The bank charges an interest at the
rate of 24% per annum compounded half yearly. Calculate the total amount payable to the bank.

15. The average rate of depreciation in value of a water pump is 9% per annum. After three complete
years its value was Ksh 150,700. Find its value at the start of the three year period.

15. A water pump costs Ksh 21600 when new, at the end of the first year its value depreciates by
25%. The depreciation at the end of the second year is 20% and thereafter the rate of
depreciation is 15% yearly. Calculate the exact value of the water pump at the end of the fourth
year.

CHAPTER FOURTY SEVEN

CIRCLES, CHORDS AND TANGENTS

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) Calculate length of an arc and a chord;
(b) Calculate lengths of tangents and intersecting chords;
(c) State and use properties of chords and tangents;
(d) Construct tangent to a circle,

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(e) Construct direct and transverse common tangents to two circles;
(f) Relate angles in alternate segment;
(g) Construct circumscribed, inscribed and escribed circles;
(h) Locate centroid and orthocentre of a triangle;
(i) Apply knowledge of circles, tangents and chords to real life situations.
Content
(a) Arcs, chords and tangents
(b) Lengths of tangents and intersecting chords
(c) Properties of chords and tangents
(d) Construction of tangents to a circle
(e) Direct and transverse common tangents to two circles
(f) Angles in alternate segment
(g) Circumscribed, inscribed and escribed circles
(h) Centroid and orthocentre
(i) Application of knowledge of tangents and chords to real life situations.

Length of an Arc

The Arc length marked red is given by ;

Example
Find the length of an arc subtended by an angle of at the centre of the circle of radius 14 cm.
Solution

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Length of an arc =
=
Example
The length of an arc of a circle is 11.0 cm.Find the radius of the circle if an arc subtended an angle ofat the
centre .
Solution
Arc length =
Therefore 11 =

Example
Find the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc of 20 cm, if the circumference of the circle is 60
cm.
Solution
=
But 2
Therefore,

Chords
Chord of a circle: A line segment which joins two points on a circle. Diameter: a chord which passes through
the center of the circle. Radius: the distance from the center of the circle to the circumference of the circle

Perpendicular bisector of a code

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A perpendicular drawn from the centre of the circle to a chord bisects the chord.

Note;
 Perperndicular drawn from the centre of the circle to chord bisects the cord ( divides it into two
equal parts)
 A straight line joining the centre of a circle to the midpoint of a chord is perpendicular to the chord.

The radius of a circle centre O is 13 cm.Find the perpendicular distance from O to the chord, if AB is 24
cm.

Solution
OC bisects chord AB at C
Therefore, AC =12 cm
In O

Therefore
, OM = = 5 cm

Parallel chords
Any chord passing through the midpoints of all parallel chords of a circle is a diameter

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Example
In the figure below CD and AB are parallel chords of a circle and 2 cm apart. If CD = 8 cm and AB= 10
cm, find the radius of the circle

Solution
 Draw the perpendicular bisector of the chords to cut them at K and L .
 Join OD and OC
 In triangle ODL,
 DL = 4 cm and KC =5 cm
 Let OK = X cm
 Therefore (
In triangle OCK;


 Therefore (


 4x = 5
 X=
Using the equation

=
=
= 5.154 cm

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Intersecting chords
In general

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Example
In the example above AB and CD are two chords that intersect in a circle at Given that AE = 4 cm, CE =5
cm and DE = 3 cm, find AB.

Solution
Let EB = x cm
4

Since AB = AE + EB
AB = 4 + 3.75
= 7.75 cm

Equal chords.
 Angles subtended at the centre of a circle by equal chords are equals
 If chords are equal they are equidistant from the centre of the circle

Secant
A chord that is produced outside a circle is called a secant

Example

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Find the value of AT in the figure below. AR = 4 cm, RD = 5 cm and TC = 9 cm.
Solution
AC x AT
(x + 9) x = (5 + 4) 4

(x + 12) (x- 3) = 0
Therefore, x = - 12 or x = 3

Tangent and secant

Tangent
A line which touches a circle at exactly one point is called a tangent line and the point where it touches the
circle is called the point of contact
Secant
A line which intersects the circle in two distinct points is called a secant line (usually referred to as a
secant).The figures below A shows a secant while B shows a tangent .

A B
Construction of a tangent

 Draw a circle of any radius and centre O.

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  Join O to any point P on the circumference
 Produce OP to a point P outside the circle
 Construct a perpendicular line SP through point P
 The line is a tangent to the circle at P as shown below.

Note;
 The radius and tangent are perpendicular at the point of contact.
 Through any point on a circle , only one tangent can be drawn
 A perpendicular to a tangent at the point of contact passes thought the centre of the circle.

Example
In the figure below PT = 15 cm and PO = 17 cm, calculate the length of PQ.

Solution

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 OT = 8 cm

Properties of tangents to a circle from an external point

If two tangents are drawn to a circle from an external point

 They are equal

 They subtend equal angles at the centre
 The line joining the centre of the circle to the external point bisects the angle between the tangents

Example
The figure below represents a circle centre O and radius 5 cm. The tangents PT is 12 cm long. Find: a.) OP
b.) Angle TP

Solution

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 a.) Join O to P

b.) <
<OTP =

= 0.9231
Therefore, <TPO = 22.6
Hence <

Two tangent to a circle

Direct (exterior) common tangents Transverse or interior common tangents

Tangent Problem
The common-tangent problem is named for the single tangent segment that’s tangent to two circles. Your
goal is to find the length of the tangent. These problems are a bit involved, but they should cause you little
difficulty if you use the straightforward three-step solution method that follows.

The following example involves a common external tangent (where the tangent lies on the same side of
both circles). You might also see a common-tangent problem that involves a common internal tangent
(where the tangent lies between the circles). No worries: The solution technique is the same for both.
Given the radius of circle A is 4 cm and the radius of circle Z is 14 cm and the distance between the two
circles is 8 cm.
Here’s how to solve it:

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1.)Draw the segment connecting the centers of the two circles and draw the two radii to the points of
tangency (if these segments haven’t already been drawn for you).
Draw line AZ and radii AB and ZY.
The following figure shows this step. Note that the given distance of 8 cm between the circles is the distance
between the outsides of the circles along the segment that connects their centers.

2.) From the center of the smaller circle, draw a segment parallel to the common tangent till it hits the radius
of the larger circle (or the extension of the radius in a common-internal-tangent problem).

You end up with a right triangle and a rectangle; one of the rectangle’s sides is the common tangent. The
above figure illustrates this step.
3.)You now have a right triangle and a rectangle and can finish the problem with the Pythagorean Theorem
and the simple fact that opposite sides of a rectangle are congruent.

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The triangle’s hypotenuse is made up of the radius of circle A, the segment between the circles, and the
radius of circle Z. Their lengths add up to 4 + 8 + 14 = 26. You can see that the width of the rectangle equals
the radius of circle A, which is 4; because opposite sides of a rectangle are congruent, you can then tell that
one of the triangle’s legs is the radius of circle Z minus 4, or 14 – 4 = 10.
You now know two sides of the triangle, and if you find the third side, that’ll give you the length of the
common tangent.
You get the third side with the Pythagorean Theorem:

(Of course, if you recognize that the right triangle is in the 5 : 12 : 13 family, you can multiply 12 by 2 to
get 24 instead of using the Pythagorean Theorem.)Because opposite sides of a rectangle are congruent, BY
is also 24, and you’re done.

Now look back at the last figure and note where the right angles are and how the right triangle and the
rectangle are situated; then make sure you heed the following tip and warning.

Note the location of the hypotenuse. In a common-tangent problem, the segment connecting the centers of
the circles is always the hypotenuse of a right triangle. The common tangent is always the side of a
rectangle, not a hypotenuse.

In a common-tangent problem, the segment connecting the centers of the circles is never one side of a right
angle. Don’t make this common mistake.

HOW TO construct a common exterior tangent line to two circles

In this lesson you will learn how to construct a common exterior tangent line to two circles in a plane such
that no one is located inside the other using a ruler and a compass.

Problem 1

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For two given circles in a plane such that no one is located inside the other, to construct the common
exterior tangent line using a ruler and a compass.

Solution

We are given two circles in a plane such that no one is located inside the other (Figure 1a).
We need to construct the common exterior tangent line to the circles using a ruler and a compass.

First, let us analyze the problem and make a sketch (Figures 1a and 1b). Let AB be the common
tangent line to the circles we are searching for.
Let us connect the tangent point A of the first circle with its center P and the tangent point B of the
second circle with its center Q (Figure 1a and 1b).

Then the radii PA and QB are both perpendicular to the tangent line AB (lesson A tangent line to a
circle is perpendicular to the radius drawn to the tangent point under the topic Circles and their properties
). Hence, theradii PA and QB are parallel.

Figure 1a. To the Problem 1

Figure 1b. To the solution of the Problem 1

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 Figure 1c. To the construction step 3

Next, let us draw the straight line segment CQ parallel to AB through the point Q till the intersection
with the radius PA at the point C (Figure 1b). Then the straight line CQ is parallel to AB. Hence, the
quadrilateral CABQ is a parallelogram (moreover, it is a rectangle) and has the opposite sides QB and
CA congruent. The point C divides the radius PA in two segments of the length (CA) and (PC). It
is clear from this analysis that the straight line QC is the tangent line to the circle of the radius with the
center at the point P (shown in red in Figure 1b).

It implies that the procedure of constructing the common exterior tangent line to two circles should be as
follows:
1) draw the auxiliary circle of the radius at the center of the larger circle (shown in red in Figure 1b);
2) construct the tangent line to this auxiliary circle from the center of the smaller circle (shown in red
in Figure 1b). In this way you will get the tangent point C on the auxiliary circle of the radius ;
3) draw the straight line from the point P to the point C and continue it in the same direction till the
intersection with the larger circle (shown in blue in Figure 1b). The intersection point A is the tangent
point of the common tangent line and the larger circle. Figure 1c reminds you how to perform this step.

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 4) draw the straight line QB parallel to PA till the intersection with the smaller circle (shown in blue
in Figure 1b).
The intersection point B is the tangent point of the common tangent line and the smaller circle;
5) the required common tangent line is uniquely defined by its two points A and B.

Note that all these operations 1) - 4) can be done using a ruler and a compass. The problem is solved.

Problem 2
Find the length of the common exterior tangent segment to two given circles in a plane, if they have the
radii and and the distance between their centers is d.
No one of the two circles is located inside the other.

Solution
Let us use the Figure 1b from the solution to the previous Problem 1.
This Figure is relevant to the Problem 2. It is copied and reproduced
in the Figure 2 on the right for your convenience.

figure 2

It is clear from the solution of the Problem 1 above that the common
exterior tangent segment |AB| is congruent to the side |CQ| of the
quadrilateral (rectangle) CABQ.

From the other side, the segment CQ is the leg of the right-angled
triangle DELTAPCQ. This triangle has the hypotenuse's measure d and

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the other leg's measure . Therefore, the length of the common
exterior tangent segment |AB| is equal to
|AB| =

Note that the solvability condition for this problem is d >.

It coincides with the condition that no one of the two circles lies inside the other.

Example 1
Find the length of the common exterior tangent segment to two given circles in a plane, if their radii are 6
cm and 3 cm and the distance between their centers
is 5 cm.

Solution
Use the formula (1) derived in the solution of the Problem 2.
According to this formula, the length of the common exterior tangent segment to the two given circles is
equal to

= =
= 4 cm

Answer.
The length of the common exterior tangent segment to the two given circles is 4 cm

Contact of circles
Two circle are said to touch each other at a point if they have a common tangent at that point.
Point T is shown by the red dot.

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 Internal tangent externally tangent
Note;
 The centers of the two circles and their point of contact lie on a straight line
 When two circles touch each other internally, the distance between the centers is equal to the
difference of the radii i.e. PQ= TP-TA
 When two circles touch each other externally, the distance between the centers is equal to the sum
of the radii i.e. OR =TO +TR
.

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Alternate Segment theorem
The angle which the chord makes with the tangent is equal to the angle subtended by the same chord in the
alternate segment of the circle.

Angle a = Angle b

Note;
The blue line represents the angle which the chord CD makes with the tangent PQ which is equal to the
angle b which is subtended by the chord in the alternate segment of the circle.

Illustrations

 Angle s = Angle t
 Angle a = Ange b

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Tangent – secant segment length theorem
If a tangent segment and secant segment are drawn to a circle from an external point, then the square of the
length of the tangent equals the product of the length of the secant with the length of its external segment.

Example
In the figure above ,TW=10 cm and XW = 4 cm. find TV
Solution

=
TV =

Circles and triangles

Inscribed circle

 Construct any triangle ABC.

 Construct the bisectors of the three angles
 The bisectors will meet at point I
 Construct a perpendicular from O to meet one of the sides at M
 With the centre I and radius IM draw a circle
 The circle will touch the three sides of the triangle ABC
 Such a circle is called an inscribed circle or in circle.
 The centre of an inscribed circle is called the incentre

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Circumscribed circle

 Construct any triangle ABC.

 Construct perpendicular bisectors of AB , BC, and AC to meet at point O.
 With O as the centre and using OB as radius, draw a circle
 The circle will pass through the vertices A , B and C as shown in the figure below

Escribed circle

 Construct any triangle ABC.

 Extend line BA and BC
 Construct the perpendicular bisectors of the two external angles produced
 Let the perpendicular bisectors meet at O
 With O as the centre draw the circle which will touch all the external sides of the triangle

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Note;
Centre O is called the ex-centre
AO and CO are called external bisectors.

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. The figure below represents a circle a diameter 28 cm with a sector

0
subtending an angle of 75 at the centre.

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 Find the area of the shaded segment to 4 significant figures
(a) <PST

2. The figure below represents a rectangle PQRS inscribed

in a circle centre 0 and radius 17 cm. PQ = 16 cm.

Calculate
(a) The length PS of the rectangle
(b) The angle POS
(c) The area of the shaded region
3. In the figure below, BT is a tangent to the circle at B. AXCT and BXD are
straight lines. AX = 6 cm, CT = 8 cm, BX = 4.8 cm and XD = 5 cm.

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 Find the length of
(a) XC
(b) BT
4. The figure below shows two circles each of radius 7 cm, with centers at X and Y. The circles touch
each other at point Q.

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Given that <AXD = <BYC = 1200 and lines AB, XQY and DC are parallel, calculate the area of:
a) Minor sector XAQD (Take π 22/7)
b) The trapezium XABY
c) The shaded regions.

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 5. The figure below shows a circle,
centre, O of radius 7 cm. TP and TQ are tangents to the circle at points P and Q respectively. OT
=25 cm.

Calculate the length of the chord PQ

6. The figure below shows a circle centre O and a point Q which is outside the circle

O
Q

Using a ruler and a pair of compasses, only locate a point on the circle such that angle OPQ = 90o

7. In the figure below, PQR is an equilateral triangle of side 6 cm. Arcs QR, PR and PQ arcs of circles
with centers at P, Q and R respectively.

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Calculate the area of the shaded region to 4 significant figures

8. In the figure below AB is a diameter of the circle. Chord PQ intersects AB at N. A tangent to the
circle at B meets PQ produced at R.

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Given that PN = 14 cm, NB = 4 cm and BR = 7.5 cm, calculate the length of:
(a) NR
(b) AN

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 CHAPTER FOURTY EIGHT

MATRICES
Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) Define a matrix;
(b) State the order of a matrix;
(c) Define a square matrix;
(d) Determine compatibility in addition and multiplication of matrices;
(e) Add matrices;
(f) Multiply matrices;
(g) Identify matrices;
(h) Find determinant of a 2 x 2 matrix;
(i) Find the inverse of a 2 x 2 matrix;
(j) Use matrices to solve simultaneous equations.

Content
(a) Matrix
(b) Order of a matrix
(c) Square matrix
(d) Compatibility in addition and multiplication of matrices
(e) Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar
(f) Matrix multiplication
(g) Identify matrix
(h) Determinant of a 2 x 2 matrix

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(i) Inverse of a 2 x 2 matrix
(j) Singular matrix
(k) Solutions of simultaneous equations in two unknowns.

(i)

Introduction

A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers in rows and columns. For instance, matrix A below has
two rows and three columns. The dimensions of this matrix are 2 x 3 (read “2 by 3”). The numbers in a
matrix are its entries. In matrix A, the entry in the second row and third column is 5.
A=
Some matrices (the plural of matrix) have special names because of their dimensions or entries.

Order of matrix
Matrix consist of rows and columns. Rows are the horizontal arrangement while columns are the vertical
arrangement.
Order of matrix is being determined by the number of rows and columns. The order is given by stating the
number of rows followed by columns.

Note;
If the number of rows is m and the number of columns n, the matrix is of order.
E.g. If a matrix has m rows and n columns, it is said to be order mn.

2 0 3 6
e.g.  3 4 7 0 is a matrix of order 34.
 1 9 2 5
 

 1 0 2
e.g. 2 1 5 is a matrix of order 3.
1 3 0 
 

e.g.
2 3 4 is a 23 matrix.
 1 8 5

2
e.g. 7 is a 31 matrix.
 3
 
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Elements of matrix
The element of a matrix is each number or letter in the matrix. Each element is locating by stating its
position in the row and the column.

2 0 3 6
 
For example, given the 3 x 4 matrix 3 4 7 0
1 9 2 5

 The element 1 is in the third row and first column.

 The element 6 is in the first row and forth column.
Note;
A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number of columns is called a square matrix.
 1 0 2
2 1 5
1 3 0 
 

a 1
a2  an  Is called a row matrix or row vector.

 b1 
b2 
 Is called a column matrix or column vector.
 
bn 

2
7 Is a column vector of order 31.
 3
 
2 3 4 is a row vector of order 13.
Two or more matrices re equal if they are of the same order and their corresponding elements are equal.
Thus, if then, a = 3, b =4 and d=5.
Addition and subtraction of matrices
Matrices can be added or subtracted if they are of the same order. The sum of two or more matrices is
obtained by adding corresponding elements. Subtraction is also done in the same way.
Example

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 1.) A + B 2.) A – B
Solution
1.) A+B =

2.) A - B =

Example
- +
=

Note;
After arranging the matrices you must use BODMAS

The matrix above cannot be added because they are not of the same order

Matrix multiplication
To multiply a matrix by a number, you multiply each element in the matrix by the number.
Example
3
solution
=

Example
-2
Solution

=
Example
A woman wanted to buy one sack of potatoes, three bunches of bananas and two basket of onion. She went
to kikuyu market and found the prices as sh 280 for the sack of potatoes ,sh 50 for a bunch of bananas and
sh 100 for a basket of onions. At kondelee market the corresponding prices were sh 300, sh 48 and sh 80.
a.) Express the woman’s requirements as a row matrix
b.) Express the prices in each market as a column matrix
c.) Use the matrices in (a) and (b) to find the total cost in each market

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Solution
a.) Requirements in matrix form is (1 3 2)
b.) Price matrix for Kikuyu market is

Price matrix for kondelee market

c.) Total cost in shillings at Kikuyu Market is;

(1 3 2)= (1 x 280 + 3 x 50 +2 x 100) = (630)

Total cost in shillings at Kondelee Market is;

(1 3 2 ) = ( 1 x 300 + 3 x 48 + 2 x 80) =(604)
The two results can be combined into one as shown below
(1 3 2)
Note;
The product of two matrices A and B is defined provided the number of columns in A is equal to the number
of rows in B.
If A is an m x n matrix and B is an n x p matrix, then the product AB is an m a p matrix.
A X B = AB
mXn nXp=mX p
Each time a row is multiplied by a column
Example
Find AB if A = and B=

Solution
Because A is a 3 x 2 matrix and B is a 2 x 2 matrix, the product AB is defined and is a 3 x 2 matrix. To write
the elements in the first row and first column of AB, multiply corresponding elements in the first row of A
and the first column of B. Then add. Use a similar procedure to write the other entries of the product.

AB=
=

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Identity matrix
For matrices, the identity matrix or a unit matrix is the matrix that has 1’s on the main diagonal and 0’s
elsewhere. The main diagonal is the one running from top left to bottom right .It is also called leading or
principle diagonal. Examples are;
I=
2 X 2 identity matrix 3 x 3 identity matrix
If A is any n x n matrix and I is the n x n identity matrix, then IA = A and AI = A.

Determinant matrix
The determinant of a matrix is the difference of the products of the elements on the diagonals.
Examples
The determinant of A, det A or |A| is defined as follows:

a11 b12
(a) If n=2, det A   a11 a 22  b12 b21
b21 a 22

Example
Find the determinant
Solution
Subtract the product of the diagonals
1 x 5 – 2 x 3 = 5 – 6 = -1
Determinant is -1

Inverse of a matrix
Two matrices of order n x n are inverse of each other if their product (in both orders) is theidentity matrix
of the same order n x n. The inverse of A is written as
Example
Show that B=
Solution
AB=
=
=
BA=
= AB=BA=I. Hence, A is the inverse of B

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Note;
To get the inverse matrix

 Find the determinant of the matrix. If it is zero, then there is no inverse

 If it is non zero, then;
 Interchange the elements in the main diagonal
 Reverse the signs of the element in the other diagonals
 Divide the matrix obtained by the determinant of the given matrix

In summary
The inverse of the matrix A = is
=

Example
Find the inverse of A=
Solution

Check
You can check the inverse by showing that A
And

Solutions of simultaneous linear equations using matrix

Using matrix method solve the following pairs of simultaneous equation

Solution

We need to calculate the inverse of A =

=
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Hence
=
=
Hence the value of x = 2 and the value of y = 1 is the solution of the simultaneous equation

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

1. A and B are two matrices. If A = 1 2 find B given that A2 = A + B

4 3
2. Given that A= 1 3 , B= 3 1 , C = p 0 and AB =BC, determine the value of P
5 3 5 -1 0 q
3. A matrix A is given by A = x 0
5 y
a) Determine A2

b) If A2 = 1 0 ,
determine the possible pairs of values of x and y
4. (a) 0 of1 the matrix 9 8
Find the inverse
7 6
(b) In a certain week a businessman bought 36 bicycles and 32 radios for total of Kshs 227
280. In the following week, he bought 28 bicycles and 24 radios for a total of Kshs 174
960. Using matrix method, find the price of each bicycle and each radio that he bought

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 (c) In the third week, the price of each bicycle was reduced by 10% while the price of each
radio was raised by 10%. The businessman bought as many bicycles and as many radios
as he had bought in the first two weeks.
Find by matrix method, the total cost of the bicycles and radios that the businessman bought
in the third week.

5. Determine the inverse T-1 of the matrix 1 2

1 -1
Hence find the coordinates to the point at which the two lines x + 2y=7 and x-y=1

6. Given that A = 0 -1 and B = -1 0

3 2 2 -4
Find the value of x if
(i) A – 2x = 2B
(ii) 3x – 2A = 3B
(iii) 2A – 3B = 2x
7. Find the non- zero value of k for which k + 1 2 is an inverse.
4k 2k
8. A clothes dealer sold 3 shirts and 2 trousers for Kshs. 840 and 4 shirts and 5 trousers for Kshs 1680.
Form a matrix equation to represent the above information. Hence find the cost of 1 shirt and the
cost of 1 trouser.

CHAPTER FOURTY NINE

FORMULAE AND VARIATION

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

a) Rewrite a given formula by changing its subject
b) Define direct, inverse, partial and joint variations
c) Determine constants of proportionality
d) Form and solve equations involving variations
e) Draw graphs to illustrate direct and inverse proportions

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f) Use variations to solve real life problems

Content
a.) Change of the subject of a formula
b.) Direct, inverse, partial and joint variation
c.) Constants of proportionality
d.) Equations involving variations
e.) Graphs of direct and inverse proportion
f.) Formation of equations on variations based on real life situations

Formulae
A Formula is an expression or equation that expresses the relationship between certain quantities.

For Example is the formula to find the area of a circle of radius r units.

From this formula, we can know the relationship between the radius and the area of a circle. The area of a
circle varies directly as the square of its radius. Here is the constant of variation.

Changing the subject of a formulae

Terminology
In the formula
C =d
Subject: C Rule: multiplyby diameter

The variable on the left, is known as the subject: What you are trying to find.
The formula on the right, is the rule, that tells you how to calculate the subject.
So, if you want to have a formula or rule that lets you calculate d, you need
to make d, the subject of the formula.
This is changing the subject of the formula from C to d.

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So clearly in the case above where
C =d

We get C by multiplying by the diameter

To calculate d, we need to divide the Circumference C by
So d and now we have d as the subject of the formula.

Method:
A formula is simply an equation, that you cannot solve, until you replace the letters with their
values (numbers). It is known as a literal equation.
To change the subject, apply the same rules as we have applied to normal equations.
1. Add the same variable to both sides.
2. Subtract the same variable from both sides.
3. Multiply both sides by the same variable.
4. Divide both sides by the same variable.
5. Square both sides
6. Square root both sides.

Examples:
Make the letter in brackets the subject of the formula
x+p=q[x]
(subtract p from both sides)
x=q–p

y−r=s[y]
(add r to both sides)
y=s+r

P = RS [ R ]
(divide both sides by S)

S=

=L [A]
(multiply both sides by B)
A = LB

2w+ 3 = y [ w ]
(subtract 3 from both sides)
2w = y −3
(divide both sides by 2)
W=

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P=Q [Q]
(multiply both sides by 3− get rid of fraction)
3P = Q

T=k[k]
(multiply both sides by 5− get rid of fraction)
5T = 2k
(divide both sides by 2)
=k Note that: is the same as

A =r [ r ]
(divide both sides by p)
(square root both sides)

L =h −t [ h ]
(multiply both sides by 2)
2L = h −t
(add t to both sides)
2L + t = h

Example
Make d the subject of the formula G=
Solution
Squaring both sides

Multiply both sides by d-1

Expanding the L.H.S

Collecting the terms containing d on the L.H.S

Factorizing the L.H.S

Dividing both sides by

Variation
In a formula some elements which do not change (fixed) under any condition are called constants while the
ones that change are called variables. There are different types of variations.

 Direct Variation, where both variables either increase or decrease together

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  Inverse or Indirect Variation, where when one of the variables increases, the other one decreases
 Joint Variation, where more than two variables are related directly
 Combined Variation, which involves a combination of direct or joint variation, and indirect
variation

Examples

 Direct: The number of money I make varies directly (or you can say varies proportionally) with
how much I work.
 Direct: The length of the side a square varies directly with the perimeter of the square.
 Inverse: The number of people I invite to my bowling party varies inversely with the number of
games they might get to play (or you can say is proportional to the inverse of).
 Inverse: The temperature in my house varies indirectly (same as inversely) with the amount of
time the air conditioning is running.
 Inverse: My school marks may vary inversely with the number of hours I watch TV.

Direct or Proportional Variation

When two variables are related directly, the ratio of their values is always the same. So as one goes up, so
does the other, and if one goes down, so does the other. Think of linear direct variation as a “y = mx” line,
where the ratio of y to x is the slope (m). With direct variation, the y-intercept is always 0 (zero); this is
how it’s defined.

Direct variation problems are typically written:

→ y= kx where k is the ratio of y to x (which is the same as the slope or rate).

Some problems will ask for that k value (which is called the constant of variation or constant of
proportionality ); others will just give you 3 out of the 4 values for x and y and you can simply set up a
ratio to find the other value.

Remember the example of making ksh 1000 per week (y = 10x)? This is an example of direct variation,
since the ratio of how much you make to how many hours you work is always constant.

Direct Variation Word Problem:

The amount of money raised at a school fundraiser is directly proportional to the number of people who
attend. Last year, the amount of money raised for 100 attendees was $2500. How much money will be
raised if 1000 people attend this year?

Solution:

Let’s do this problem using both the Formula Method and the Proportion Method:

Formula method Explanation

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Proportional method Explanation

Direct Square Variation Word Problem

Again, a Direct Square Variation is when y is proportional to the square of x, or .

Example

If yvaries directly with the square ofx, and if y = 4 when x= 3, what is y when x= 2?

Solution:

Let’s do this with the formula method and the proportion method:

Formulae method notes

Proportional method Notes

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Example

The length (l) cm of a wire varies directly as the temperature c.The length of the wire is 5 cm when the
temperature is .Calculate the length of the wire when the temperature is c.

Solution

Therefore l =Kt

Substituting l =5 when T= .

5 =k x 65

K=

Therefore l =

When t = 69

L=

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Direct variation graph

Inverse or Indirect Variation

Inverse or Indirect Variation is refers to relationships of two variables that go in the opposite
direction. Let’s supposed you are comparing how fast you are driving (average speed) to how fast you get
to your work.The faster you drive the earlier you get to your work. So as the speed increases time reduces
and vice versa .

So the formula for inverse or indirect variation is:

→ y= or K =xy where k is always the same number or constant.

(Note that you could also have an Indirect Square Variation or Inverse Square Variation, like we saw
above for a Direct Variation. This would be of the form→ y = or k= .)

Inverse Variation Word Problem:

So we might have a problem like this:

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 The value of yvaries inversely with x, and y = 4 when x = 3. Find x

when y = 6.

The problem can also be written as follows:

Let = 3, = 4, and = 6. Let yvary inversely as x. Find .

Solution:

We can solve this problem in one of two ways, as shown. We do these methods when we are given any
three of the four values for x and y.

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Product Rule Method:

Inverse Variation Word Problem:

For the club, the number of tickets Moyo can buy is inversely proportional to the price of the tickets. She
can afford 15 tickets that cost $5 each. How many tickets can she buy if each cost $3?

Solution:

Let’s use the product method:

Example

If 16 women working 7 hours day can paint a mural in 48 days, how many days will it take 14 women
working 12 hours a day to paint the same mural?

Solution:

The three different values are inversely proportional; for example, the more women you have, the less days
it takes to paint the mural, and the more hours in a day the women paint, the less days they need to complete
the mural:

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Joint Variation and Combined Variation

Joint variation is just like direct variation, but involves more than one other variable. All the variables are
directly proportional, taken one at a time. Let’s do a joint variation problem:

Supposed x varies jointly with y and the square root of z. When x = –18 and y = 2, then z = 9. Find y when
x = 10 and z = 4.

Combined variation involves a combination of direct or joint variation, and indirect variation. Since these
equations are a little more complicated, you probably want to plug in all the variables, solve for k, and then
solve back to get what’s missing. Here is the type of problem you may get:

(a) yvaries jointly as x and w and inversely as the square of z. Find the equation of variation when
y = 100, x = 2, w = 4, and z = 20.

(b) Then solve for y when x = 1, w = 5, and z = 4.

Solution:

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Example

The volume of wood in a tree (V) variesdirectly as the height (h) and inversely as the square of the girth
(g). If the volume of a tree is 144 cubic meters when the height is 20 meters and the girth is 1.5 meters,
what is the height of a tree with a volume of 1000 and girth of 2 meters?

Solution:

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Example

The average number of phone calls per day between two cities has found to be jointly proportional to the
populations of the cities, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the two
cities. The population of Charlotte is about 1,500,000 and the population of Nashville is about 1,200,000,
and the distance between the two cities is about 400 miles. The average number of calls between the cities
is about 200,000.

(a) Find the k and write the equation of variation.

(b) The average number of daily phone calls between Charlotte and Indianapolis (which has a population
of about 1,700,000) is about 134,000. Find the distance between the two cities.

Solution:

It may be easier if you take it one step at a time:

Math’s Explanation

Example
A varies directly as B and inversely as the square root of C. Find the percentage change in A when B is
decreased by 10 % and C increased by 21%.
Solution
A= K
A change in B and C causes a change in A

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 = 1.21C
Substituting

=
Percentage change in A =
=
= - 18
Therefore A decreases 18

Partial variation
The general linear equation y =mx +c, where m and c are constants, connects two variables x and y.in such
case we say that y is partly constant and partly varies as x.
Example
A variable y is partly constant and partly varies as if x = 2 when y=7 and x =4 when y =11, find the equation
connecting y and x.
Solution
The required equation is y = kx + c where k and c are constants
Substituting x = 2 ,y =7 and x =4, y =11 in the equation gives ;
7 =2k +c …………………..(1)
11 = 4k +c …………………(2)
Subtracting equation 1 from equation 2 ;
4=2k
Therefore k =2
Substituting k =2 in the equation 1 ;
C =7 – 4
C =3
Therefore the equation required is y=2x +3

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 End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. The volume Vcm3 of an object is given by

V = 2 π r31 – 2
3 sc2

Express in term of π r, s and V

2. Make V the subject of the formula
T = 1 m (u2 – v2)
2
3. Given that y =b – bx2 make x the subject
cx2 – a
4. Given that log y = log (10n) make n the subject
5. A quantity T is partly constant and partly varies as the square root of S.
i. Using constants a and b, write down an equation connecting T and S.
ii. If S = 16, when T = 24 and S = 36 when T = 32, find the values of the
constants a and b,
6. A quantity P is partly constant and partly varies inversely as a quantity q, given that p = 10 when q
= 1.5 and p = 20, when q = 1.25, find the value of p when q= 0.5
7. Make y the subject of the formula p = xy
x-y
8. Make P the subject of the formula
P2 = (P – q) (P-r)
9. The density of a solid spherical ball varies directly as its mass and inversely as the cube of its radius
When the mass of the ball is 500g and the radius is 5 cm, its density is 2 g per cm3

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 Calculate the radius of a solid spherical ball of mass 540 density of 10g per cm3
10. Make s the subject of the formula

√P = r 1 – as2
11. The quantities t, x and y are such that t varies directly as x and inversely as the square root of y.
Find the percentage in t if x decreases by 4% when y increases by 44%
12. Given that y is inversely proportional to xn and k as the constant of proportionality;
(a) (i) Write down a formula connecting y, x, n and k
(ii) If x = 2 when y = 12 and x = 4 when y = 3, write down two expressions for k in
terms of n.
Hence, find the value of n and k.
(b) Using the value of n obtained in (a) (ii) above, find y when x = 5 1/3

13. The electrical resistance, R ohms of a wire of a given length is inversely proportional to the square
of the diameter of the wire, d mm. If R = 2.0 ohms when d = 3mm. Find the vale R when d = 4 mm.

14. The volume Vcm3 of a solid depends partly on r and partly on r where rcm is one of the dimensions
of the solid.
When r = 1, the volume is 54.6 cm3 and when r = 2, the volume is 226.8 cm3
(a) Find an expression for V in terms of r
(b) Calculate the volume of the solid when r = 4
(c) Find the value of r for which the two parts of the volume are equal

15. The mass of a certain metal rod varies jointly as its length and the square of its radius. A rod 40 cm
long and radius 5 cm has a mass of 6 kg. Find the mass of a similar rod of length 25 cm and radius
8 cm.

16. Make x the subject of the formula

P= xy
z+x
17. The charge c shillings per person for a certain service is partly fixed and partly inversely
proportional to the total number N of people.
(a) Write an expression for c in terms on N

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 (b) When 100 people attended the charge is Kshs 8700 per person while for 35 people the
charge is Kshs 10000 per person.
(c) If a person had paid the full amount charge is refunded. A group of people paid but ten
percent of organizer remained with Kshs 574000.
Find the number of people.

18. Two variables A and B are such that A varies partly as B and partly as the square root of B given
that A=30, when B=9 and A=16 when B=14, find A when B=36.

19. Make p the subject of the formula

A= -EP
√P2 + N

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 CHAPTER FIFTY

SEQUENCE AND SERIES

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) Identify simple number patterns;
(b) Define a sequence;
(c) Identify the pattern for a given set of numbers and deduce the general rule;
(d) Determine a term in a sequence;
(e) Recognize arithmetic and geometric sequences;
(f) Define a series;
(g) Recognize arithmetic and geometric series (Progression);
(h) Derive the formula for partial sum of an arithmetic and geometric series(Progression);
(i) Apply A.P and G.P to solve problems in real life situations.
Content
(a) Simple number patterns
(b) Sequences
(c) Arithmetic sequence
(d) Geometric sequence
(e) Determining a term in a sequence
(f) Arithmetic progression (A.P)
(g) Geometric progression (G.P)
(h) Sum of an A.P
(i) Sum of a G.P (exclude sum to infinity)
(j) Application of A.P and G.P to real life situations.

Introduction
Sequences and Series are basically just numbers or expressions in a row that make up some sort of a
pattern; for example, Monday, Tuesday, Wenesday, …, Friaday is a sequence that represents the days
of the week. Each of these numbers or expressions are called terms or elements of the sequence.
Sequences are the list of these items, separated by commas, and series are the sum of the terms of a
sequence.

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Example
Sequence Next two terms
1, 8, 27, - , - Every term is cubed .The next two terms are
3, 7, 11, 15 - , - , every term is 4 more than the previous one. To get the next term add 4
15 + 4 = 19, 19 +4 =23
On the numerator, the next term is 1 more than the previous one, and the
denominator, the next term is multiplied by 2 the next two terms are
Example
For the term of a sequence is given by 2n + 3, Find the first, fifth, twelfth terms
Solution
First term, n = 1 substituting (2 x 1 +3 =5)
Fifth term, n = 5 substituting (2 x 5 +3 =13)
Twelfth term, n = 12 substituting (2 x 12 +3 =27)

Arithmetic and geometric sequence

Arithmetic sequence.
Any sequence of a number with common difference is called arithmetic sequence
To decide whether a sequence is arithmetic, find the differences of consecutive terms. If each differences
are not constant,the it is arithmetic sequence
Rule for an arithmetic sequence
The nth term of an arithmetic sequence with first term and common difference d is given by:
= + (n - 1)d

Example Illustrations

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Example
Write a rule for the nth term of the sequence 50, 44, 38, 32, . . . . Then find .
Solution
The sequence is arithmetic with first term = 50 and common difference
d = 44 - 50 = -6. So, a rule for the nth term is:

= + (n - 1)d Write general rule.

= 50 + (n - 1)(-6) Substitute for a1 and d.
= 56 - 6n Simplify.
The 20th term is = 56 - 6(20) = -64.

Example
The 20 th term of arithmetic sequence is 60 and the 16 th term is 20.Find the first term and the common
difference.

Solution

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 (1) – (2) gives
4d = 40
d= 10

Therefore a + 15 x 10 =20
a + 150 = 20
a = -130
Hence, the first term is – 130 and the common difference is 10.
Example
Find the number of terms in the sequence – 3 , 0 , 3 …54
Solution
The n th term is a + ( n – 1)d
a = -30 , d =3
n th term = 54
therefore - 3 + ( n – 1) = 54
3 (n – 1 ) = 57

Arithmetic series/ Arithmetic progression A.P

The sum of the terms of a sequence is called a series. If the terms of sequence are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, when written
with addition sign we get arithmetic series
1+2+3+4+5
The general formulae for finding the sum of the terms is

Note;
If th first term (a) and the last term l are given , then

Example
The sum of the first eight terms of an arithmetic Progression is 220.If the third term is 17, find the sum of
the first six terms
Solution

= 4( 2a + 7d )

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So , 8a + 28d = 220…………………….1
The third term is a + (3 – 1)d = a + 2d =17 …………….2
Solving 1 and 2 simultaneously;
8a + 28 d =220 …………1
8a + 16 d = 136 …………2
12 d = 84

Substituting d =7 in equation 2 gives a = 3

Therefore,

= 3(6 x 35)
= 3 x 41
= 123

Geometric sequence
It is a sequence with a common ratio.The ratio of any term to the previous term must be constant.
Rule for Geometric sequence is;
The nth term of a geometric sequence with first term a1 and common ratio r is given by:

Example
Given the geometric sequence 4 , 12 ,36 ……find the 4th , 5th and the n th terms
Solution
The first term , a =4
The common ratio , r =3
Therefore the 4th term = 4 x
=4x
= 108
The 5th term =5x
=5x
= 324

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The term =4 x

Example
The 4th term of geometric sequence is 16 . If the first term is 2 , find;
 The common ration
 The seventh term
Solution
The common ratio
The first term, a = 2
The 4th term is 2 x
Thus, 2

The common ratio is 2

The seventh term =

Geometric series
The series obtained by the adding the terms of geometric sequence is called geometric series or geometric
progression G.P
The sum of the first n terms of a geometric series with common ratio r > 1 is:

The sum of the first n terms of a geometric series with common ratio r < 1 is:

Example
Find the sum of the first 9 terms of G.P. 8 + 24 + 72 +…
Solution

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Example
The sum of the first three terms of a geometric series is 26 .If the common ratio is 3 , find the sum of the
first six terms.
Solution

=
a
=

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. The first, the third and the seventh terms of an increasing arithmetic progression are three
consecutive terms of a geometric progression. In the first term of the arithmetic progression is 10
find the common difference of the arithmetic progression?
2. Kubai saved Ksh 2,000 during the first year of employment. In each subsequent year, he saved 15%
more than the preceding year until he retired.
(a) How much did he save in the second year?
(b) How much did he save in the third year?

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 (c) Find the common ratio between the savings in two consecutive years
(d) How many years did he take to save the savings a sum of Ksh 58,000?
(e) How much had he saved after 20 years of service?
3. In geometric progression, the first term is a and the common ratio is r. The sum of the first two
terms is 12 and the third term is 16.
(a) Determine the ratio ar2
a + ar
(b) If the first term is larger than the second term, find the value of r.
4. (a) The first term of an arithmetic progression is 4 and the last term is 20. The
Sum of the term is 252. Calculate the number of terms and the common differences of the
arithmetic progression
(b) An Experimental culture has an initial population of 50 bacteria. The population increased
by 80% every 20 minutes. Determine the time it will take to have a population of 1.2
million bacteria.
5. Each month, for 40 months, Amina deposited some money in a saving scheme. In the first month
she deposited Kshs 500. Thereafter she increased her deposits by Kshs. 50 every month.
Calculate the:
a) Last amount deposited by Amina
b) Total amount Amina had saved in the 40 months.
6. A carpenter wishes to make a ladder with 15 cross- pieces. The cross- pieces are to diminish
uniformly in length from 67 cm at the bottom to 32 cm at the top.
Calculate the length in cm, of the seventh cross- piece from the bottom

7. The second and fifth terms of a geometric progression are 16 and 2 respectively. Determine the
common ratio and the first term.

8. The eleventh term of an arithmetic progression is four times its second term. The sum of the first
seven terms of the same progression is 175
(a) Find the first term and common difference of the progression
(b) Given that pth term of the progression is greater than 124, find the least
value of P
9. The nth term of sequence is given by 2n + 3 of the sequence
(a) Write down the first four terms of the sequence
(b) Find sn the sum of the fifty term of the sequence

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 (c) Show that the sum of the first n terms of the sequence is given by
Sn = n2 + 4n
Hence or otherwise find the largest integral value of n such that Sn <725

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 CHAPTER FIFTY ONE

BINOMIAL EXPANSION
Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) Expand binomial expressions up to the power of four by multiplication;
(b) Building up - Pascal's Triangle up to the eleventh row;
(c) Use Pascal's triangle to determine the coefficient of terms in a binomialexpansions up to the
power of 10;
(d) Apply binomial expansion in numerical cases.
Content
(a) Binomial expansion up to power four
(b) Pascal's triangle
(c) Coefficient of terms in binomial expansion
(d) Computation using binomial expansion
(e) Evaluation of numerical cases using binomial expansion.

A binomial is an expression of two terms

Examples

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(a + y), a + 3, 2a + b
It easy to expand expressions with lower power but when the power becomes larger, the expansion or
multiplication becomes tedious. We therefore use pascal triangle to expand the expression without
multiplication.
We can use Pascal triangle to obtain coefficients of expansions of the form( a + b

Pascal triangle

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
Note;
Each row starts with 1
Each of the numbers in the next row is obtained by adding the two numbers on either side of it in
the preceding row
 The power of first term (a ) decreases as you move to right while the powers of the second term (b
) increases as you move to the right
Example
Expand (p +
Solution
The terms without coefficients are;

From Pascal triangle, the coefficients when n =5 are; 1 5 10 10 5 1

Therefore (p + =

Example
Expand (x
Solution
(x
The terms without the coefficient are;

From Pascal triangle, the coefficients when n =7 are;

1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

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Therefore (x=

Note;
When dealing with negative signs, the signs alternate with the positive sign but first start with the negative
sign.

Applications to Numeric cases

Use binomial expansion to evaluate (1.02
Solution
(1.02) = (1+0.02)
Therefore (1.02 = (1+ 0.02
The terms without coefficients are

From Pascal triangle, the coefficients when n =6 are;

1 6 15 20 15 6 1
Therefore;
(1.02 =
1 + 6 (0.02) + 15
=1 + 0.12 + 0.0060 + 0.00016 + 0.0000024 + 0.0000000192 + 0.000000000064
=1.1261624
=1.126 (4 S.F)

Note;
To get the answer just consider addition of up to the 4th term of the expansion. The other terms are too small
to affect the answer.
Example
Expand (1 + up to the term .Use the expansion to estimate (0.98 correct to 3 decimal places.
Solution
(1 +
The terms without the coefficient are;

From Pascal triangle, the coefficients when n =9 are;

1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1
Therefore (1 + = 1 + 9x + 36 + 84 ………………..

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(0.98
= 1 – 0.18 + 0.0144 – 0.000672
= 0.833728
= 0.834 ( 3 D.P)
Example
Expand ( in ascending powers of hence find the value of ( correct to four decimal places.
Solution

=
=

Here

Substituting for x = 0.01 in the expansion

= 1 + 0.05 +0.001125 +0.000015

= 1.051140
= 1.0511 (4 decimal places)

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. (a) Write down the simplest expansion ( 1 + x)6

(b) Use the expansion up to the fourth term to find the value of (1.03) 6 to the nearest one
thousandth.
2. Use binomial expression to evaluate (0.96)5 correct to 4 significant figures.

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3. Expand and simplify (3x – y)4 hence use the first three terms of the expansion to proximate the
value of (6 – 0.2)4
4. Use binomial expression to evaluate
2 + 15+ 2 - 15
√2 √2
5
5. (a) Expand the expression 1 + 1x in ascending powers of x, leaving
2
the coefficients as fractions in their simplest form.
6. (a) Expand (a- b)6
(b) Use the first three terms of the expansion in (a) above to find the approximate value of
(1.98)6
7. Expand (2 + x)5 in ascending powers of x up to the term in x3 hence approximate the value of
(2.03)5 to 4 s.f

8. (a) Expand (1 + x)5

Hence use the expansion to estimate (1.04)5 correct to 4 decimal places
(b) Use the expansion up to the fourth term to find the value of (1.03) 6 to the nearest one
thousandth.
9. Expand and Simplify (1-3x)5 up to the term in x3
Hence use your expansion to estimate (0.97)5 correct to decimal places.
10. Expand (1 + a)5
Use your expansion to evaluate (0.8)5 correct to four places of decimal

11. (a) Expand (1 + x)5

(b) Use the first three terms of the expansion in (a) above to find the approximate value of
(0.98)5

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 CHAPTER FIFTY TWO

COMPOUND PROPRTION AND RATES

OF WORK

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) Solve problems involving compound proportions using unitary and ratiomethods;
(b) Apply ratios and proportions to real life situations;
(c) Solve problems involving rates of work.
Content
(a) Proportional parts
(b) Compound proportions
(c) Ratios and rates of work
(d) Proportions applied to mixtures.

Introduction
Compound proportions
The proportion involving two or more quantities is called compound proportion. Any four quantities a , b ,
c and d are in proportion if;

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Example
Find the value of a that makes 2, 5, a and 25 to be in proportion;
Solution
Since 2 , 5 ,a , and 25 are in proportion

Continued proportions
In continued proportion, all the ratios between different quantities are the same; but always remember that
the relationship exists between two quantities for example:

P : Q Q : R R : S

10: 5 16 : 8 4 : 2

Note that in the example, the ratio between different quantities i.e. P:Q, Q:R and R:S are the same i.e. 2:1
when simplified.

Continued proportion is very important when determining the net worth of individuals who own the same
business or even calculating the amounts of profit that different individual owners of a company or business
should take home.

Proportional parts
In general, if n is to be divided in the ratio a: b: c, then the parts of n proportional to a, b, c are

Example
Omondi, Joel, cheroot shared sh 27,000 in the ratio 2:3:4 respectively. How much did each get?
Solution
The parts of sh 27,000 proportional to 2, 3, 4 are

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Example
Three people – John, Debby and Dave contributed ksh 119, 000 to start a company. If the ratio of the
contribution of John to Debby was 12:6 and the contribution of Debby to Dave was 8:4, determine the
amount in dollars that every partner contributed.

Solution
Ratio of John to Debby’s contribution = 12:6 = 2:1

Ratio of Debby to Dave’s contribution = 8:4 = 2:1

As you can see, the ratio of the contribution of John to Debby and that of Debby to Dave is in continued
proportion.
Hence
To determine the ratio of the contribution between the three members, we do the calculation as follows:

John: Debby: Dave

12 : 6
8 : 4

We multiply the upper ratio by 8 and the lower ratio by 6, thus the resulting ratio will be:

John: Debby: Dave

96: 48 : 24
=4: 2 : 1
The total ratio = 7

The contribution of the different members can then be found as follows:

John
Debby

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Dave
John contributed ksh 68, 000 to the company while Debby contributed ksh 34, 000 and Dave contributed
ksh 17, 000
Example 2
You are presented with three numbers which are in continued proportion. If the sum of the three numbers
is 38 and the product of the first number and the third number is 144, find the three numbers.
Solution
Let us assume that the three numbers in continued proportion or Geometric Proportion are a, ar and a where
a is the first number and r is the rate.

a+ar+a = 38 ………………………….. (1)

The product of the 1st and 3rd is
a × a = 144
Or
(ar)2 = 144………………………………..(2)
If we find the square root of (a, then we will have found the second number:
=

Since the value of the second number is 12, it then implies that the sum of the first and the third number is
26.
We now proceed and look for two numbers whose sum is 26 and product is 144.
Clearly, the numbers are 8 and 18.
Thus, the three numbers that we were looking for are 8, 12 and 18.
Let us work backwards and try to prove whether this is actually true:

8 + 12 + 18 = 18
What about the product of the first and the third number?

8 × 18 = 144
What about the continued proportion

The numbers are in continued proportion

Example

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Given that x: y =2:3, Find the ratio (5x – 4y): (x + y).
Solution
Since x: y =2: 3

(5x – 4y): (x + y) = (10k – 12 k) :( 2k + 3 k)

=-2k: 5k

= - 2: 5

Example

If show that.

Solution

Substituting kc for a and kd for b in the expression

Therefore expression

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Rates of work and mixtures
Examples
195 men working 10 hour a day can finish a job in 20 days. How many men employed to finish the job in
15 days if they work 13 hours a day.
Solution:
Let x be the no. of men required
Days hours Men
20 10 195
15 13 x

20 x 10 x 195

Example
Tap P can fill a tank in 2 hrs, and tap Q can fill the same tank in 4 hrs. Tap R can empty the tank in 3 hrs.
a) If tap R is closed, how long would it take taps P and Q to fill the tank?
b) Calculate how long it would take to fill the tank when the three taps P, Q and R. are left running?
Solution
a) Tap P fills of the tank in 1 h.
Tap Q fills of the tank in 1 h.
Tap R empties of the tank in 1 h.
In one hour, P and Q fill
Therefore
Time taken to fill the tank

b) In 1 h, P and Q fill of tank while R empties of the tank.

When all taps are open ,of the tank is filled in 1 hour.

=2
Example
In what proportion should grades of sugars costing sh.45 and sh.50 per kilogram be mixed in order to
produce a blend worth sh.48 per kilogram?

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Solution
Method 1
Let n kilograms of the grade costing sh.45 per kg be mixed with 1 kilogram of grade costing sh.50 per kg.
Total cost of the two blends is sh.
The mass of the mixture is
Therefore total cost of the mixture is
45n + 50 = 48 (n +1)
45n + 50 = 48 n + 48
50 = 3n + 48
2 = 3n

The two grades are mixed in the proportion

Method 2
Let x kg of grade costing sh 45 per kg be mixed with y kg of grade costing sh.50 per kg. The total cost will
be sh.(45x + 50 y)
Cost per kg of the mixture is sh.

The proportion is x : y = 2:3

End of topic

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 Did you understand everything?
If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. Akinyi bought and beans from a wholesaler. She then mixed the maize and beans the ratio 4:3 she
brought the maize as Kshs. 12 per kg and the beans 4 per kg. If she was to make a profit of 30%
what should be the selling price of 1 kg of the mixture?

2. A rectangular tank of base 2.4 m by 2.8 m and a height of 3 m contains 3,600 liters of water initially.
Water flows into the tank at the rate of 0.5 litres per second
Calculate the time in hours and minutes, required to fill the tank
3. A company is to construct a parking bay whose area is 135m2. It is to be covered with concrete slab
of uniform thickness of 0.15. To make the slab cement. Ballast and sand are to be mixed so that
their masses are in the ratio 1: 4: 4. The mass of m3 of dry slab is 2, 500kg.
Calculate
(a) (i) The volume of the slab
(ii) The mass of the dry slab
(iii) The mass of cement to be used
(b) If one bag of the cement is 50 kg, find the number of bags to be purchased
(a) If a lorry carries 7 tonnes of sand, calculate the number of lorries of sand
to be purchased.
4. The mass of a mixture A of beans and maize is 72 kg. The ratio of beans to maize
is 3:5 respectively
(a) Find the mass of maize in the mixture
(b) A second mixture of B of beans and maize of mass 98 kg in mixed with A. The final ratio
of beans to maize is 8:9 respectively. Find the ratio of beans to maize in B
5. A retailer bought 49 kg of grade 1 rice at Kshs. 65 per kilogram and 60 kg of grade II rice at Kshs
27.50 per kilogram. He mixed the tow types of rice.
(a) Find the buying price of one kilogram of the mixture
(b) He packed the mixture into 2 kg packets
(i) If he intends to make a 20% profit find the selling price per packet
(ii) He sold 8 packets and then reduced the price by 10% in order to attract customers.
Find the new selling price per packet.

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 (iii) After selling 1/3 of the remainder at reduced price, he raised the price so as to realize
the original goal of 20% profit overall. Find the selling price per packet of the
remaining rice.
6. A trader sells a bag of beans for Kshs 1,200. He mixed beans and maize in the ration 3: 2. Find how
much the trader should he sell a bag of the mixture to realize the same profit?
7. Pipe A can fill an empty water tank in 3 hours while, pipe B can fill the same tank in 6 hours, when
the tank is full it can be emptied by pipe C in 8 hours. Pipes A and B are opened at the same time
when the tank is empty.
If one hour later, pipe C is also opened, find the total time taken to fill the tank
8. A solution whose volume is 80 litres is made 40% of water and 60% of alcohol. When litres of
water are added, the percentage of alcohol drops to 40%
(a) Find the value of x
(b) Thirty litres of water is added to the new solution. Calculate the percentage
(c) If 5 litres of the solution in (b) is added to 2 litres of the original solution, calculate in the
simplest form, the ratio of water to that of alcohol in the resulting solution
9. A tank has two inlet taps P and Q and an outlet tap R. when empty, the tank can be filled by tap P
alone in 4 ½ hours or by tap Q alone in 3 hours. When full, the tank can be emptied in 2 hours by
tap R.
(a) The tank is initially empty. Find how long it would take to fill up the tank
(i) If tap R is closed and taps P and Q are opened at the same time
(2mks)
(ii) If all the three taps are opened at the same time
(b) The tank is initially empty and the three taps are opened as follows
P at 8.00 a.m
Q at 8.45 a.m
R at 9.00 a.m
(i) Find the fraction of the tank that would be filled by 9.00 a.m
(ii) Find the time the tank would be fully filled up

10. Kipketer can cultivate a piece of land in 7 hrs while Wanjiru can do the same work in 5 hours. Find
the time they would take to cultivate the piece of land when working together.

11. Mogaka and Ondiso working together can do a piece of work in 6 days. Mogaka, working alone,
takes 5 days longer than Onduso. How many days does it take Onduso to do the work alone.

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12. Wainaina has two dairy farms A and B. Farm A produces milk with 3 ¼ percent fat and farm B
produces milk with 4 ¼ percent fat.
(a) (i) The total mass of milk fat in 50 kg of milk from farm A and 30kg
of milk from farm B.
(ii) The percentage of fat in a mixture of 50 kg of milk A and 30 kg of milk from B
(b) Determine the range of values of mass of milk from farm B that must be used in a 50 kg
mixture so that the mixture may have at least 4 percent fat.

13. A construction firm has two tractors T1 and T2. Both tractors working together can complete the
work in 6 days while T1 alone can complete the work in 15 days. After the two tractors had worked
together for four days, tractor T1 broke down.
Find the time taken by tractor T2 complete the remaining work.

CHAPTER FIFTY THREE

GRAPHICAL METHODS
Specific Objectives
By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:
(a) Makes a table of values from given relations;
(b) Use the table of values to draw the graphs of the relations;

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(c) Determine and interpret instantaneous rates of change from a graph;
(d) Interpret information from graphs;
(e) Draw and interpret graphs from empirical data;
(f) Solve cubic equations graphically;
(g) Draw the line of best fit;
(h) Identify the equation of a circle;
(i) Find the equation of a circle given the centre and the radius;
(j) Determine the centre and radius of a circle and draw the circle on acartesian plane.
Content
(a) Tables and graphs of given relations
(b) Graphs of cubic equations
(c) Graphical solutions of cubic equations
(d) Average rate of change
(e) Instantaneous rate of change
(f) Empirical data and their graphs
(g) The line of best fit
(h) Equation of a circle
(i) Finding of the equation of a circle
(j) Determining of the centre and radius of a circle.

Introduction
These are ways or methods of solving mathematical functions using graphs.

Graphing solutions of cubic Equations

A cubic equation has the form
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0
where a, b , c and d are constants
It must have the term in x3 or it would not be cubic (and so a 0), but any or all of b, c and d can be zero.
For instance,
x3 −6x2 +11x −6 = 0, 4x3 +57 = 0, x3 +9x = 0
are all cubic equations.
The graphs of cubic equations always take the following shapes.

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 y
3
2
1

-1 1 2 3 x
-1
-2
-3

Y =x3 −6x2 +11x −6 = 0.

Notice that it starts low down on the left, because as x gets large and negative so does x3 and it finishes
higher to the right because as x gets large and positive so does x3. The curve crosses the x-axis three times,
once where x = 1, once where x = 2 and once where x = 3. This gives us our three separate solutions.
Example

(a) Fill in the table below for the function y = -6 + x + 4x2 + x3 for -4 x  2

x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2

-6 -6 -6 -6 -6 -6 -6 -6

x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2

4x2 16 4

x3

(b) Using the grid provided draw the graph for y = -6 + x + 4x2 + x3 for -4 x  2
(c) Use the graph to solve the equations:-

-6 + x + 4x2 + x3 = 0
.x3 + 4x2 + x – 4 = 0

-2 + 4x2 + x3 = 0

Solution

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The table shows corresponding values of x and y for y= -6 + x + 4x2 + x3

X -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2

-6 -6 -6 -6 -6 -6 -6 -6
From the graph the solutions for x
X -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 are x =-3 , x = -2, x = 1
4x2 64 36 16 4 0 4 16
X3 -64 -27 -8 -1 0 1 8I. To solve equation y = x3 + 4x2 +
Y=-6+x+4x2+x3 -10 0 0 -4 -6 0 20 x -6 we draw a straight line from
the diffrence of the two equations
and then we read the coordinates at
the point of the intersetion of the curve and the straight line
y = x3 + 4x2 + x -6
0 = x3 + 4x2 + x -4
y = -2 solutions 0.8 ,-1.5 and -3.2

x 1 0 -2
y = x3 + 4x2 + x – 6 y -3 -4 -8
0 = x3 + 4x2 + 0 – 2
y= x–4

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 y=-6 + 4x2
+x

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 change in y
The average rate of change of y with respect to x

change in x y=x-4
Y=-2

c (i) solution 0.8

-1.5
And -3.2
Average Rate of change

Defining the Average Rate of Change

The notion of average rate of change can be used to describe the change in any variable with respect to
another. If you have a graph that represents a plot of data points of the form (x, y), then the average rate of
change between any two points is the change in the y value divided by the change in the x value.

Po
pu
lat
io
ni
n
mi
lli
on
s

Note;

 The rate of change of a straight ( the slop)line is the same between all points along the line
 The rate of change of a quadratic function is not constant (does not remain the same)
Example
The graph below shows the rate of growth of a plant,from the graph, the change in height between day 1
and day 3 is given by 7.5 cm – 3.8 cm = 3.7 cm.
Average rate of change is

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The average rate of change for the next two days is = 0.65cm/day
Note;

 The rate of growth in the first 2 days was 1.85 cm/day while that in the next two days is only 0.65
cm /day.These rates of change are represented by the gradients of the lines PQ and QR respectively.

Number of days
The gradient of the straight line is 20 ,which is constant.The gradient represents the rate of distance
with time (speed) which is 20 m/s.

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Rate of change at an instant
We have seen that to find the rate of change at an instant ( particular point),we:

 Draw a tangent to the curve at that point

 Determine the gradient of the tangent
The gradient of the tangent to the curve at the point is the rate of change at that point.

Empirical graphs
An Empirical graph is a graph that you can use to evaluate the fit of a distribution to your data by drawing
the line of best fit. This is because raw data usually have some errors.
Example
The table below shows how length l cm of a metal rod varies with increase in temperature T (.

Temperature O 1 2 3 5 6 7 8
Degrees C
Length cm 4.0 4.3 4.7 4.9 5.0 5.9 6.0 6.4

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Solution

NOTE;

 There is a linear relation between length and temperature.

 We therefore draw a line of best fit that passes through as many points as possible.
 The remaining points should be distributed evenly below and above the line

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The line cuts the y – axis at (0, 4) and passes through the point (5, 5.5).Therefore, the gradient of the line
is = 0.3.The equation of the line is l =0.3T + 4.

Reduction of Non-linear Laws to Linear Form.

When we plot the graph of xy=k, we get a curve.But when we plot y against , w get a straight line whose
gradient is k.The same approach is used to obtain linear relations from non-linear relations of the form y.

Example
The table below shows the relationship between A and r

r 1 2 3 4 5
A 3.1 12.6 28.3 50.3 78.5

It is suspected that the relation is of the form A=By drawing a suitable graph,verify the law connecting A
and r and determine the value of K.
Solution

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If we plot A against ,we should get a straight line.

r 1 2 3 4 5
A 3.1 12.6 28.3 50.3 78.5
1 4 9 16 25

Since the graph of A against is a straight line, the law A =kholds.The gradient of this line is 3.1 to one
decimal place. This is the value of k.

Example
From 1960 onwards, the population P of Kisumu is believed to obey a law of the form P =,Where k and
A are constants and t is the time in years reckoned from 1960.The table below shows the population of the
town since 1960.

r 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

p 5000 6080 7400 9010 10960 13330 16200
By plotting a suitable graph, check whether the population growth obeys the given law. Use the graph to
estimate the value of A.

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Solution
The law to be tested is P=.Taking logs of both sides we get log P =.Log P = log K + t log A, which is in the
form y = mx + Thus we plot log P against t.(Note that log A is a constant).The below shows the
corresponding values of t and log p.

r 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

Log P 3.699 3.784 3.869 3.955 4.040 4.125 4.210

Since the graph is a straight line ,the law P =holds.

Log A is given by the gradient of the straight line.Therefore, log A = 0.017.
Hence,A = 1.04
Log k is the vertical intercept.
Hence log k =3.69
Therefore k = 4898
Thus, the relationship is P = 4898 (1.04

Note;
 Laws of the form y= can be written in the linear form as: log y = log k + x log A (by taking logs of
both sides)
 When log y is plotted against x , a straight line is obtained.Its gradient is log A and the intercept is
log k.
 The law of the form y =,where k and n are constants can be written in linear form as;
 Log y =log k + n log x.

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  We therefore plot log y is plotted against log x.
 The gradient of the line gives n while the vertical intercept is log k

Summary
2
For the law y = d + cx to be verified it is necessary to plot a graph of the variables in a modified
Form as follows y =d is compared with y = mx + c that is y =
i.) Y is plotted on the y axis
ii.) is plotted on the x axis
iii.) The gradient is c
iv.) The vertical axis intercept is d

For the law y – a = to be verified it is necessary to plot a graph of the variables in a x

Modified form as follows
y – a = , i.e. y = + a which is compared with y = mx + c

i.) y should be plotted on the y axis

ii.) should be plotted on the x axis
iii.) The gradient is b
iv.) The vertical axis intercept is a

For the law y – e = to be verified it is necessary to plot a graph of the variables in a

Modified form as follows. The law y – e = is f compared with y = mx + c.
i.) y should be plotted on the vertical axis
ii.) should be plotted on the horizontal axis
iii.) The gradient is f
iv.) The vertical axis intercept is e
2
For the law y – cx = bx to be verified it is necessary to plot a graph of the variables in a
Modified form as follows. The law y – cx = b is = b x + c compared with y = mx + c,
i.) should be plotted on y axis
ii.) X should be plotted on x axis
iii.) The gradient is b
iv.) The vertical axis intercept is c

For the law y = + bx to be verified it is necessary to plot a graph of the variables in a ax

Modified form as follows. The law = a compared with y = mx + c

i.) should be plotted on the vertical axis

ii.) should be plotted on the horizontal axis
iii.) The gradient is a
iv.) The vertical intercept is b

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Equation of a circle
A circle is a set of all points that are of the same distance r from a fixed point. The figure below is a circle
centre ( 0,0) and radius 3 units

P ( x ,y ) is a point on the circle. Triangle PON is right – angled at N.

By Pythagoras’ theorem;

But ON = x, PN = y and OP =3 .Therefore,

Note;
The general equation of a circle centre ( 0 ,0 ) and radius r is

Example
Find the equation of a circle centre (0, 0) passing through (3, 4)

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Solution
Let the radius of the circle be r
From Pythagoras theorem;

Example
Consider a circle centre ( 5 , 4 ) and radius 3 units.

Solution
In the figure below triangle CNP is right angled at N.By pythagoras theorem;

But CN= ( x – 5), NP = (y – 4) and CP =3 units.

Therefore,.
Note;
The equation of a circle centre ( a,b) and radius r units is given by;

Example
Find the equation of a circle centre (-2 ,3) and radius 4 units

Solution
General equation of the circle is .Therefore a = -2 b =3 and r = 4

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Example
Line AB is the diameter of a circle such that the co-ordinates of A and B are ( -1 ,1) and(5 ,1) respectively.
a.) Determine the centre and the radius of the circle
b.) Hence, find the equation of the circle

Solution
a.)
Radius =
==3
b.) Equation of the circle is ;

Example
The equation of a circle is given by - 6x +.Determine the centre and radius of the circle.

Solution
- 6x +
Completing the square on the left hand side;
- 6x +

Therefore centre of the circle is (3,-2) and radius is 4 units. Note that the sign changes to opposite positive
sign becomes negative while negative sign changes to positive.

Example
Write the equation of the circle that has and as endpoints of a diameter.
Method 1: Determine the center using the Midpoint Formula:

Determine the radius using the distance formula (center and end of diameter):

Equation of circle is:

Method 2: Determine center using Midpoint Formula (as before):
Thus, the circle equation will have the form
Find by plugging the coordinates of a point on the circle in for
Let’s use
Again, we get this equation for the circle:

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 End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. The table shows the height metres of an object thrown vertically upwards varies with the time t
seconds
The relationship between s and t is represented by the equations s = at 2 + bt + 10 where b are
constants.

T 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
S 45.1 49.9 -80

(a) (i) Using the information in the table, determine the values of a and b
(ii) Complete the table
(b) (i) Draw a graph to represent the relationship between s and t
(ii) Using the graph determine the velocity of the object when t = 5 seconds
2. Data collected form an experiment involving two variables X and Y was recorded as shown in the
table below
x 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

y -0.3 0.5 1.4 2.5 3.8 5.2

The variables are known to satisfy a relation of the form y = ax3 + b where a and b are constants
(a) For each value of x in the table above, write down the value of x3
(b) (i) By drawing a suitable straight line graph, estimate the values of a and b
(ii) Write down the relationship connecting y and x
3. Two quantities P and r are connected by the equation p = krn. The table of values
of P and r is given below.

P 1.2 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.5 4.5

R 1.58 2.25 3.39 4.74 7.86 11.5

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 a) State a liner equation connecting P and r.
b) Using the scale 2 cm to represent 0.1 units on both axes, draw a suitable
line graph on the grid provided. Hence estimate the values of K and n.
4. The points which coordinates (5,5) and (-3,-1) are the ends of a diameter of a circle centre A
Determine:
(a) The coordinates of A
The equation of the circle, expressing it in form x2 + y2 + ax + by + c = 0
where a, b, and c are constants each computer sold
5. The figure below is a sketch of the graph of the quadratic function y = k

(x+1) (x-2)

Find the value of k

6. The table below shows the values of the length X ( in metres ) of a pendulum and the corresponding
values of the period T ( in seconds) of its oscillations obtained in an experiment.

X ( metres) 0.4 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

T ( seconds) 1.25 2.01 2.19 2.37 2.53

(a) Construct a table of values of log X and corresponding values of log T,

correcting each value to 2 decimal places

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 b) Given that the relation between the values of log X and log T approximate to a linear law
of the form m log X + log a where a and b are constants
(i) Use the axes on the grid provided to draw the line of best fit for the graph of log T
against log X.

(ii) Use the graph to estimate the values of a and b

(iii) Find, to decimal places the length of the pendulum whose period is 1 second.

7. Data collection from an experiment involving two variables x and y was recorded as shown in the
table below

X 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

Y -0.3 0.5 1.4 2.5 3.8 5.2

The variables are known to satisfy a relation of the form y = ax3 + b where a and b

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 are constants
(a) For each value of x in the table above. Write down the value of x3
(b) (i) By drawing s suitable straight line graph, estimate the values of a and b
(ii) Write down the relationship connecting y and x

8. Two variables x and y, are linked by the relation y = axn. The figure below shows part of the straight
line graph obtained when log y is plotted against log x.

Calculate the value of a and n

9. The luminous intensity I of a lamp was measured for various values of voltage v across it. The
results were as shown below
V(volts) 30 36 40 44 48 50 54

L (Lux ) 708 1248 1726 2320 3038 3848 4380

It is believed that V and l are related by an equation of the form l = aVn where a and n are constant.
(a) Draw a suitable linear graph and determine the values of a and n
(b) From the graph find
(i) The value of I when V = 52
(ii) The value of V when I = 2800
10. In a certain relation, the value of A and B observe a relation B= CA + KA2 where C and K are
constants. Below is a table of values of A and B

A 1 2 3 4 5 6

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 B 3.2 6.75 10.8 15.1 20 25.2

(a) By drawing a suitable straight line graphs, determine the values of C and K.
(b) Hence write down the relationship between A and B
(c) Determine the value of B when A = 7
11. The variables P and Q are connected by the equation P = abq where a and b are constants. The value
of p and q are given below

P 6.56 17.7 47.8 129 349 941 2540 6860

Q 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

(a) State the equation in terms of p and q which gives a straight line graph
(b) By drawing a straight line graph, estimate the value of constants a and b and give your
answer correct to 1 decimal place.

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 CHAPTER FIFTY FOUR

PROBABILITY
Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) Define probability;
(b) Determine probability from experiments and real life situations;
(c) Construct a probability space;
(d) Determine theoretical probability;
(e) Differentiate between discrete and continuous probability;
(f) Differentiate mutually exclusive and independent events;
(g) State and apply laws of probability;
(h) Use a tree diagram to determine probabilities.
Content
(a) Probability
(b) Experimental probability
(c) Range of probability measure 0 ^ P (x) ^1
(d) Probability space
(e) Theoretical probability
(f) Discrete and continuous probability (simple cases only)
(g) Combined events (mutually exclusive and independent events)
(h) Laws of probability
(i) The tree diagrams.

Introduction
The likelihood of an occurrence of an event or the numerical measure of chance is called probability.

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Experimental probability
This is where probability is determined by experience or experiment. What is done or observed is the
experiment. Each toss is called a trial and the result of a trial is the outcome. The experimental probability
of a result is given by (the number of favorable outcomes) / (the total number of trials)
Example
A boy had a fair die with faces marked 1to6 .He threw this die up 50 times and each time he recorded the
number on the top face. The result of his experiment is shown below.

face 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of 11 6 7 9 9 8
times a face
has shown
up
What is the experimental provability of getting?
a.)1 b.) 6
Solution
a.) P(Event) =
P(1)= 11/50
b.) P(4)= 9/50
Example
From the past records, out of the ten matches a school football team has played, it has won seven.How
many possible games might the school win in thirty matches ?.

Solution
P(winning in one math) = 7/10.
Therefore the number of possible wins in thirty matches = 7/10 x 30 = 21 matches

Range of probability Measure

If P(A) is the probability of an event A happening and P(A') is the probability of an event A not happening,
Then P(A')= 1 - P(A) and P(A') + P(A)= 1
Probability are expressed as fractions, decimals or percentages.

Probability space
A list of all possible outcomes is probability space or sample space .The coin is such that the head or tail
have equal chances of occurring. The events head or tail are said to be equally likely or eqiprobable.

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Theoretical probability
This can be calculated without necessarily using any past experience or doing any experiment. The
probability of an event happening #number of favorable outcomes /total number of outcomes.
Example
A basket contains 5 red balls, 4green balls and 3 blue balls. If a ball is picked at random from the basket,
find:
a.)The probability of picking a blue ball
b.) The probability of not picking a red ball

Solution
a.)Total number of balls is 12
The number of blue balls is 3
Solution
a.) therefore, P (a blue ball) =3/12
b.)The number of balls which are not red is 7.
Therefore P ( not a red ball)= 7/12

Example
A bag contains 6 black balls and some brown ones. If a ball is picked at random the probability that it is
black is 0.25.Find the number of brown balls.
Solution
Let the number of balls be x
Then the probability that a black ball is picked at random is 6/x
Therefore 6/x = 0.25
x = 24
The total number of bald is 24
Then the number of brown balls is 24 - 6 =18

Note:
When all possible outcomes are count able, they are said to be discrete.

Types of probability
Combined Events
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These are probability of two or more events occurring

Mutually Exclusive Events

Occurrence of one excludes the occurrence of the other or the occurrence of one event depend on the
occurrence of the other.. If A and B are two mutually exclusive events, then ( A or B) = P (A) + P (B). For
example when a coin is tossed the result will either be a head or a tail.
Example
i.) If a coin is tossed ;
P(head) + P( tail)
=

Note;
If [OR] is used then we add

Independent Events
Two events A and B are independent if the occurrence of A does not influence the occurrence of B and vice
versa. If A and B are two independent events, the probability of them occurring together is the product of
their individual probabilities .That is;
P (A and B) = P (A) x P(B)
Note;
When we use [AND] we multiply ,this is the multiplication law of probability.

Example
A coin is tosses twice. What is the probability of getting a tail in both tosses?
Solution
The outcome of the 2nd toss is independ of the outcome of the first .
Therefore;
P (T and T ) = P( T) X P( T)
==
Example
A boy throws fair coin and a regular tetrahedron with its four faces marked 1,2,3 and 4.Find the probability
that he gets a 3 on the tetrahedron and a head on the coin.
Solution

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These are independent events.
P (H) = P(3) =
Therefore;
P (H and 3) = P (H) x P (3)
=½x¼
= 1/8

Example
A bag contains 8 black balls and 5 white ones.If two balls are drawn from the bag, one at a time,find the
probability of drawing a black ball and a white ball.
a.) Without replacement
b.) With replacement
Solution
a.) There are only two ways we can get a black and a white ball: either drawing a white then a black,or
drawing a black then a white.We need to find the two probabilities;
P( W followed by B) = P (W and B)
=
b.) P(B followed by W) = P (B and W)

Note;
The two events are mutually exclusive, therefore.
P (W followed by B) or ( B followed by W )= P( W followed by B ) + P ( B followed by W)
= P (W and B) + P( B and W)
=
Since we are replacing, the number of balls remains 13.
Therefore;
P (W and B) =
P ( B and W) =
Therefore;
P [(W and B) or (B and W)] = P (W and B) + P (B and W)
=

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Example
Kamau ,Njoroge and Kariuki are practicing archery .The probability of Kamau hitting the target is 2/5,that
of Njoroge hitting the target is ¼ and that of Kariuki hitting the target is 3/7 ,Find the probability that in
one attempt;
a.) Only one hits the target
b.) All three hit the target
c.) None of them hits the target
d.) Two hit the target
e.) At least one hits the target
Solution
a.) P(only one hits the target)
=P (only Kamau hits and other two miss) =2/5 x 3/5 x 4/7
= 6/35
P (only Njoroge hits and other two miss) = 1/4 x 3/5 x 4/7
= 3/35
P (only Kariuki hits and other two miss) = 3/7 x 3/5 x ¾
= 27/140
P (only one hits) = P (Kamau hits or Njoroge hits or Kariuki hits)
= 6/35 + 3/35 +27/140
= 9/20
b.) P ( all three hit) = 2/5 x 1/4 x 3/7
= 3/70
c.) P ( none hits) = 3/5 x 3/4 x 4/7
= 9/35
d.) P ( two hit the target ) is the probability of ;
Kamau and Njoroge hit the target and Kariuki misses = 2/5 x 3/7 x 4/7
Njoroge and Kariuki hit the target and Kamau misses = 1/4 x 3/7 x 3/5

Or

Kamau and Kariuki hit the target and Njoroge misses = 2/5 x 3/7 x 3/4
Therefore P (two hit target) = (2/5 x 1/4 x 4/7) + (1/4 x 3/7 x 3/5) + (2/5 x 3/7 x 3/4)
= 8/140 + 9/140 + 18/140
=¼
e.) P (at least one hits the target) = 1 – P ( none hits the target)
= 1 – 9/35
= 26/35
Or

P (at least one hits the target) = 1 – P (none hits the target)

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 = 26/35

Note;
P (one hits the target) is different from P (at least one hits the target)

Tree diagram
Tree diagrams allows us to see all the possible outcomes of an event and calculate their probality.Each
branch in a tree diagram represents a possible outcome .A tree diagram which represent a coin being tossed
three times look like this;

From the tree diagram, we can see that there are eight possible outcomes. To find out the probability of a
particular outcome, we need to look at all the available paths (set of branches).

The sum of the probabilities for any set of branches is always 1.

Also note that in a tree diagram to find a probability of an outcome we multiply along the branches and add
vertically.

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The probability of three heads is:

P (H H H) = 1/2 × 1/2 × 1/2 = 1/8

P (2 Heads and a Tail) = P (H H T) + P (H T H) + P (T H H)

= 1/2 × 1/2 × 1/2 + 1/2 × 1/2 × 1/2 + 1/2 × 1/2 × 1/2

= 1/8 + 1/8 + 1/8

= 3/8
Example
Bag A contains three red marbles and four blue marbles.Bag B contains 5 red marbles and three blue
marbles.A marble is taken from each bag in turn.

a.) What is the probability of getting a blue bead followed by a red

b.) What is the probability of getting a bead of each color
Solution
a.) Multiply the probabilities together
P( blue and red) =4/7 x 5/8 = 20/56
=5/14
b.) P(blue and red or red and blue) = P( blue and red ) + P (red and blue)
= 4/7 x 5/8 + 3/7 x 3/8
= 20/56 + 9/56
=29/56
Example

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The probability that Omweri goes to Nakuru is ¼ .If he goes to Nakuru, the probability that he will see
flamingo is ½ .If he does not go to Nakuru, the probability that he will see flamingo is 1/3 .Find the
probability that;
a.) Omweri will go to Nakuru and see a flamingo.
b.) Omweri will not go to Nakuru yet he will see a flamingo
c.) Omweri will see a flamingo
Solution
Let N stand for going to Nakuru ,N’ stand for not going to Nakuru, F stand for seeing a flamingo and F’
stand for not seeing a flamingo.

a.) P (He goes to Nakuru and sees a flamingo) = P(N and F)

= P(N) X P(F)
=¼ X½
= 1/8
b.) P( He does not go to Nakuru and yet sees a flamingo) =P( N’) X P( F)
= P (N’ and F)
= 3/4 X 1/3
=¼
c.) P ( He sees a flamingo) = P(N and F) or P ( N’ and F)
= P (N and F) + P (N’ and F)
= 1/8 + 1/4
= 3/8

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

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Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. The probabilities that a husband and wife will be alive 25 years from now are 0.7 and 0.9
respectively.
Find the probability that in 25 years time,
(a) Both will be alive
(b) Neither will be alive
(c) One will be alive
(d) At least one will be alive
2. A bag contains blue, green and red pens of the same type in the ratio 8:2:5 respectively. A pen is
picked at random without replacement and its colour noted
(a) Determine the probability that the first pen picked is
(i) Blue
(ii) Either green or red
(b) Using a tree diagram, determine the probability that
(i) The first two pens picked are both green
(ii) Only one of the first two pens picked is red.
3. A science club is made up of boys and girls. The club has 3 officials. Using a tree diagram or
otherwise find the probability that:
(a) The club officials are all boys
(b) Two of the officials are girls
4. Two baskets A and B each contain a mixture of oranges and limes, all of the same size. Basket A
contains 26 oranges and 13 limes. Basket B contains 18 oranges and 15 limes. A child selected a
basket at random and picked a fruit at a random from it.
(a) Illustrate this information by a probabilities tree diagram
(b) Find the probability that the fruit picked was an orange.
5. In form 1 class there are 22 girls and boys. The probability of a girl completing the secondary
education course is 3 whereas that of a boy is 2/3
(a) A student is picked at random from class. Find the possibility that,
(i) The student picked is a boy and will complete the course
(ii) The student picked will complete the course
(b) Two students are picked at random. Find the possibility that they are a boy
and a girl and that both will not complete the course.
6. Three representatives are to be selected randomly from a group of 7 girls and 8

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 boys. Calculate the probability of selecting two girls and one boy.
7. A poultry farmer vaccinated 540 of his 720 chickens against a disease. Two months later, 5% of
the vaccinated and 80% of the unvaccinated chicken, contracted the disease. Calculate the
probability that a chicken chosen random contacted the disease.
8. The probability of three darts players Akinyi, Kamau, and Juma hitting the bulls eye are 0.2, 0.3
and 1.5 respectively.
(a) Draw a probability tree diagram to show the possible outcomes
(b) Find the probability that:
(i) All hit the bull’s eye
(ii) Only one of them hit the bull’s eye
(iii) At most one missed the bull’s eye
9. (a) An unbiased coin with two faces, head (H) and tail (T), is tossed three
times, list all the possible outcomes.
Hence determine the probability of getting:
(i) At least two heads
(ii) Only one tail
(b) During a certain motor rally it is predicted that the weather will be either dry (D) or wet (W). The
probability that the weather will be dry is estimated to be 7/10. The probability for a driver to
complete (C) the rally during the dry weather is estimated to be 5/6. The probability for a driver to
complete the rally during wet weather is estimated to be 1/10. Complete the probability tree diagram
given below.

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 What is the probability that:
(i) The driver completes the rally?
(ii) The weather was wet and the driver did not complete the rally?
10. There are three cars A, B and C in a race. A is twice as likely to win as B while B is twice as likely
to win as c. Find the probability that.
a) A wins the race
b) Either B or C wins the race.
11. In the year 2003, the population of a certain district was 1.8 million. Thirty per cent of the
population was in the age group 15 – 40 years. In the same year, 120,000 people in the district
visited the Voluntary Counseling and Testing (VCT) centre for an HIV test.
If a person was selected at random from the district in this year. Find the probability that the person
visited a VCT centre and was in the age group 15 – 40 years.
12. (a) Two integers x and y are selected at random from the integers 1 to 8. If the
same integer may be selected twice, find the probability that
(i) |x – y| = 2
(ii) |x – y| is 5 or more
(iii) x>y
(b) A die is biased so that when tossed, the probability of a number r showing up, is given by
p ® = Kr where K is a constant and r = 1, 2,3,4,5 and 6 (the number on the faces of the die
(i) Find the value of K
(ii) If the die is tossed twice, calculate the probability that the total
score is 11
13. Two bags A and B contain identical balls except for the colours. Bag A contains 4 red balls and 2
yellow balls. Bag B contains 2 red balls and 3 yellow balls.

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 (a) If a ball is drawn at random from each bag, find the probability that both balls are of the
same colour.
(b) If two balls are drawn at random from each bag, one at a time without replacement, find
the probability that:
(i) The two balls drawn from bag A or bag B are red
(ii) All the four balls drawn are red

14. During inter – school competitions, football and volleyball teams from Mokagu high school took
part. The probability that their football and volleyball teams would win were 3/8 and 4/7 respectively.
Find the probability that
(a) Both their football and volleyball teams
(b) At least one of their teams won

15. A science club is made up of 5 boys and 7 girls. The club has 3 officials. Using a tree diagram or
otherwise find the probability that:
(a) The club officials are all boys
(b) Two of the officials are girls

16. Chicks on Onyango’s farm were noted to have either brown feathers brown or black tail feathers.
Of those with black feathers 2/3 were female while 2/5 of those with brown feathers were male.
Otieno bought two chicks from Onyango. One had black tail feathers while the other had brown
find the probability that Otieno’s chicks were not of the same gender
was
17. Three representatives are to be selected randomly from a group of 7 girls and 8 boys. Calculate the
probability of selecting two girls and one boy
18. The probability that a man wins a game is ¾. He plays the game until he wins. Determine the
probability that he wins in the fifth round.

19. The probability that Kamau will be selected for his school’s basketball team is ¼. If he is selected
for the basketball team. Then the probability that he will be selected for football is 1/3 if he is not
selected for basketball then the probability that he is selected for football is 4/5. What is the
probability that Kamau is selected for at least one of the two games?

20. Two baskets A and B each contains a mixture of oranges and lemons. Baskets A contains 26
oranges and 13 lemons. Baskets B contains 18 oranges and 15 lemons. A child selected a basket at

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 random and picked at random a fruit from it. Determine the probability that the fruit picked an
orange.

CHAPTER FIFTY FIVE

VECTORS
Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) Locate a point in two and three dimension co-ordinate systems;
(b) Represent vectors as column and position vectors in three dimensions;
(c) Distinguish between column and position vectors;
(d) Represent vectors in terms of i, j , and k;
(e) Calculate the magnitude of a vector in three dimensions;
(f) Use the vector method in dividing a line proportionately;
(g) Use vector method to show parallelism;
(h) Use vector method to show collinearity;
(i) State and use the ratio theorem,
(j) Apply vector methods in geometry.
Content
(a) Coordinates in two and three dimensions

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(b) Column and position vectors in three dimensions
(c) Column vectors in terms of unit vectors i, j , and k
(d) Magnitude of a vector
(e) Parallel vectors
(f) Collinearity
(g) Proportional division of a line
(h) Ratio theorem
(i) Vector methods in geometry.

Vectors in 3 dimensions:
3 dimensional vectors can be represented on a set of 3 axes at right angles to each other (orthogonal), as
shown in the diagram.
Note that the z axis is the vertical axis.
To get from A to B you would move:
4 units in the x-direction, (x-component)
3 units in the y-direction, (y-component)
2 units in the z-direction. (z-component)

 4
 
In component form: AB =  3 
 2
 

 xB  x A 
 
In general: AB =  yB  y A  ,
z z 
 B A

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Column and position vectors
In three dimensions, a displacement is represented b a column vector of the form where p,q and r are the
changes in x,y,z directions respectively.
Example
The displacement from A ( 3, 1, 4 ) to B ( 7 ,2,6) is represented b the column vector,
The position vector of A written as OA is where O is the origin
Addition of vectors in three dimensions is done in the same way as that in two dimensions.
Example
If a = then
i.) 3a + 2b =

ii.) 4a – ½ b =

Column Vectors in terms of unit Vectors

In three dimension the unit vector in the x axis direction is = ,that in the dirction of the y axis is while that
in the direction of z – axis is .

Diagrammatic representation of the vectors.

Three unit vectors are written as ; i =

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Express vector in terms of the unit vector I , j and k
Solution

5
=5i – 2j +7k

Note;
The column vector can be expressed as a i + b j + ck

Magnitude of a 3 dimensional vector.

Given the vector AB = xi + y j + 2 k,then the magnitude of AB is written as |AB| =

|u|   xB  xA 2   yB  y A 2   zB  z A 2
This is the length of the vector.
Use Pythagoras’ Theorem in 3 dimensions.
AB2 = AR2 + BR2
= (AP2 + PR2) + BR2

=  xB  xA 2   yB  y A 2   zB  z A 2

and if u = AB then the magnitude of u, | u | = length of AB

Distance formula for 3 dimensions

 xB  x A   x
    u  x2  y 2  z 2
Recall that since: AB =  yB  y A  , then if u   y  then
z z  z
 B A  
Since x =

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Example:
1. If A is (1, 3, 2) and B is (5, 6, 4)

Find AB

 3 
 
2. If u   2  Find u
 2 
 

Solution

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 a.)
| AB |   5  12   6  32   4  2 2  42  32  22  29

u  32   22   2 2  9  4  4  17
b.)

Parallel vectors and collinearity

Parallel vectors
Two vectors are parallel if one is scalar multiple of the other.i.e vector a is a scalar multiple of b ,i.e .
a =kb then the two vectors are parallel.

Note;
Scalar multiplication is simply multiplication of a regular number by an entry in the vector

Multiplying by a scalar

A vector can be multiplied by a number (scalar).e.g. multiply a by 3 is written as 3 a.Vector 3a

has three times the length but is in the same direction as a .In column form, each component will be
multiplied by 3.
We can also take a common factor out of a vector in component form. If a vector is a scalar multiple of
another vector, then the two vectors are parallel, and differ only in magnitude. This is a useful test to see if
lines are parallel.
2 6  12  3
       
a 1 then 3a   3  v   16   v  4 4 
 3   9   4   1 
        Example if

3a
a

Collinear Points

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Points are collinear if one straight line passes through all the points. For three points A, B, C - if the line
AB is parallel to BC, since B is common to both lines, A, B and C are collinear.

Test for collinearity

Example
A is (0, 1, 2), B is (1, 3, –1) and C is (3, 7, –7) Show that A, B and C are collinear.

1  2 1
     
AB   2  BC   4  and BC  2 2   2 AB
 3   6   3 
     

AB and BC are scalar multiples, so AB is parallel to BC.Since B is a common point, then A, B and C are
collinear.
In general the test of collinearity of three points consists of two parts
 Showing that the column vectors between any two of the points are parallel
 Showing that they have a point in common.
Example
A (0,3), B (1,5) and C ( 4,11) are three given points. Show that they are collinear.
Solution
AB and BC are parallel if AB = kBC ,where k is a scalar
AB= BC =
Therefore AB//BC and point B (1,5) is common. Therefore A,B,and C are collinear.
Example
Show that the points A (1,3,5) ,B( 4,12,20) and C are collinear.
Solution
Consider vectors AB and AC
AB =
AC =

Hence k =
AC =

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Therefore AB//AC and the two vectors share a common point A.The three points are thus collinear.
Example
In the figure above OA = a OB = b and OC = 3OB

a.) Express AB and AC in terms of a and b

b.) Given that AM = ¾ AB and AN =, Express OM and O in terms of a and b
c.) Hence ,show that OM and N are collinear
Solution
a.) AB = OA + OB
=-a+b
AC = - a + 3b

b.) OM =OA + AM
= OA +
=a+
=a-b
=b

ON =OA +AN
=OA + AC

aa +
=b

c.) OM =
Comparing the coefficients of a;
=

Thus, OM =ON.
Thus two vectors also share a common point ,O .Hence, the points are collinear.
Proportional Division of a line

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 In the figure below, the line is divided into 7 equal parts

The point R lies 4/7 of the ways along PQ if we take the direction from P to Q to be positive, we say
R divides PQ internally in the ratio 4 : 3..

If Q to P is taken as positive,then R divides QP internally in the ratio 3 : 4 .Hence,QR : RP = 3 : 4 or ,4

QR = 3RP.

External Division
In internal division we look at the point within a given interval while in external division we look at points
outside a given interval,
In the figure below point P is produced on AB

The line AB is divided into three equal parts with BP equal to two of these parts. If the direction from A to
B is taken as positive, then the direction from P to B is negative.
Thus AP : PB = 5 : -2.In this case we say that P divides AB externally in the ratio 5 : -2 or P divides AB in
the ratio 5 : -2.

Points, Ratios and Lines

Find the ratio in which a point divides a line.

Example:
C (12, 7, -1)

B (8, 3, 1)

A (2, -3, 4) The points A(2, –3, 4), B(8, 3, 1) and C(12, 7, –1) form a straight line. Find the
ratio in which B divides AC. Solution

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  8 2   6 
   
AB  b  a   3 3     6 
 1 4   3 
   

 128   4 
   
BC  c b   73    4 
 11   2 
   

2 2
    AB 3
AB  3  2  and BC  2  2  So,  or AB : BC = 3 : 2
 1  1 BC 2
   

B divides AC in ratio of 3 : 2

Points dividing lines in given ratios.

Example:
P divides AB in the ratio 4:3. If A is (2, 1, –3) and B is (16, 15, 11), find the co-ordinates of P.

3 B (16, 15, 11)

4 P

A (2, 1, -3)

Solution:

AP 4
 so 3 AP  4 PB
PB 3

 3(p – a) = 4(b – p)
3p – 3a = 4b – 4p

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 7p = 4b + 3a
1
p  4b3a 
7

  16   2    64   6    70   10 
1      1      1    
p  4 15  3  1    60  2  63  9
7     3   7       7   5
  
11       
44 9  
35  

Points dividing lines in given ratios externally.

Example:
Q divides MN externally in the ratio of 3:2. M is (–3, –2, –1) and N is (0, –5, 2).Find the co-ordinates of Q.
Note that QN is shown as –2 because the two line segments are MQ and QN, and QN is in the opposite
direction to MQ.

Q
3
-2
N (0, -5, 2)

M (-3, -2, -1) MQ 3

 so  2 MQ  3QN
QN 2

 –2(q – m) = 3(n – q)
–2q + 2m = 3n – 3q
q = 3n – 2m
 0  3   0   6   6 
         
q  3  5   2  2    15    4    11 
 2  1   6   2   8 
         

P is P(10, 9, 5)

The Ration Theorem

The figure below shows a point S which divides a line AB in the ratio m : n

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 Taking any point O as origin, we can express s in terms of a and b the positon vectors of a and b
respectively.
OS = OA + AS
But AS =
Therefore, OS = OA +
Thus S = a +

=a-

= (1 -

=+

This is called the ratio theorem. The theorem states that the position vectors s of a point which
divides a line AB in the ratio m: n is given by the formula;
S =, where a and b are positon vectors of A and B respectively. Note that the sum of co-ordinates
1
Thus ,in the above example if the ratio m : n = 5 : 3
Then m = 5 and n = 3
OR =
Thus ,r = a +
Example
A point R divides a line QR externally in the ratio 7 : 3 .If q and r are position vectors of point Q and R
respectively, find the position vector of p in terms of q and r.
Solution
We take any point O as the origin and join it to the points Q, R and P as shown below

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QP: PR = 7: -3
Substituting m =7 and n = -3 in the general formulae;
OP =
P=
Vectors can be used to determine the ratio in which a point divides two lines if they intersect

Example
In the below OA = a and OB = B.A point P divides OAin the ratio 3:1 and another point O divides AB in
the ratio 2 : 5 .If OQ meets BP at M Determine:
a.) OM : MQ
b.) BM : MP

Let OM : MQ = k : ( 1 – k) and BM –MP = n : ( 1 – n )

Using the ratio theorem
OQ =
OM

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Also by ratio theorem;
OM = n OP +( 1 – n ) OB
But OP =a
Therefore , OM = n (

Equating the two expressions;

Comparing the co-efficients

= 10: 3

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

1. The figure below is a right pyramid with a rectangular base ABCD and VO as the height. The
vectors AD= a, AB = b and DV = v

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 a) Express
(i) AV in terms of a and c

(ii) BV in terms of a, b and c

(b) M is point on OV such that OM: MV=3:4, Express BM in terms of a, b and c.

Simplify your answer as far as possible

2. In triangle OAB, OA = a OB = b and P lies on AB such that AP: BP = 3.5

(b) Find the terms of a and b the vectors

(i) AB
(ii) AP
(iii) BP
(iv) OP
(c) Point Q is on OP such AQ = -5 + 9
8a 40b

Find the ratio OQ: QP

3. The figure below shows triangle OAB in which M divides

OA in the ratio 2: 3 and N divides OB in the ratio 4:1 AN and BM intersect at X

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 (a) Given that OA = a and OB = b, express in terms of a and b:

(i) AN

(ii) BM

(b) If AX = s AN and BX = tBM, where s and t are constants, write two expressions

for OX in terms of a,b s and t

Find the value of s

Hence write OX in terms of a and b

4. The position vectors for points P and Q are 4 I + 3 j + 6 j + 6 k respectively. Express vector PQ in
terms of unit vectors I, j and k. Hence find the length of PQ, leaving your answer in simplified surd
form.

5. In the figure below, vector OP = P and OR =r. Vector OS

= 2r and OQ = 3/2p.

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 a) Express in terms of p and r (i) QR and (ii) PS

b) The lines QR and PS intersect at K such that QK = m QR and PK = n PS, where m and n
are scalars. Find two distinct expressions for OK in terms of p,r,m and n. Hence find the
values of m and n.

c) State the ratio PK: KS

6. Point T is the midpoint of a straight line AB. Given the position vectors of A and T are i-j + k and
2i+ 1½ k respectively, find the position vector of B in terms of i, j and k

7. A point R divides a line PQ internally in the ration 3:4. Another point S, divides the line PR
externally in the ration 5:2. Given that PQ = 8 cm, calculate the length of RS, correct to 2 decimal
places.

8. The points P, Q, R and S have position vectors 2p, 3p, r and 3r respectively, relative to an origin
O. A point T divides PS internally in the ratio 1:6

(a) Find, in the simplest form, the vectors OT and QT in terms p and r

(b) (i) Show that the points Q, T, and R lie on a straight line

(ii) Determine the ratio in which T divides QR

9. Two points P and Q have coordinates (-2, 3) and (1, 3) respectively. A translation map point P to
P’ (10, 10)

(b) Find the coordinates of Q’ the image of Q under the translation

(c) The position vector of P and Q in (a) above are p and q respectively given that mp – nq = -12
9

Find the value of m and n

10. Given that q i + 1/3 j + 2/3 k is a unit vector, find q

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11. In the diagram below, the coordinates of points A and B are (1, 6) and (15, 6) respectively). Point
N is on OB such that 3 ON = 2 OB. Line OA is produced to L such that OL = 3 OA

(a) Find vector LN

(b) Given that a point M is on LN such that LM: MN = 3: 4, find the coordinates of M

(c) If line OM is produced to T such that OM: MT = 6:1

(i) Find the position vector of T

(ii) Show that points L, T and B are collinear

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 12. In the figure below, OQ = q and OR = r. Point X
divides OQ in the ratio 1: 2 and Y divides OR in the ratio 3: 4 lines XR and YQ intersect at E.

(a) Express in terms of q and r

(i) XR

(ii) YQ

(b) If XE = m XR and YE = n YQ, express OE in terms of:

(i) r, q and m

(ii) r, q and n

(c) Using the results in (b) above, find the values of m and n.

13. Vector q has a magnitude of 7 and is parallel to vector p. Given that

p= 3 i –j + 1 ½ k, express vector q in terms of i, j, and k.

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 14. In the figure below, OA = 3i + 3j
ABD OB = 8i – j. C is a point on AB such that AC:CB 3:2, and D is a point such that OB//CD and
2OB = CD (T17)

Determine the vector DA in terms of I and j

15. In the figure below, KLMN is a

trapezium in which KL is parallel to NM and KL = 3NM

Given that KN = w, NM = u and ML = v. Show that 2u = v + w

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16. The points P, Q and R lie on a straight line. The position vectors of P and R are 2i + 3j + 13k and
5i – 3j + 4k respectively; Q divides SR internally in the ratio 2: 1. Find the

(a) Position vector of Q

(b) Distance of Q from the origin

17. Co-ordinates of points O, P, Q and R are (0, 0), (3, 4), (11, 6) and (8, 2) respectively. A point T is
such that the vector OT, QP and QR satisfy the vector equation OT = QP ½ QT. Find the coordinates
of T.

18. In the figure below OA = a, OB = b, AB = BC and OB:

BD = 3:1

(a) Determine

(i) AB in terms of a and b

(ii) CD, in terms of a and b

(b) If CD: DE = 1 k and OA: AE = 1m determine

(i) DE in terms of a, b and k

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 (ii) The values of k and m

19. The figure below shows a grid of equally spaced parallel lines

AB = a and BC = b

(a) Express

(i) AC in terms of a and b

(ii) AD in terms of a and b

(b) Using triangle BEP, express BP in terms of a and b

(c) PR produced meets BA produced at X and PR = 1/9b – 8/3a

By writing PX as kPR and BX as hBA and using the triangle BPX determine the ratio PR:
RX

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20. The position vectors of points x and y are x = 2i + j – 3k and y = 3i + 2j – 2k respectively. Find XY

2. Given that X = 2i + j -2K, y = -3i + 4j – k and z= 5i + 3j + 2k and that p= 3x – y + 2z, find the magnitude
of vector p to 3 significant figures.
CHAPTER FIFTY SIX

MATRIX AND TRANSFORMATION

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) Relate image and object under a given transformation on the Cartesian
Plane;
(b) Determine the matrix of a transformation;
(c) Perform successive transformations;
(d) Determine and identify a single matrix for successive transformation;
(e) Relate identity matrix and transformation;
(f) Determine the inverse of a transformation;
(g) Establish and use the relationship between area scale factor and determinant of a matrix;
(h) Determine shear and stretch transformations;
(i) Define and distinguish isometric and non-isometric transformation;
(j) Apply transformation to real life situations.
Content
(a) Transformation on the Cartesian plane
(b) Identification of transformation matrix
(c) Successive transformations
(d) Single matrix of transformation for successive transformations
(e) Identity matrix and transformation
(f) Inverse of a transformations
(g) Area scale factor and determinant of a matrix
(h) Shear and stretch (include their matrices)
(i) Isometric and non-isometric transformations

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(j) Application of transformation to real life situations.

Matrices of transformation
A transformation change the shape, position or size of an object as discussed in book two.
Pre –multiplication of any 2 x 1 column vector by a 2 x 2 matrix results in a 2 x 1 column vector
Example

If the vector is thought of as apposition vector that is to mean that it is representing the points with
coordinates (7, -1) to the point (17, -9).

Note;
The transformation matrix has an effect on each point of the plan. Let’s make T a transformation matrix T
Then T maps points (x, y) onto image points

Finding the Matrix of transformation

The objective is to find the matrix of given transformation.
Examples
Find the matrix of transformation of triangle PQR with vertices P (1, 3) Q (3, 3) and R (2, 5).The vertices
of the image of the triangle sis.
Solution
Let the matrix of the transformation be
=

Equating the corresponding elements and solving simultaneously

2a= 2

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 2c= 0

Therefore the transformation matrix is

Example
A trapezium with vertices A (1 ,4) B(3,1) C (5,1) and D(7,4) is mapped onto a trapezium whose vertices
are .Describe the transformation and find its matrix
Solution
Let the matrix of the transformation be

Equating the corresponding elements we get;

Solve the equations simulteneously

11b = -11 hence b =-1 or a = 0

3c + d =3

The matrix of the transformation is therefore

The transformation is positive quarter turn about the origin

Note;
Under any transformation represented by a 2 x 2 matrix, the origin is invariant, meaning it does not change
its position.Therefore if the transformtion is a rotation it must be about the origin or if the transformation
is reflection it must be on a mirror line which passses through the origin.

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The unit square

The unit square ABCD with vertices A helps us to get the transformation of a given matrix and also to
identify what trasformation a given matrix represent.
Example
Find the images of I and J under the trasformation whose matrix is;
a)

b)

Solution
a)

b)

NOTE;
The images of I and J under transformation represented by any 2 x 2 matrix i.e., are

Example
Find the matrix of reflection in the line y = 0 or x axis.
Solution
Using a unit square the image of B is ( 1, 0) and D is (0 , -1 ) .Therefore , the matrix of the transformation
is

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Example
Show on a diagram the unit square and it image under the transformation represented by the matrix
Solution
Using a unit square, the image of I is ( 1 ,0 ), the image of J is ( 4 , 1),the image of O is ( 0,0) and that of
K is

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Successive transformations
The process of performing two or more transformations in order is called successive transformation eg
performing transformation H followed by transformation Y is written as follows YH or if A , b and C are
transformations ; then ABC means perform C first ,then B and finally A , in that order.
The matrices listed below all perform different rotations/reflections:
This transformation matrix is the identity matrix. When multiplying by this matrix, the point matrix is
unaffected and the new matrix is exactly the same as the point matrix.

This transformation matrix creates a reflection in the x-axis. When multiplying by this matrix, the x co-
ordinate remains unchanged, but the y co-ordinate changes sign.

This transformation matrix creates a reflection in the y-axis. When multiplying by this matrix, the y co-
ordinate remains unchanged, but the x co-ordinate changes sign.

This transformation matrix creates a rotation of 180 degrees. When multiplying by this matrix, the point
matrix is rotated 180 degrees around (0, 0). This changes the sign of both the x and y co-ordinates.

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 This transformation matrix creates a reflection in the line y=x. When multiplying by this matrix, the x co-
ordinate becomes the y co-ordinate and the y-ordinate becomes the x co-ordinate.

This transformation matrix rotates the point matrix 90 degrees clockwise. When multiplying by this matrix,
the point matrix is rotated 90 degrees clockwise around (0, 0).

This transformation matrix rotates the point matrix 90 degrees anti-clockwise. When multiplying by this
matrix, the point matrix is rotated 90 degrees anti-clockwise around (0, 0).

This transformation matrix creates a reflection in the line y=-x. When multiplying by this matrix, the point
matrix is reflected in the line y=-x changing the signs of both co-ordinates and swapping their values.

Inverse matrix transformation

A transformation matrix that maps an image back to the object is called an inverse of matrix.

Note;
If A is a transformation which maps an object T onto an image ,then a transformation that can map back
to T is called the inverse of the transformation A , written as image .

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If R is a positive quarter turn about the origin the matrix for R is and the matrix for is hence
Example
T is a triangle with vertices A (2, 4), B (1, 2) and C (4, 2).S is a transformation represented by the matrix
a) Draw T and its image under the transformation S
b) Find the matrix of the inverse of the transformation S
Solution
a) Using transformation matrix S =

b) Let the inverse of the transformation matrix be. This can be done in the following ways
I.
Therefore
Equating corresponding elements and solving simultaneously;

Therefore

II.

Area Scale Factor and Determinant of Matrix

The ratio of area of image to area object is the area scale factor (A.S.F)

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Are scale factor =
Area scale factor is numerically equal to the determinant. If the determinant is negative you simply ignore
the negative sign.
Example
Area of the object is 4 cm and that of image is 36 cm find the area scale factor.
Solution

If it has a matrix of

Shear and stretch

Shear
The transformation that maps an object (in orange) to its image (in blue) is called a shear

The object has same base and equal heights. Therefore, their areas are equal. Under any shear, area is always
invariant ( fixed)
A shear is fully described by giving;
a.) The invariant line
b.) A point not on the invariant line, and its image.
Example
A shear X axis invariant

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Example
A shear Y axis invariant

Note;
Shear with x axis invariant is represented by a matrix of the form under this trasnsformation ,J (0, 1) is
mapped onto .
Likewise a shear with y – axis invariant is represented by a matrix of the form( ) . under this transformation,
,I (0,1) is mapped onto .
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 Stretch
A stretch is a transformation which enlarges all distance in a particular direction by a constant factor. A
stretch is described fully by giving;

 The scale factor

 The invariant line
Note;
i.)If K is greater than 1, then this really is a stretch.
ii.) If k is less than one 1, it is a squish but we still call it a stretch
iii.)If k = 1, then this transformation is really the identity i.e. it has no effect.
Example
Using a unit square, find the matrix of the stretch with y axis invariant ad scale factor 3
Solution

The image of I is therefore the matrix of the stretch is

Note;
The matrix of the stretch with the y-axis invariant and scale factor k is and the matrix of a stretch with x –
axis invariant and scale factor k is

Isometric and Non- Isometric Transformation

Isometric transformations are those in which the object and the image have the same shape and size
(congruent) e.g. rotation, reflection and translation
Non- isometric transformations are those in which the object and the image are not congruent e.g., shear
stretch and enlargement

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 End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. Matrix p is given by 1 2
4 3
(a) Find P-1
(b) Two institutions, Elimu and Somo, purchase beans at Kshs. B per bag and
maize at Kshs m per bag. Elimu purchased 8 bags of beans and 14 bags of maize for Kshs
47,600. Somo purchased 10 bags of beans and 16 of maize for Kshs. 57,400
(c) The price of beans later went up by 5% and that of maize remained constant. Elimu bought
the same quantity of beans but spent the same total amount of money as before on the two
items. State the new ratio of beans to maize.
2. A triangle is formed by the coordinates A (2, 1) B (4, 1) and C (1, 6). It is rotated
clockwise through 900 about the origin. Find the coordinates of this image.
3. On the grid provided on the opposite page A (1, 2) B (7, 2) C (4, 4) D (3, 4) is a trapezium

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(a) ABCD is mapped onto A’B’C’D’ by a positive quarter turn. Draw the image A’B’C’D on the grid
(b) A transformation -2 -1 maps A’B’C’D onto A”B” C”D” Find the coordinates
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 0 1 of A”B”C”D”
4. A triangle T whose vertices are A (2, 3) B (5, 3) and C (4, 1) is mapped onto triangle T 1 whose
vertices are A1 (-4, 3) B1 (-1, 3) and C1 (x, y) by a
Transformation M = a b
c d
a) Find the: (i) Matrix M of the transformation
(ii) Coordinates of C1
b) Triangle T2 is the image of triangle T1 under a reflection in the line y = x.
Find a single matrix that maps T and T2
5. Triangles ABC is such that A is (2, 0), B (2, 4), C (4, 4) and A”B”C” is such that A” is (0, 2), B”
(-4 – 10) and C “is (-4, -12) are drawn on the Cartesian plane
Triangle ABC is mapped onto A”B”C” by two successive transformations
R= a b
c d Followed by P= 0 -1
-1 0
(a) Find R
(b) Using the same scale and axes, draw triangles A’B’C’, the image of triangle ABC under
transformation R
Describe fully, the transformation represented by matrix R
6. Triangle ABC is shown on the coordinates plane below

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 (a) Given that A (-6, 5) is mapped onto A (6,-4) by a shear with y- axis invariant
(i) Draw triangle A’B’C’, the image of triangle ABC under the shear
(ii) Determine the matrix representing this shear
(b) Triangle A B C is mapped on to A” B” C” by a transformation defined by the matrix
-1 0
1½ -1
(i) Draw triangle A” B” C”
(ii) Describe fully a single transformation that maps ABC onto A”B” C”

7. Determine the inverse T1 of the matrix 1 2

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 1 -1
Hence find the coordinates to the point at which the two lines
x + 2y = 7 and x - y =1

8. Given that A = 0 -1 and B = -1 0

3 2 2 -4
Find the value of x if
(i) A- 2x = 2B
(ii) 3x – 2A = 3B
(iii) 2A - 3B = 2x

9. The transformation R given by the matrix

A=a b maps 17 to 15 and 0 to -8

c d 0 8 17 15

(a) Determine the matrix A giving a, b, c and d as fractions

(b) Given that A represents a rotation through the origin determine the angle of rotation.
(c) S is a rotation through 180 about the point (2, 3). Determine the image of (1, 0) under S
followed by R.

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 CHAPTER FIFTY SEVEN

STATISTICS II
Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) State the measures of central t e n d e n c y;
(b) Calculate the mean using the assumed mean method;
(c) Make cumulative frequency table,
(d) Estimate the median and the quartiles b y
- Calculation and
- Using ogive;
(e) Define and calculate the measures of dispersion: range, quartiles,interquartile range, quartile
deviation, variance and standard deviation
(f) Interpret measures of dispersion
Content
(a) Mean from assumed mean:
(b) Cumulative frequency table
(c) Ogive
(d) Meadian
(e) Quartiles
(f) Range
(g) Interquartile range
(h) Quartile deviation
(i) Variance
(j) Standard deviation

These statistical measures are called measures of central tendency and they are mean, mode and median.

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Mean using working (Assumed) Mean
Assumed mean is a method of calculating the arithmetic men and standard deviation of a data set. It
simplifies calculation.
Example
The masses to the nearest kilogram of 40 students in the form 3 class were measured and recorded in the
table below. Calculate the mean mass

Mass kg 47 48 49 50 51 52 53

Number of 2 0 1 2 3 2 5
employees

54 55 56 57 58 59 60

6 7 5 3 2 1 1

Solution
We are using assumed mean of 53

Mass x kg t= x - 53 f ft

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 47 -6 2 -12
48 -5 0 0
49 -4 1 -4
50 -3 2 -6
51 -2 3 -6
52 -1 2 -2
53 0 5 0
54 1 6 6

55 2 7 14

56 3 5 15
57 4 3 12
58 5 2 10
59 6 1 6
60 7 1 7
Σf = 40 Σft = 40

Mean of t
Mean of x = 53 + mean of t
= 53 + 1
= 54

Mean of grouped data

The masses to the nearest gram of 100 eggs were as follows

Marks 100- 103 104- 107 108- 111 112-115 116-119 120-123
Frequency 1 15 42 31 8 3
Find the mean mass

Solution
Let use a working mean of 109.5.

class Mid-point x t= x - 109.5 f

ft

100-103 101.5 -8 1 –8

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 104-107 105.5 -4 15 – 60
108-111 109.5 0 42 0
112-115 113.5 4 31 124
116- 119 117.5 8 8 64
120 -123 121.5 12 3 36
Σf= 100 Σft = 156

Mean of t =

Therefore ,mean of x = 109.5 + mean of t

= 109.5 + 1.56

= 111.06 g

To get the mean of a grouped data easily ,we divide each figure by the class width after substracting the
assumed mean.Inorder to obtain the mean of the original data from the mean of the new set of data, we
will have to reverse the steps in the following order;

 Multiply the mean by the class width and then add the working mean.
Example
The example above to be used to demonstrate the steps

class Mid-point x t= f ft

100-103 101.5 -2 1 –2
104-107 105.5 -1 15 – 15
108-111 109.5 0 42 0
112-115 113.5 1 31 31
116- 119 117.5 2 8 16
120 -123 121.5 3 3 9

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 Σf= 100 Σft = 39

= 0.39
Therefore = 0.39 x 4 + 109.5
= 1.56 + 109.5
= 111.06 g

Quartiles, Deciles and Percentiles

A median divides a set of data into two equal part with equal number of items.
Quartiles divides a set of data into four equal parts.The lower quartile is the median of the bottom half.The
upper quartile is the median of the top half and the middle coincides with the median of the whole set od
data
Deciles divides a set of data into ten equal parts.Percentiles divides a set of data into hundred equal parts.

Note;
For percentiles deciles and quartiles the data is arranged in order of size.
Example

Height 145- 149 150-154 155- 160- 165-169 170-174 175-179

in cm 159 164
frquency 2 5 16 9 5 2 1
Calculate the ;
a.) Median height
b.) I.)Lower quartile
ii) Upper quartile
c.) 80th percentile
Solution
I. There are 40 students. Therefore, the median height is the average of the heights of the 20 th and 21st
students.

class frequency Cumulative

frequency

145-149 2 2
150 - 154 5 7
155 - 159 16 23
160 - 164 9 32

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 165 - 169 5 37
170 - 174 2 39
175 - 179 1 40

Both the 20th and 21st students falls in the 155 -159 class. This class is called the median class. Using
the formula m = L +
Where L is the lower class limit of the median class
N is the total frequency
C is the cumulative frequency above the median class
I is the class interval
F is the frequency of the median class
Therefor;
Height of the 20th student = 154.5 +
= 154.5 + 4.0625
=158.5625

Height of the 21st = 154.5 +

= 154.5 + 4.375
=158.875
Therefore median height =
= 158.7 cm
b.) (I ) lower quartile = L +
The 10th student fall in the in 155 – 159 class
= 154.5 +
5 + 0.9375
4375
(ii) Upper quartile = L +
The 10th student fall in the in 155 – 159 class
= 159.5 +
5 + 3.888
3889

Note;
The median corresponds to the middle quartile or the 50th percentile
c.) the 32nd student falls in the 160 -164 class
=L+
= 159.5 +

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 5+5

Example
Determine the upper quartile and the lower quartile for the following set of numbers
5, 10 ,6 ,5 ,8, 7 ,3 ,2 ,7 , 8 ,9

Solution
Arranging in ascending order
2, 3, 5,5,6, 7,7,8,8,9,10
The median is 7
The lower quartile is the median of the first half, which is 5.
The upper quartile is the median of the second half, which is 8.

Median from cumulative frequency curve

Graph for cumulative frequency is called an ogive. We plot a graph of cumulative frequency against the
upper class limit.
Example
Given the class interval of the measurement and the frequency ,we first find the cumulative frequency as
shown below.
Then draw the graph of cumulative frequency against upper class limit

Cumulative
Arm Span (cm) Frequency (f)
Frequency
140 ≤ x ‹ 145 3 3
145 ≤ x ‹ 150 1 4
150 ≤ x ‹ 155 4 8
155 ≤ x ‹ 160 8 16
160 ≤ x ‹ 165 7 23
165 ≤ x ‹ 170 5 28
170 ≤ x ‹ 175 2 30
Total: 30

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Solution

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Example
The table below shows marks of 100 candidates in an examination
Marks 1- 11- 21-30 31- 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81- 91-
10 20 40 90 100
FRCY
4 9 16 24 18 12 8 5 3 1

a.) Determine the median and the quartiles

b.) If 55 marks is the pass mark, estimate how many students passed
c.) Find the pass mark if 70% of the students are to pass

d.) Determine the range of marks obtained by

(I) The middle 50 % of the students
(ii) The middle 80% of the students

Solution

Marks 1- 11- 21-30 31- 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81- 91-
10 20 40 90 100
Frqcy
4 9 16 24 18 12 8 5 3 1
Cumulative 4 13 29
53 71 83 91 96 99 100
Frequency

Solution
a.) Reading from the graph
The median = 39.5
The Lower quartile
The upper quartile
b.) 23 candidates scored 55 and over

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c.) Pass mark is 31 if 70% of pupils are to pass
d.) (I) The middle 50% include the marks between the lower and the upper quartiles i.e. between 28.5
and 53.5 marks.
(II) The middle 80% include the marks between the first decile and the 9th decile i.e between 18 and
69 marks

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Measure of Dispersion
Range
The difference between the highest value and the lowest value
Disadvantage
It depends only on the two extreme values

Interquartile range
The difference between the lower and upper quartiles. It includes the middle 50% of the values

Semi quartile range

The difference between the lower quartile and upper quartile divided by 2.It is also called the quartile
deviation.

Mean Absolute Deviation

If we find the difference of each number from the mean and find their mean , we get the mean Absolute
deviation

Variance
The mean of the square of the square of the deviations from the mean is called is called variance or
mean deviation.
Example
Deviation +1 -1 +6 -4 -2 -11 +1 10
from
mean(d)
fi 1 1 36 16 4 121 1 100

Sum
Variance =
The square root of the variance is called the standard deviation.It is also called root mean square
deviation. For the above example its standard deviation =

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 Example
The following table shows the number of children per family in a housing estate

Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
of
childred
Number 1 5 11 27 10 4 2
of
families

Calculate
a.) The mean number of children per family
b.) The standard deviation
Solution

Number of Number of fx Deviations

children f
(x) Families (f) d= x -m
o 1 0 –3 9 9
1 5 5 –2 4 20
2 11 22 -1 1 11
3 27 81 0 0 0
4 10 40 1 1 10
5 4 20 2 4 16
6 2 12 3 9 18
Σf = 60 Σf= – 40

a.) Mean =
b.) Variance =

Example
The table below shows the distribution of marks of 40 candidates in a test

Marks 1- 11- 21- 31- 41- 51- 61- 71- 81- 91-
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

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 frequency 2 2 3 9 12 5 2 3 1 1
Calculate
the mean and standard deviation.

Midpoint Frequency fx d= x - f
Marks
( x) (f) m
1-10 5.5 2 11.0 - 39.5 1560.25 3120.5
11-20 15.5 2 31.0 -29.5 870.25 1740.5
21-30 25.5 3 76.5 -19.5 380.25 1140.75
31 -40 35.5 9 319.5 -9.5 90.25 812.25
41 -50 45.5 12 546.0 0.5 0.25 3.00
51-60 55.5 5 277.5 10.5 110.25 551.25
61- 70 65.5 2 131.0 20.5 420.25 840.5
71-80 75.5 3 226.5 30.5 930.25 2790.75
81 -90 85.5 1 85.5 40.5 1640.25 1640.25
91 -100 95.5 1 95.5 50.5 2550.25 2550.25
Σf= 40 Σf Σf=
x=1800 15190

Mean
Variance =
= 379.8
Standard deviation =
= 19.49

Note;
Adding or subtracting a constant to or from each number in a set of data does not alter the value of the
variance or standard deviation.
More formulas
The formula for getting the variance

=
Example
The table below shows the length in centimeter of 80 plants of a particular species of tomato
length 152-156 157-161 162-166 167-171 172- 176 177-181
frequency 12 14 24 15 8 7

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 Calculate the mean and the standard deviation

Solution
Let A = 169
Length Mid-point x x-169 t= f ft
152 -156 154 -15 -3 12 -36 108
157 -161 159 -10 -2 14 -28 56
162 -166 164 -5 -1 24 -24 24
167 -171 169 0 0 15 0 0
172-176 174 5 1 8 8 8
177-181 179 10 2 7 14 28

=
Therefore
= -4.125 + 169
= 164.875 ( to 4 s.f)
Variance of t =
=
= 2.8 – 0.6806
= 2.119
Therefore , variance of x = 2.119 x
= 52.975
= 52.98 ( 4 s.f)
Standard deviation of x =
= 7.279
= 7.28 (to 2 d.p)
End of topic

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If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

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Past KCSE Questions on the topic

1. Every week the number of absentees in a school was recorded. This was done for 39 weeks these
observations were tabulated as shown below

Number of absentees 0.3 4 -7 8 -11 12 - 15 16 - 19 20 - 23

(Number of weeks) 6 9 8 11 3 2

Estimate the median absentee rate per week in the school

2. The table below shows high altitude wind speeds recorded at a weather station in a period of 100
days.

Wind speed ( 0 - 19 20 - 39 40 - 59 60-79 80- 99 100- 119 120-139 140- 160-179

knots) 159

Frequency (days) 9 19 22 18 13 11 5 2 1

(a) On the grid provided draw a cumulative frequency graph for the data
(b) Use the graph to estimate
(i) The interquartile range
(ii) The number of days when the wind speed exceeded 125 knots
3. Five pupils A, B, C, D and E obtained the marks 53, 41, 60, 80 and 56 respectively. The table
below shows part of the work to find the standard deviation.

Pupil Mark x x-a ( x-a)2

A 53 -5
B 41 -17
C 60 2
D 80 22
E 56 -2

(a) Complete the table

(b) Find the standard deviation
4. In an agricultural research centre, the length of a sample of 50 maize cobs were measured and
recorded as shown in the frequency distribution table below.

Length in cm Number of cobs

8 – 10 4

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 11 – 13 7
14 – 16 11
17 – 19 15
20 – 22 8
23 - 25 5

Calculate
(a) The mean
(b) (i) The variance
(ii) The standard deviation
5. The table below shows the frequency distribution of masses of 50 new- born calves in a ranch
Mass (kg)Frequency
15 – 18 2
19- 22 3
23 – 26 10
27 – 30 14
31 – 34 13
35 – 38 6
39 – 42 2

(a) On the grid provided draw a cumulative frequency graph for the data
(b) Use the graph to estimate
(i) The median mass
(ii) The probability that a calf picked at random has a mass lying between 25 kg and
28 kg.
6. The table below shows the weight and price of three commodities in a given
period

Commodity Weight Price Relatives

X 3 125
Y 4 164

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 Z 2 140
Calculate the retail index for the group of commodities.
7. The number of people who attended an agricultural show in one day was 510 men, 1080 women
and some children. When the information was represented on a pie chart, the combined angle for
the men and women was 2160. Find the angle representing the children.
8. The mass of 40 babies in a certain clinic were recorded as follows:
Mass in Kg No. of babies.
1.0 – 1.9 6
2.0 – 2.9 14
3.0 -3.9 10
4.0 – 4.9 7
5.0 – 5.9 2
6.0 – 6.9 1
Calculate
(a) The inter – quartile range of the data.
(b) The standard deviation of the data using 3.45 as the assumed mean.
9. The data below shows the masses in grams of 50 potatoes

Mass (g) 25- 34 35-44 45 - 54 55- 64 65 - 74 75-84 85-94

No of 3 6 16 12 8 4 1
potatoes

(a) On the grid provide, draw a cumulative frequency curve for the data
(b) Use the graph in (a) above to determine
(i) The 60th percentile mass
(ii) The percentage of potatoes whose masses lie in the range 53g to 68g
10. The histogram below represents the distribution of marks obtained in a test.
The bar marked A has a height of 3.2 units and a width of 5 units. The bar marked B has a height
of 1.2 units and a width of 10 units

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 559
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 If the frequency of the class represented by bar B is 6, determine the frequency of the class
represented by bar A.
11. A frequency distribution of marks obtained by 120 candidates is to be represented in a histogram.
The table below shows the grouped marks. Frequencies for all the groups and also the area and
height of the rectangle for the group 30 – 60 marks.

Marks 0-10 10-30 30-60 60-70 70-100

Frequency 12 40 36 8 24

Area of rectangle 180

Height of rectangle 6

(a) (i) Complete the table

(ii) On the grid provided below, draw the histogram

(b) (i) State the group in which the median mark lies
(ii) A vertical line drawn through the median mark divides the total area of the histogram into
two equal parts
Using this information or otherwise, estimate the median mark

12. In an agriculture research centre, the lengths of a sample of 50 maize cobs were measured and
recorded as shown in the frequency distribution table below

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 Length in cm Number of cobs

8 – 10 4
11- 13 7
14 – 16 11
17- 19 15
20 – 22 8
23- 25 5

Calculate
(a) The mean
(b) (i) The variance
(ii) The standard deviation

13. The table below shows the frequency distribution of masses of 50 newborn calves in a ranch.

Mass (kg) Frequency

15 – 18 2
19- 22 3
23 – 26 10
27 – 30 14
31- 34 13
35 – 38 6
39 - 42 2

(a) On the grid provided draw a cumulative frequency graph for the data
(b) Use the graph to estimate
(i) The median mass
(ii) The probability that a calf picked at random has a mass lying
between 25 kg and 28 kg

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14. The table shows the number of bags of sugar per week and their moving averages

Number of bags per week 340 330 x 343 350 345

Moving averages 331 332 y 346

(a) Find the order of the moving average

(b) Find the value of X and Y axis

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 CHAPTER FIFTY EIGHT

THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) State the geometric properties of common solids;

(b) Identify projection of a line onto a plane;
(c) Identify skew lines;
(d) Calculate the length between two points in three dimensional geometry;
(e) Identify and calculate the angle between
(i) Two lines;
(ii) A line and a plane;
(ii) Two planes.
Content
(a) Geometrical properties of common solids
(b) Skew lines and projection of a line onto a plane
(c) Length of a line in 3-dimensional geometry
(d) The angle between
i) A line and a line
ii) A line a plane
iii) A plane and a plane
iv) Angles between skewlines.

Introduction
Geometrical properties of common solids
 A geometrical figure having length only is in one dimension
 A figure having area but not volume is in two dimension
 A figure having vertices ( points),edges(lines) and faces (plans) is in three dimension
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Examples of three dimensional figures

Rectangular Prism

A three-dimensional figure having 6 faces, 8 vertices, and 12 edges

Triangular Prism

A three-dimensional figure having 5 faces, 6 vertices, and 9 edges.

Cone

A three- dimensional figure having one face.

SSphere
p
A three- dimensional figure with no straight lines or line segments

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 Cube

A three- dimensional figure that is measured by its length, height, and width.
It has 6 faces, 8 vertices, and 12 edges

Cylinder

A three- dimensional figure having 2 circular faces

Rectangular Pyramid

A three-dimensional figure having 5 faces, 5 vertices, and 8 edges

Angle between a line and a plane

The angle between a line and a plane is the angle between the line and its projection on the plane

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The angle between the line L and its projection or shadow makes angle A with the plan. Hence the angle
between a line and a plane is A.

Example

The angle between a line, r, and a plane, π, is the angle between r and its projection onto π, r'.

height is 4 m

Example
Suppose r' is 10 cm find the angle
Solution

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 To find the angle we use tan

Angle Between two planes

Any two planes are either parallel or intersect in a straight line. The angle between two planes is the angle
between two lines, one on each plane, which is perpendicular to the line of intersection at the point

Example

The figure below PQRS is a regular tetrahedron of side 4 cm and M is the mid point of RS;

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 a.) Show that PM is cm long, and that triangle PMQ is isosceles
b.) Calculate the angle between planes PSR and QRS
c.) Calculate the angle between line PQ and plane QRS
Solution

a.) Triangle PRS is equilateral. Since M,is the midpoint of RS , PM is perpendicular bisector

cm
= cm
Similar triangle MQR is right angled at M

cm
= cm

b.) The required angle is triangle PMQ .Using cosine rule

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c.) The required angle is triangle PQM
Since triangle PMQ is isosceles with triangle PMQ =
<PQM
(109.46)

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. The diagram below shows a right pyramid VABCD with V as the vertex. The base of the pyramid
is rectangle ABCD, WITH ab = 4 cm and BC= 3 cm. The height of the pyramid is 6 cm.

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 (a) Calculate the
(i) Length of the projection of VA on the base
(ii) Angle between the face VAB and the base
(b) P is the mid- point of VC and Q is the mid – point of VD.

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 Find the angle between the planes VAB and the plane ABPQ

2. The figure below represents a square based solid with a path marked on it.

Sketch and label the net of the solid.

3. The diagram below represents a cuboid

ABCDEFGH in which FG= 4.5 cm, GH = 8 cm and HC = 6 cm

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 Calculate:
(a) The length of FC
(b) (i) The size of the angle between the lines FC and FH
(ii) The size of the angle between the lines AB and FH
(c) The size of the angle between the planes ABHE and the plane FGHE

4. The base of a right pyramid is a square ABCD of side 2a cm. The slant edges VA, VB, VC and VD
are each of length 3a cm.
(a) Sketch and label the pyramid
(b) Find the angle between a slanting edge and the base

5. The triangular prism shown below has the sides AB = DC = EF = 12 cm. the ends are equilateral
triangles of sides 10cm. The point N is the mid point of FC.

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 Find the length of:
(a) (i) BN
(ii) EN
(b) Find the angle between the line EB and the plane CDEF

CHAPTER FIFTY NINE

TRIGONOMETRY III
Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) Recall and define trigonometric ratios;
(b) Derive trigonometric identity sin2x+cos2x = 1;
(c) Draw graphs of trigonometric functions;
(d) Solve simple trigonometric equations analytically and graphically;
(e) Deduce from the graph amplitude, period, wavelength and phase angles.
Content
(a) Trigonometric ratios
(b) Deriving the relation sin2x+cos2x =1
(c) Graphs of trigonometric functions of the form
y = sin x y = cos x, y = tan x

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y = a sin x, y = a cos x,
y = a tan x y = a sin bx,
y = a cos bx y = a tan bx
y = a sin(bx ± 9)
y = a cos(bx ± 9)
y = a tan(bx ± 9)
(d) Simple trigonometric equation
(e) Amplitude, period, wavelength and phase angle of trigonometric functions.

Introduction
Consider the right – angled triangle OAB

AB = r
OA = r
Since triangle OAB is right- angled

Divide both sides by gives

Example
If tanshow that;

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Solution
Factorize the numerator gives and since

But
Therefore, =

Example
Show that

Removing the brackets from the expression gives

Using

Also

Therefore

Example
Given that
a.)
b.)
c.)

Solution using the right angle triangle below.

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 a.) cos
therefore =
b.) =
c.) =1

Waves
Amplitude
This is the maximum displacement of the wave above or below the x axis.
Period
The interval after which the wave repeats itself

Transformations of waves
The graphs of y = sin x and y = 3 sin x can be drawn on the same axis. The table below gives the
corresponding values of sin x and 3 sin x for

0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

Sin x 0.87 0 -0.50 - -0.87 -0.50 0

0 0.50 1.00 0.87 0.50 -0.87
0.50
3 sin x 2.61 0 -1.50 - -2.61 -1.50 0
0 1.50 3.00 2.61 1.50 -2.61
1.50

390 420 450 480 510 540 570 600 630 660 690 720

0.5 0.87 0 -0.50 -0.87 -0.50 0

1.00 0.87 0.50 -0.87 -1.00

1.50 2.61 3.00 2.61 1.50 0 -1.50 -2.61 -3.00 -2.61 -2.61 0

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The wave of y = 3 sin x can be obtained directly from the graph of y = sin x by applying a stretch scale
factor 3 , x axis invariant .

Note;
 The amplitude of y= 3sinx is y =3 which is three times that of y = sin x which is y =1.
 The period of the both the graphs is the same that is or 2
Example
Draw the waves y = cos x and y = cos . We obtain y = cos from the graph y = cos x by applying a stretch
of factor 2 with y axis invariant.

Note;
 The amplitude of the two waves are the same.
 The period of y = cos is that is, twice the period of y = cos x

Trigonometric Equations
In trigonometric equations, there are an infinite number of roots. We therefore specify the range of values
for which the roots of a trigonometric equation are required.

Example

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Solve the following trigonometric equations:
a.) Sin 2x = cos x, for
b.) Tan 3x = 2, for
c.)

Solution
a.) Sin 2 x = cos x
Sin 2x = sin (90 – x)
Therefore 2 x = 90 – x
X=
For the given range, x =.
b.) Tan 3x = 2
From calculator
3x =.
In the given range;

c.)

Sin sin

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic

1. (a) Complete the table for the function y = 2 sin x

x 00 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Sin 3x 0 0.5000 -08660
y 0 1.00 -1.73

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 (b) (i) Using the values in the completed table, draw the graph of
y = 2 sin 3x for 00 ≤ x ≤ 1200 on the grid provided
(ii) Hence solve the equation 2 sin 3x = -1.5
2. Complete the table below by filling in the blank spaces

X0 00 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400 2700 3000 3300 3600
Cos x0 1.00 0.50 -0.87 -0.87
2 cos ½ x0 2.00 1.93 0.52 -1.00 -2.00

Using the scale 1 cm to represent 300 on the horizontal axis and 4 cm to represent 1 unit on the
vertical axis draw, on the grid provided, the graphs of y = cosx 0 and y = 2 cos ½ x0 on the same
axis.
(a) Find the period and the amplitude of y = 2 cos ½ x0
(b) Describe the transformation that maps the graph of y = cos x0 on the graph of y = 2 cos 1/2
x0

2. (a) Complete the table below for the value of y = 2 sin x + cos x.
X 00 300 450 600 900 1200 1350 1500 1800 2250 2700 3150 3600
2 sin x 0 1.4 1.7 2 1.7 1.4 1 0 -2 -1.4 0
Cos x 1 0.7 0.5 0 -0.5 -0.7 -0.9 -1 0 0.7 1
Y 1 2.1 2.2 2 1.2 0.7 0.1 -1 -2 -0.7 1
(b) Using the grid provided draw the graph of y=2sin x + cos x for 00. Take 1cm represent 300
on the x- axis and 2 cm to represent 1 unit on the axis.
(c) Use the graph to find the range of x that satisfy the inequalities
2 sin x cos x > 0.5
4. (a) Complete the table below, giving your values correct to 2 decimal places.

x 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Tan x 0
2 x + 300 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170
Sin ( 2x + 300) 0.50 1

b) On the grid provided, draw the graphs of y = tan x and y = sin ( 2x + 300) for 00 ≤ x 700
Take scale: 2 cm for 100 on the x- axis
4 cm for unit on the y- axis
Use your graph to solve the equation tan x- sin ( 2x + 300 ) = 0.

5. (a) Complete the table below, giving your values correct to 2 decimal places

X0 0 30 60 90 120 150 180

2 sin x0 0 1 2 1
1 – cos x0 0.5 1

(b) On the grid provided, using the same scale and axes, draw the graphs of
y = sin x0 and y = 1 – cos x0 ≤ x ≤ 1800
Take the scale: 2 cm for 300 on the x- axis
2 cm for I unit on the y- axis

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 (c) Use the graph in (b) above to
(i) Solve equation
2 sin xo + cos x0 = 1
(iii)
Determine the range of values x for which 2 sin xo> 1 – cos x0

6. (a) Given that y = 8 sin 2x – 6 cos x, complete the table below for the missing
values of y, correct to 1 decimal place.

X 00 150 300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200

Y = 8 sin 2x – 6 cos x -6 -1.8 3.8 3.9 2.4 0 -3.9

(b) On the grid provided, below, draw the graph of y = 8 sin 2x – 6 cos for
00 ≤ x ≤ 1200
Take the scale 2 cm for 150 on the x- axis
2 cm for 2 units on the y – axis
(c) Use the graph to estimate
(i) The maximum value of y
(ii) The value of x for which 4 sin 2x – 3 cos x =1

7. Solve the equation 4 sin (x + 300) = 2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 3600

8. Find all the positive angles not greater than 1800 which satisfy the equation
Sin2 x – 2 tan x = 0
Cos x

9. Solve for values of x in the range 00 ≤ x ≤ 3600 if 3 cos2 x – 7 cos x = 6

10. Simplify 9 – y2 where y = 3 cos θ

y

11. Find all the values of Ø between 00 and 3600 satisfying the equation 5 sin Ө = -4

12. Given that sin (90 – x) = 0.8. Where x is an acute angle, find without using mathematical tables the
value of tan x0

13. Complete the table given below for the functions

y= -3 cos 2x0 and y = 2 sin (3x/20 + 30) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1800

X0 00 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

-3cos 2x0 -3.00 -2.30 -0.52 1.50 2.82 2.82 1.50 -0.52 -2.30 -3.00
1.00 1.73 2.00 1.73 1.00 0.00 -1.00 -1.73 -2.00 -1.73
2 sin (3 x0 + 300)

Using the graph paper draw the graphs of y = -3 cos 2x0 and y = 2 sin (3x/20 + 300)
(a) On the same axis. Take 2 cm to represent 200 on the x- axis and 2 cm to represent one unit
on the y – axis
(b) From your graphs. Find the roots of 3 cos 2 x0 + 2 sin (3x/20 + 300) = 0

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14. Solve the values of x in the range 00 ≤ x ≤ 3600 if 3 cos2x – 7cos x = 6

15. Complete the table below by filling in the blank spaces

x0 00 300 600 90 10 1500 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Cosx0 1.00 0.50 - -
0.87 0.87
2cos ½ x0 2.00 1.93 0.5

Using the scale 1 cm to represent 300 on the horizontal axis and 4 cm to represent 1 unit on the
vertical axis draw on the grid provided, the graphs of y – cos x0 and y = 2 cos ½ x0 on the same
axis
(a) Find the period and the amplitude of y =2 cos ½ x0
Ans. Period = 7200. Amplitude = 2
(c)
Describe the transformation that maps the graph of y = cos x 0 on the graph of y = 2
cos ½ x0

CHAPTER SIXTY

LONGITUDES AND LATITUDES

Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) Define the great and small circles in relation to a sphere (including the
Earth);
(b) Establish the relationship between the radii of small and great circles;
(c) Locate a place on the earth's surface in terms of latitude and longitude;

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(d) Calculate the distance between two points along the great circles and small circles (longitude
and latitude) in nautical miles (nm) an kilometers (km);
(e) Calculate time in relation to longitudes;
(f) Calculate speed in knots and kilometers per hour.
Content
(a) Latitude and longitude (great and small circles)
(b) The Equator and Greenwich Meridian
(c) Radii of small and great circles
(d) Position of a place on the surface of the earth
(e) Distance between two points along the small and great circles in nautical miles and kilometers
(f) Distance in nautical miles and kilometres along a circle of latitude
(g) Time and longitude
(h) Speed in knots and Kilometres per hour.

Introduction
Just as we use a coordinate system to locate points on a number plane so we use latitude and longitude to
locate points on the earth’s surface.
Because the Earth is a sphere, we use a special grid of lines that run across and down a sphere. The diagrams
below show this grid on a world globe and a flat world map.

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Great and Small Circles
If you cut a ‘slice’ through a sphere, its shape is a circle. A slice through the centre of a sphere is called a
great circle, and its radius is the same as that of the sphere. Any other slice is called a small circle, because
its radius is smaller than that of a great circle.Hence great circles divides the sphere into two equal parts

Latitude
Latitudes are imaginary lines that run around the earth and their planes are perpendicular to the axis of the
earth .The equator is the latitude tha divides the earth into two equal parts.Its the only great circles amoung
the latitudes. The equator is , 0°.
The angle of latitude is the angle the latitude makes with the Equator at the centre, O, of the Earth. The
diagram shows the 50°N parallel of latitude. Parallels of latitude range from 90°N (North Pole) to 90°S
(South Pole).

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 The angle 5 subtended at the centre of the earth
is the is the is the latitude of the circle passing
through 5 north of equator.The maximum angle
of latitude is 9 north or south of equator.

Longitudes /meridians
They are circles passing through the north and south poles

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 They can also be said that they are imaginary semicircles that run down the Earth. They are ‘half’ great
circles that meet at the North and South Poles. The main meridian of longitude is the prime meridian, 0°.
It is also called the Greenwich meridian since it runs through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich in
London, England. The other meridians are measured in degrees east or west of the prime meridian.

The angle of longitude is the angle the meridian makes with the prime meridian at the centre, O, of the
Earth. The diagram shows the 35°E meridian of longitude.
Meridians of longitude range from 180°E to 180°W. 180°E and
180°W are actually the same meridian, on the opposite side of the Earth to the prime meridian. It runs
through the Pacific Ocean, east of Fiji.

Note
 If P is north of the equator and Q is south of the quator , then the difference in latitude between
them is given by
 If P and Q are on the same side of the equator , then the difference in latitude is

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Position Coordinates
Locations on the Earth are described using latitude (°N or °S) and longitude (°E or °W) in that order. For
example, Nairobi has coordinates (1°S, 37°E), meaning it is position is 1° south of the Equator and 37°
east of the prime meridian.
EG

Great Circle Distances

Remember the arc length of a circle is where θ is the degrees of the central angle, and the
radius of the earth is 6370 km approx.
On a flat surface, the shortest distance between two points is a straight line. Since the Earth’s surface is
curved, the shortest distance between A and B is the arc length AB of the great circle that passes through A

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and B. This is called the great circle distance and the size of angle ∠AOB where O is the centre of the
Earth is called the angular distance.

Note
 The length of an arc of a great circle subtending an angle of (one minute) at the centre of the earth
is 1 nautical mile nm.
 A nautical mile is the standard international unit from measuring distances travelled by ships and
aeroplanes 1 nautical mile (nm) = 1.853 km
If an arc of a great circle subtends an angle at the centre of the earth,the arcs length is nautical miles.

Example

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Find the distance between points P( ) and Q and express it in;
a.) Nm
b.) Km

Solution
a.) Angle subtended at the centre is
Is subtended by 60 nm
Is subtended by; 60 x 60.5 = 3630 nm
b.) The radius of the earth is 6370 km
Therefore, the circumference of the earth along a great circle is;

Angle between the points is .Therefore, we find the length of an arch of a circle which subtends an
angle of at the centre is is subtended by arc whose length is
Therefore, 60. Is subtended by ;

Example
Find the distance between points A ( and express it in ;
a.) Nm.
b.) Km
Solution
a.) The two points lie on the equator, which is great circle. Therefore ,we are calculating distance along a
great circle.
Angle between points A and B is (
b.) Distance in km =
Distance along a small Circle (circle of latitude)

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The figure below ABC is a small circle, centre X and radius r cm.PQST is a great circle ,centre O,radius R

cm.The angle is between the two radii.

From the figure, XC is parallel to OT. Therefore, angle COT = angle XCO=.Angle CXO =9 (Radius XC
is perpendicular to the axis of sphere).

Thus, from the right- angled triangle OXC

Therefore, r = R cos
This expression can be used to calculate the distance between any two points along the small circle ABC,
centre X and radius r.
Example
Find the distance in kilometers and nautical miles between two points (.
Solution
Figure a shows the position of P and Q on the surface of the earth while figure b shows their relative
positions on the small circle is the centre of the circle of latitude with radius r.
The angle subtended by the arc PQ centre C is .So, the length of PQ

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The length of PQ in nautical miles

In general, if the angle at the centre of a circle of latitude then the length of its arc is 60 where the angle
between the longitudes along the same latitude.

Shortest distance between the two points on the earths surface

The shortest distance between two points on the earths surface is that along a great circle.
Example
P and Q are two points on latitude They lie on longitude respectively. Find the distance from P to Q :
a.) Along a parallel of latitude
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 b.) Along a great circle

Solution
The positions of P and Q on earths surface are as shown below

a.) The length of the circle parallel of latitude is 2 km, which is 2.The difference in longitude between
P and Q is

PQ
b.) The required great circle passes via the North Pole. Therefore, the angle subtended at the centre by
the arc PNQ is;
–2x

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 Therefore the arc PNQ

=
=

Note;
Notice that the distance between two points on the earth’s surface along a great circle is shorter than
the distance between them along a small circle

Longitude and Time

The earth rotates through 36 about its axis every 24 hours in west – east direction. Therefore for every
change in longitude there is a corresponding change in time of 4 minutes, or there is a difference of 1
hour between two meridians apart.
All places in the same meridian have the same local time. Local time at Greenwich is called Greenwich
Mean Time .GMT.
All meridians to the west of Greenwich Meridian have sunrise after the meridian and their local times
are behind GMT.
All meridian to the east of Greenwich Meridian have sunrise before the meridian and their local times
are ahead of GMT. Since the earth rotates from west to east, any point P is ahead in time of another
point Q if P is east of Q on the earth’s surface.

Example
Find the local time in Nairobi ( ), when the local time of Mandera (Nairobi ( ) is 3.00 pm
Solution
The difference in longitude between Mandera and Nairobi is (, that is Mandera is .Therefore their local
time differ by; 4 x 5 = 20 min.
Since Nairobi is in the west of Mandera, we subtract 20 minutes from 3.00 p.m. This gives local time
for Nairobi as 2.40 p.m.
Example
If the local time of London ( ), IS 12.00 noon, find the local time of Nairobi ( ),
Solution
Difference in longitude is ( ) =
So the difference in time is 4 x 37 min = 148 min

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 = 2 hrs. 28 min
Therefore , local time of Nairobi is 2 hours 28 minutes ahead that of London that is,2.28 p.m
Example
If the local time of point A ( ) is 12.30 a.m, on Monday,Find the local time of a point B ( ).
Solution
Difference in longitude between A and B is
In time is 4 x 340 = 1360 min
= 22 hrs. 40 min.
Therefore local time in point B is 22 hours 40 minutes behind Monday 12:30 p.m. That is, Sunday 1.50
a.m.

Speed
A speed of 1 nautical mile per hour is called a knot. This unit of speed is used by airmen and sailors.
Example
A ship leaves Mombasa (and sails due east for 98 hours to appoint K Mombasa (in the indian
ocean.Calculate its average speed in;
a.) Km/h
b.) Knots

Solution
a.) The length x of the arc from Mombasa to the point K in the ocean

=
=
Therefore speed is
b.) The length x of the arc from Mombasa to the point K in the ocean in nautical miles

Therefore , speed =
= 25.04 knots
End of topic

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 Did you understand everything?
If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. An aeroplane flies from point A (10 15’S, 370 E) to a point B directly North of A.
the arc AB subtends an angle of 450 at the center of the earth. From B, aeroplanes flies
due west two a point C on longitude 230 W.)

(Take the value of π 22/ 7 as and radius of the earth as 6370km)

(a) (i) Find the latitude of B
(ii) Find the distance traveled by the aeroplane between B and C
(b) The aeroplane left at 1.00 a.m. local time. When the aeroplane was leaving B, what was
the local time at C?
2. The position of two towns X and Y are given to the nearest degree as X (450 N, 100W) and Y (450
N, 700W)
Find
(a) The distance between the two towns in
(i) Kilometers (take the radius of the earth as 6371)
(ii) Nautical miles (take 1 nautical mile to be 1.85 km)
(b) The local time at X when the local time at Y is 2.00 pm.
3. A plane leaves an airport A (38.50N, 37.050W) and flies dues North to a point B on latitude 520N.
(a) Find the distance covered by the plane
(b) The plane then flies due east to a point C, 2400 km from B. Determine the position of C
Take the value π of as 22/7 and radius of the earth as 6370 km
4. A plane flying at 200 knots left an airport A (300S, 310E) and flew due North to an airport B (300
N, 310E)
(a) Calculate the distance covered by the plane, in nautical miles
(b) After a 15 minutes stop over at B, the plane flew west to an airport C (30 0 N, 130E) at the
same speed.
Calculate the total time to complete the journey from airport C, though airport B.

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5. Two towns A and B lie on the same latitude in the northern hemisphere.
When its 8 am at A, the time at B is 11.00 am.
a) Given that the longitude of A is 150 E find the longitude of B.
b) A plane leaves A for B and takes 31/2 hours to arrive at B traveling along a parallel of
latitude at 850 km/h. Find:
(i) The radius of the circle of latitude on which towns A and B lie.
(ii) The latitude of the two towns (take radius of the earth to be 6371 km)
6. Two places A and B are on the same circle of latitude north of the equator. The longitude of A is
1180W and the longitude of B is 1330 E. The shorter distance between A and B measured
along the circle of latitude is 5422 nautical miles.
Find, to the nearest degree, the latitude on which A and B lie

7. (a) A plane flies by the short estimate route from P (100S, 600 W) to Q (700 N,
1200 E) Find the distance flown in km and the time taken if the aver age speed is 800 km/h.

(b) Calculate the distance in km between two towns on latitude 500S with long longitudes and
200 W. (take the radius of the earth to be 6370 km)

8. Calculate the distance between M (300N, 360E) and N (300 N, 1440 W) in nautical miles.
(i) Over the North Pole
(ii) Along the parallel of latitude 300 N

9. (a) A ship sailed due south along a meridian from 120 N to 10030’S. Taking
the earth to be a sphere with a circumference of 4 x 104 km, calculate in km the distance
traveled by the ship.

(b) If a ship sails due west from San Francisco (370 47’N, 1220 26’W) for distance of 1320 km.
Calculate the longitude of its new position (take the radius of the earth to be 6370 km and
π = 22/7).

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 CHAPTER SIXTY ONE

LINEAR PROGRAMMING
Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) Form linear inequalities based on real life situations;
(b) Represent the linear inequalities on a graph;
(c) Solve and interpret the optimum solution of the linear inequalities,
(d) Apply linear programming to real life situations.
Content
(a) Formation of linear inequalities
(b) Analytical solutions of linear inequalities
(c) Solutions of linear inequalities by graphs
(d) Optimisation (include objective function)
(e) Application of quadratic equations to real life situations.

Forming linear inequalities

In linear programing we are going to form inequalities representing given conditions involving real life
situation.
Example

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Esha is five years younger than his sister. The sum of their age is less than 36 years. If Esha’s age is x years,
form all the inequalities in x for this situation.
Solution
The age of Esha’s sister is x +5 years.
Therefore, the sum of their age is;
X + (x +5) years
Thus;
2x +5 < 36
2x < 31
X > 15.5
X > 0 ( age is always positive)

Linear programming
Linear programming is the process of taking various linear inequalities relating to some situation, and
finding the "best" value obtainable under those conditions. A typical example would be taking the
limitations of materials and labor, and then determining the "best" production levels for maximal profits
under those conditions.

In "real life", linear programming is part of a very important area of mathematics called "optimization
techniques". This field of study are used every day in the organization and allocation of resources. These
"real life" systems can have dozens or hundreds of variables, or more. In algebra, though, you'll only work
with the simple (and graph able) two-variable linear case.

The general process for solving linear-programming exercises is to graph the inequalities (called the
"constraints") to form a walled-off area on the x,y-plane (called the "feasibility region"). Then you figure
out the coordinates of the corners of this feasibility region (that is, you find the intersection points of the
various pairs of lines), and test these corner points in the formula (called the "optimization equation") for
which you're trying to find the highest or lowest value.
Example
Suppose a factory want to produce two types of hand calculators, type A and type B. The cost, the labor
time and the profit for every calculator is summarized in the following table:
Type Cost Labor Time Profit
A Sh 30 1 (hour) Sh 10
B Sh 20 4 (hour) Sh 8

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Suppose the available money and labors are ksh 18000 and 1600 hours. What should the production
schedule be to ensure maximum profit?
Solution

Suppose x1 is the number of type A hand calculators and x2 is the number of type B hand calculators

and y to be the cost. Then, we want to maximize p  10x1  8x2 subject to

30 x  20 y  18000
x  4 y  1600
x  0, y  0
where p is the total profit.

Solution by graphing
Solutions to inequalities formed to represent given conditions can be determined by graphing the
inequalities and then reading off the appropriate values ( possible values)
Example
A student wishes to purchase not less than 10 items comprising books and pens only. A book costs sh.20
and a pen sh.10.if the student has sh.220 to spend, form all possible inequalities from the given conditions
and graph them clearly, indicating the possible solutions.
Solution
Let the number of books be x and the number of pens then, the inequalities are;
i.)
ii.)
This simplifies to
iii.) .

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All the points in the unshaded region represent possible solutions. A point with co-ordinates ( x ,y)
represents x books and y pens. For example, the point (3, 10 ) means 3 books and 10 pens could be bought
by the students.

Optimization
The determination of the minimum or the maximum value of the objective function ax + by is known as
optimization. Objective function is an equation to be minimized or maximized .
Example
A contractor intends to transport 1000 bags of cement using a lorry and a pick up. The lorry can carry a
maximum of 80 bags while a pick up can carry a maximum of 20 bags. The pick up must make more than
twice the number of trips the lorry makes and the total number of trip to be less than 30.The cost per trip
for the lorry is ksh 2000, per bag and ksh 900 for the pick up.Find the minimum expenditure.

Solution
If we let x and y be the number of trips made by the lorry and the pick up respectively. Then the conditions
are given by the following inequalities;
i.)
ii.)
iii.)
iv.)
The total cost of transporting the cement is given by sh 2000x + 900y.This is called the objective function.
The graph below shows the inequalities.

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From the graph we can identify 7 possibilities

Note;
Co-ordinates stands for the number of trips. For example (7, 22) means 7 trips by the lorry and 22 trips by
the pickup. Therefore the possible amount of money in shillings to be spent by the contractor can be
calculated as follows.
i.)
ii.)
iii.)
iv.)
v.)
vi.)
vii.)

We note that from the calculation that the least amount the contractor would spend is sh.32200.This is
when the lorry makes 8 trips and the pick- up 18 trips. When possibilities are many the method of
determining the solution by calculation becomestedious. The alternative method involves drawing the
graph of the function we wish to maximize or minimize, the objective function. This function is usually
of the form ax +by , where a and b ar constants.
For this ,we use the graph above which is a convenient point (x , y) to give the value of x preferably
close to the region of the possibilities. For example the point ( 5, 10) was chosen to give an initial value
of thus ,2000x + 900y = 19000.we now draw the line 2000x + 900y=19000.such a line is referred to us
a search line.
Using a ruler and a set square, slide the set square keeping one edge parallel to until the edge strikes
the feasible point nearest ( see the dotted line ) From the graph this point is (8,18 ),which gives the
minimum expenditure as we have seen earlier.The feasible point furthest from the line gives the
maximum value of the objective function.

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 The determination of the minimum or the maximum value of the objective function ax + by is known
as optimization.

Note;
The process of solving linear equations are as follows
i.) Forming the inequalities satisfying given conditions
ii.) Formulating the objective function .
iii.) Graphing the inequalities
iv.) Optimizing the objective function
This whole process is called linear programming .
Example
A company produces gadgets which come in two colors: red and blue. The red gadgets are made of steel
and sell for ksh 30 each. The blue gadgets are made of wood and sell for ksh 50 each. A unit of the red
gadget requires 1 kilogram of steel, and 3 hours of labor to process. A unit of the blue gadget, on the other
hand, requires 2 board meters of wood and 2 hours of labor to manufacture. There are 180 hours of labor,
120 board meters of wood, and 50 kilograms of steel available. How many units of the red and blue gadgets
must the company produce (and sell) if it wants to maximize revenue?

Solution

The Graphical Approach

Step 1. Define all decision variables.

Let: x1 = number of red gadgets to produce (and sell)

x2 = number of blue gadgets to produce (and sell)

Step 2. Define the objective function.

Maximize R = 30 x1 + 50 x2 (total revenue in ksh)

Step 3. Define all constraints.

(1) x1  50 (steel supply constraint in kilograms)

(2) 2 x2  120 (wood supply constraint in board meters)
(3) 3 x1 + 2 x2  180 (labor supply constraint in man hours)
x1 , x2 0 (non-negativity requirement)

Step 4. Graph all constraints.

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Then determine area of feasible study

Note;

 The area under the line marked blue is the needed area or area of feasible solutions.
 We therefore shade the unwanted region out the trapezium marked blue

Optimization
List all corners (identify the corresponding coordinates), and pick the best in terms of the resulting value of
the objective function.

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(1) x1 = 0 x2 = 0 R = 30 (0) + 50 (0) = 0

(2) x1 = 50 x2 = 0 R = 30 (50) + 50 (0) = 1500

(3) x1 = 0 x2 = 60 R = 30 (0) + 50 (60) = 3000

(4) x1 = 20 x2 = 60 R = 30 (20) + 50 (60) = 3600 (the optimal solution)

(5) x1 = 50 x2 = 15 R = 30 (50) + 50 (15) = 2250

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. A school has to take 384 people for a tour. There are two types of buses available, type X and type
Y. Type X can carry 64 passengers and type Y can carry 48 passengers. They have to use at least
7 buses.
(a) Form all the linear inequalities which will represent the above information.
(b) On the grid [provide, draw the inequalities and shade the unwanted region.
(c) The charges for hiring the buses are
Type X: Ksh 25,000
Type Y Ksh 20,000
Use your graph to determine the number of buses of each type that should be hired to
minimize the cost.
2. An institute offers two types of courses technical and business courses. The institute has a capacity
of 500 students. There must be more business students than technical students but at least 200
students must take technical courses. Let x represent the number of technical students and y the
number of business students.
(a) Write down three inequalities that describe the given conditions
(b) On the grid provided, draw the three inequalities

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 (c) If the institute makes a profit of Kshs 2, 500 to train one technical students and Kshs 1,000
to train one business student, determine
(i) The number of students that must be enrolled in each course to maximize the profit
(ii) The maximum profit.
3. A draper is required to supply two types of shirts A and type B.
The total number of shirts must not be more than 400. He has to supply more type A than of type
B however the number of types A shirts must be more than 300 and the number of type B shirts not
be less than 80.
Let x be the number of type A shirts and y be the number of types B shirts.
(a) Write down in terms of x and y all the linear inequalities representing the information above.
(b) On the grid provided, draw the inequalities and shade the unwanted regions
(c) The profits were as follows
Type A: Kshs 600 per shirt
Type B: Kshs 400 per shirt
(i) Use the graph to determine the number of shirts of each type that should be made to
maximize the profit.
(ii) Calculate the maximum possible profit.
4. A diet expert makes up a food production for sale by mixing two ingredients N and S. One kilogram
of N contains 25 units of protein and 30 units of vitamins. One kilogram of S contains 50 units of
protein and 45 units of vitamins. The food is sold in small bags each containing at least 175 units
of protein and at least 180 units of vitamins. The mass of the food product in each bag must not
exceed 6kg.
If one bag of the mixture contains x kg of N and y kg of S
(a) Write down all the inequalities, in terms of x and representing the information above
( 2 marks)
(b) On the grid provided draw the inequalities by shading the unwanted regions
( 2 marks)
(c) If one kilogram of N costs Kshs 20 and one kilogram of S costs Kshs 50, use the graph to
determine the lowest cost of one bag of the mixture.
5. Esha flying company operates a flying service. It has two types of aeroplanes. The smaller one uses
180 litres of fuel per hour while the bigger one uses 300 litres per hour.
The fuel available per week is 18,000 litres. The company is allowed 80 flying hours per week.
(a) Write down all the inequalities representing the above information
(b) On the grid provided on page 21, draw all the inequalities in (a) above by
shading the unwanted regions
(c) The profits on the smaller aeroplane is Kshs 4000 per hour while that on the
bigger one is Kshs. 6000 per hour. Use your graph to determine the maximum profit that the
company made per week.

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6. A company is considering installing two types of machines. A and B. The information about each
type of machine is given in the table below.

Machine Number of operators Floor space Daily profit

A 2 5m2 Kshs 1,500

B 5 8m2 Kshs 2,500

The company decided to install x machines of types A and y machines of type B

(a) Write down the inequalities that express the following conditions
i. The number of operators available is 40
ii. The floor space available is 80m2
iii.The company is to install not less than 3 type of A machine
iv. The number of type B machines must be more than one third the number of type A
machines
(b) On the grid provided, draw the inequalities in part (a) above and shade the
unwanted region.
(c) Draw a search line and use it to determine the number of machines of each
type that should be installed to maximize the daily profit.

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 CHAPTER SIXTY TWO

LOCUS
Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) Define Locus;

(b) Describe common types of Loci;
(c) Construct;
i) Loci involving inequalities;
ii) Loci involving chords;
iii) Loci involving points under given conditions;
iv) Intersecting loci.
Content
(a) Common types of Loci
(b) Perpendicular bisector loci
(c) Locus of a point at a given distance from a fixed point
(d) Angle bisector loci
(e) Other loci under given condition including intersecting loci
(f) Loci involving inequalities
(g) Loci involving chords (constant angle loci).

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Introduction
Locus is defined as the path, area or volume traced out by a point, line or region as it moves according to
some given laws

In construction the opening between the pencil and the point of the compass is a fixed distance, the length
of the radius of a circle. The point on the compass determines a fixed point. If the length of the radius
remains the same or unchanged, all of the point in the plane that can be drawn by the compass from a circle
and any points that cannot be drawn by the compass do not lie on the circle. Thus the circle is the set of all
points at a fixed distance from a fixed point. This set is called a locus.

Common types of Loci

Perpendicular bisector locus
The locus of a point which are equidistant from two fixed points is the perpendicular bisector of the straight
line joining the two fixed points. This locus is called the perpendicular bisector locus.
So to find the point equidistant from two fixed points you simply find the perpendicular bisector of the two
points as shown below.
Q is the mid-point of M and N.

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In three Dimensions
In three dimensions, the perpendicular bisector locus is a plane at right angles to the line and bisecting the
line into two equal parts. The point P can lie anywhere in the line provided its in the middle.

The Locus of points at a Given Distance from a given straight line.

In two Dimensions
In the figure below each of the lines from the middle line is marked a centimeters on either side of the given
line MN.
The ‘a’ centimeters on either sides from the middle line implies the perpendicular distance.

The two parallel lines describe the locus of points at a fixed distance from a given straight line.
In three Dimensions

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In three dimensions the locus of point ‘a’ centimeters from a line MN is a cylindrical shell of radius ‘a’ c,
with MN as the axis of rotation.

Locus of points at a Given Distance from a fixed point.

In two Dimension
If O is a fixed point and P a variable point‘d’ cm from O,the locus of p is the circle O radius ‘d’ cm as
shown below.

All points on a circle describe a locus of a point at constant distance from a fixed point. In three dimesion
the locus of a point ‘d’ centimetres from a point is a spherical shell centre O and radius d cm.

Angle Bisector Locus

The locus of points which are equidistant from two given intersecting straight lines is the pair of
perpendicular lines which bisect the angles between the given lines.
Conversely ,a point which lies on a bisector of given angle is equidistant from the lines including that
angle.P C

Line PB bisect angle ABC into two equal parts.

Example
Construct triangle PQR such that PQ= 7 cm, QR = 5 cm and angle PQR = .Construct the locus L of points
equidistant from RP and RQ.
Solution
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L is the bisector of Angle PRQ.

P
L

Constant angle loci

A line PQ is 5 cm long, Construct the locus of points at which PQ subtends an angle of .
Solution
i.) Draw PQ = 5 cm
ii.) Construct TP at P such that angle QPT =
iii.) Draw a perpendicular to TP at P( radius is perpendicular to tangent)
iv.) Construct the perpendicular bisector of PQ to meet the perpendicular in (iii) at O
v.) Using O as the centre and either OP or OQ as radius, draw the locus
vi.) Transfer the centre on the side of PQ and complete the locus.
vii.) Transfer the centre on the opposite sides of PQ and complete the locus as shown below.

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  To are of the same radius,
 Angle subtended by the same chord on the circumference are equal ,
 This is called the constant angle locus.

Intersecting Loci
a.) Construct triangle PQR such that PQ =7 cm, OR = 5 cm and angle PQR = 3
b.) Construct the locus of points equidistant from P and Q to meet the locus of points equidistant from
Q and R at M .Measure PM
Solution
In the figure below
i.) is the perpendicular bisector of PQ
ii.) is the perpendicular bisector of PQ
iii.) By measurement, PM is equal to 3.7 cm

Loci of inequalities
An inequality is represented graphically by showing all the points that satisfy it.The intersection of two
or more regions of inequalities gives the intersection of their loci.
Remember we shed the unwanted region
Example
Draw the locus of point ( x, y) such that x + y < 3 , y – x and y > 2.
Solution

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 Draw the graphs of x + y = 3 ,y –x =4 and y = 2 as shown below.
The unwanted regions are usually shaded. The unshaded region marked R is the locus of points ( x ,y
), such that x + y < 3 , y – X 4 and y > 2.
The lines of greater or equal to ad less or equal to ( ) are always solid while the lines of greater or less
(<>) are always broken.

Example
P is a point inside rectangle ABCD such that APPB and Angle DAP Angle BAP. Show the region on
which P lies.
Solution
A B

Draw a perpendicular bisector of AP=PB and shade the unwanted region. Bisect <DAB (< DAP = <
BAP) and shade the unwanted region lies in the unshaded region.
Example

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 Draw the locus of a point P which moves that AP 3 cm.

Solution
i.) Draw a circle, centre A and radius 3 cm
ii.) Shade the unwanted region.

Locus involving chords

The following properties of chords of a circle are used in construction of loci
(I)Perpendicular bisector of any chord passes through the centre of the circle.
(ii) The perpendicular drawn from a centre of a circle bisects the chord.
(III) If chords of a circle are equal, they are equidistant from the centre of the circle and vice -versa
(IV) In the figure below, if chord AB intersects chord CD at O, AO = x ,BO = y, CO = m and DO =n then

End of topic

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 Did you understand everything?
If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

Past KCSE Questions on the topic.

1. Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only,

a. Construct a triangle ABC such that angle ABC = 135oC, AB = 8.2cm and BC = 9.6cm
b. Given that D is a position equidistant from both AB and BC and also from B and C
i. Locate D
ii. Find the area of triangle DBC.

2. (a) Using a ruler, a pair of compasses only construct triangle XYZ such that XY = 6cm,

YZ = 8cm and XYZ = 75o

(b) Measure line XZ and XZY

(c) Draw a circle that passes through X, Y and Z
(d) A point M moves such that it is always equidistant from Y and Z. construct the locus of M and
define the locus
3. (a) (i) Construct a triangle ABC in which AB=6cm, BC = 7cm and angle ABC = 75o
Measure:-
(i) Length of AC
(ii) Angle ACB
(b) Locus of P is such that BP = PC. Construct P
(c) Construct the locus of Q such that Q is on one side of BC, opposite A and angle
BQC = 30o
(d) (i) Locus of P and locus of Q meet at X. Mark x
(ii) Construct locus R in which angle BRC 120o

(iii) Show the locus S inside triangle ABC such that XS  SR

4. Use a ruler and compasses only for all constructions in this question.

a) i) Construct a triangle ABC in which AB=8cm, and BC=7.5cm and ABC=112½°

ii) Measure the length of AC

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 b) By shading the unwanted regions show the locus of P within the triangle ABC such that
i) AP ≤ BP
ii) AP >3cm
Mark the required region as P
c) Construct a normal from C to meet AB produced at D
d) Locate the locus of R in the same diagram such that the area of triangle ARB is ¾ the area of
the triangle ABC.
5. On a line AB which is 10 cm long and on the same side of the line, use a ruler and a pair of
compasses only to construct the following.
a) Triangle ABC whose area is 20 cm2 and angle ACB = 90o
b) (i) The locus of a point P such that angle APB = 45o.
(ii) Locate the position of P such that triangle APB has a maximum area and calculate this area.

6. A garden in the shape of a polygon with vertices A, B, C, D and E. AB = 2.5m, AE = 10m,

ED = 5.2M and DC=6.9m. The bearing of B from A is 030º and A is due to east of E
while D is due north of E, angle EDC = 110º,
a) Using a scale of 1cm to represent 1m construct an accurate plan of the garden
b) A foundation is to be placed near to CD than CB and no more than 6m from A,
i) Construct the locus of points equidistant from CB and CD.
ii) Construct the locus of points 6m from A
c) i) shade and label R ,the region within which the foundation could be placed in the garden
ii) Construct the locus of points in the garden 3.4m from AE.
iii) Is it possible for the foundation to be 3.4m from AE and in the region?
7. a) Using a ruler and compasses only construct triangle PQR in which QR= 5cm, PR = 7cm and
angle PRQ = 135°
b) Determine < PQR
c) At P drop a perpendicular to meet QR produced at T
d) Measure PT
e) Locate a point A on TP produced such that the area of triangle AQR is equal to one- and – a -
half times the area of triangle PQR
f) Complete triangle AQR and measure angle AQR
8. Use ruler and a pair of compasses only in this question.
(a) Construct triangle ABC in which AB = 7 cm, BC = 8 cm and ∠ABC = 600.
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 (b) Measure (i) side AC (ii) ∠ ACB
(c) Construct a circle passing through the three points A, B and C. Measure the radius of the circle.
(d) Construct ∆ PBC such that P is on the same side of BC as point A and ∠ PCB = ½ ∠ ACB,∠
BPC = ∠ BAC measure ∠ PBC.
9. Without using a set square or a protractor:-

(a) Construct triangle ABC in which BC is 6.7cm, angle ABC is 60o and BAC is 90o.
(b) Mark point D on line BA produced such that line AD =3.5cm
(c) Construct:-
(i) A circle that touches lines AC and AD
(ii) A tangent to this circle parallel to line AD
Use a pair of compasses and ruler only in this question;
(a) Draw acute angled triangle ABC in which angle CAB = 37½ o, AB = 8cm and CB = 5.4cm. Measure
the length of side AC (hint 37½ o = ½ x 75o)
(b) On the triangle ABC below:
(i) On the same side of AC as B, draw the locus of a point X so that angle Ax C = 52½ o
(ii) Also draw the locus of another point Y, which is 6.8cm away from AC and on the same side as X

(c) Show by shading the region P outside the triangle such that angle APC  52 ½o and
P is not less than 6.8cm away from AC

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 CHAPTER SIXTY THREE

DIFFERENTIATION
Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) Find average rates of change and instantaneous rates of change;

(b) Find the gradient of a curve at a point using tangent;
(c) Relate the delta notation to rates of change;
(d) Find the gradient function of a function of the form y = x n (n is a positive
Integer);
(e) Define derivative of a function, derived function of a polynomial anddifferentiation;
(f) Determine the derivative of a polynomial;
(g) Find equations of tangents and normal to the curves;
(h) Sketch a curve;
(i) Apply differentiation in calculating distance, velocity and acceleration;
(j) Apply differentiation in finding maxima and minima of a function.
Content
(a) Average and instantaneous rates of change
(b) Gradient of a curve at a point
(c) Gradient of y= x n (where n is a positive integer)
(d) Delta notation ( A ) or 5
(e) Derivative of a polynomial
(f) Equations of tangents and normals to the curve
(g) Stationery points
(h) Curve sketching
(i) Application of differentiation in calculation of distance, velocity andacceleration

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(j) Maxima and minima

Introduction
Differentiation is generally about rate of change
Example
If we want to get the gradient of the curve y = at a general point ( x ,y ).We note that a general point on the
curve y = will have coordinates of the form ( x )The gradient of the curve y= at a general point ( x, y )
can be established as below.
If we take a small change in x , say h. This gives us a new point on the curve with co-ordinates
[(x +h), (x + h]. So point Q is [(x +h), (x + h] while point P is ( x ).

To find the gradient of PQ =

Change in y = (x + h
Change in x = ( x + h ) - x
Gradient =
=
=
= 2x + h
By moving Q as close to p as possible, h becomes sufficiently small to be ignored. Thus, 2x +h
becomes2x.Therefore, at general point ( x,y)on the curve y =,the gradient is 2x.
2x is called the gradient function of the curve y = .We can use the gradient function to determine the gradient
of the curve at any point on the curve.

In general, the gradient function of y = is given by ,where n is a positive integer. The gradient function
is called the derivative or derived function and the process of obtaining it is called differentiation.
The function

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Delta Notation
A small increase in x is usually denoted bysimilarly a small increase in y is denoted by .Let us consider the
points P ( x ,y ) and Q [ (x + ),(y + ) on the curve y =

y= x2
Q

R
9 P x

Note;
X is a single quantity and not a product of and x .similarly is a single quantity.
The gradient of PQ, =
=
= 2x +
As tends to zero;
i.) can be ignored
ii.) gives the derivative which is denoted by
iii.) thus
When we find , we say we are differentiating with respect to x, For example given y =; then
In general the derivatives of y = e.g. y =

Derivative of a polynomial.
A polynomial in x is an expression of the form where are constants
To differentiate a polynomial function, all you have to do is multiply the coefficients of each variable by
their corresponding exponents/powers, subtract each exponent/powers by one , and remove any constants.
Steps involved in solving polynomial areas follows
Identify the variable terms and constant terms in the equation.
A variable term is any term that includes a variable and a constant term is any term that has only a number
without a variable. Find the variable and constant terms in this polynomial function: y = 5x3 + 9x2 + 7x + 3

 The variable terms are 5x3, 9x2, and 7x

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  The constant term is 3
Multiply the coefficients of each variable term by their respective powers.
Their products will form the new coefficients of the differentiated equation. Once you find their products,
place the results in front of their respective variables. For example:
 5x3 = 5 x 3 = 15
 9x2 = 9 x 2 = 18
 7x = 7 x 1 = 7
Lower each exponent by one.
To do this, simply subtract 1 from each exponent in each variable term. Here's how you do it:
 5



Replace the old coefficients and old exponents/powers with their new counterparts.
To finish differentiating the polynomial equation, simply replace the old coefficients with their new
coefficients and replace the old powers with their values lowered by one. The derivative of constants is zero
so you can omit 3, the constant term, from the final result.
The derivative of the polynomial y =
In general, the derivative of the sum of a number of terms is obtained by differentiating each term in turn.

Examples
Find the derived function of each of the following
a.) S=t b.) A =

Solution
a.)

b.)

Equations of tangents and Normal to a curve.

The gradient of a curve is the same as the gradient of the tangent to the curve at that point. We use this
principle to find the equation of the tangent to a curve at a given point.
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve;
at
Solution

At the point the gradient is 3 x + 2 = 5

We want the equation of straight line through (1, 4) whose gradient is 5.

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Thus

A normal to a curve at appoint is the line perpendicular to the tangent to the curve at the given point.
In the example above the gradient of the tangent of the tangent to the curve at (1, 4) is 5. Thus the gradient
of the normal to the curve at this point is.
Therefore, equation of the normal is:

5(y – 4) = - 1( x – 1 )

Example
Find the equation of the normal to the curve y =
Solution

At the point ( 1,-2) gradient of the tangent line is 1.Therefore the gradient of the normal is -1.the required
equation is

The equation of the normal is y = -x -1

Stationary points

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Note;
 In each of the points A ,B and C the tangent is horizontal meaning at these points the gradient is
zero.so .
 Any point at which the tangent to the graph is horizontal is called a stationary point. We can locate
stationary points by looking for points at which = 0.
Turning points
The point at which the gradient changes from negative through zero to positive is called minimum point
while the point which the gradient changes from positive through zero to negative is called maximum point
.In the figure above A is the maximum while B is the minimum.
Minimum point .
Gradient moves from negative through zero to positive.

dy dy
Is negative Is positive
dx dx

dy
Is zero
dx

Maximum point
Gradient moves from positive through zero to negative.

dy
Is zero
dx

dy dy
Is positive Is negativee
dx dx

The maximum and minimum points are called turning points.

A point at which the gradient changes from positive through zero to positive or from negative zero to
negative is called point of inflection.
Example

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 Identify the stationary points on the curve y =for each point, determine whether it is a maximum,
minimum or a point of inflection.
Solution

At stationary point,
Thus
3
3

Therefore, stationary points are ( -1 , 4 ) and (1 ,0).

Consider the sign of the gradient to the left and right of x = 1
x 0 1 2
-3 0 9
Diagrammatic \ /
representation
Therefore ( 1 , 0 ) is a minimum point.
Similarly, sign of gradient to the left and right of x = -1 gives

x -2 -1 0
9 0 -3
Diagrammatic / ___ \
representation
Therefore ( -1 , 4 ) is a maximum point.
Example
Identify the stationary points on the curve y =.Determine the nature of each stationary point.
Solution
y=

At stationary points,

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Stationary points are (0, 1) and (3, 28)
Therefore (0, 1) is a point of inflection while (3, 28) is a maximum point.

Application of Differentiation in calculation of velocity and acceleration.

Velocity
If the displacement, S is expressed in terms of time t, then the velocity is v =
Example
The displacement, S metres, covered by a moving particle after time, t seconds, is given by
S =.Find:
a.) Velocity at :
i.)
ii.) t= 3

b.) Instant at which the particle is at rest.

Solution
S=
The gradient function is given by;
V=
=
a.) velocity
i.) at t = 2 is ;
v=
= 24 + 16 – 8
=32m/s
ii.) at t = 3 is ;
v=
= 54 + 24 – 8
=70m/s
b.) the particle is at rest when v is zero

It is not possible to have t = -2

The particle is therefore at rest at seconds

Acceleration
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Acceleration is found by differentiating an equation related to velocity. If velocity v , is expressed in terms
of time, t , then the acceleration, a, is given by a =
Example
A particle moves in a straight line such that is its velocity v m after t seconds is given by
v = 3 + 10 t - .
Find
a.) the acceleration at :
i.) t =1 sec
ii.) t =3 sec
b.) the instant at which acceleration is zero
Solution
a.)

i.) At t = 1 sec a = 10 – 2 x 1

ii.) At t = 3 sec a = 10 – 2 x 3

b.) Acceleration is zero when

Therefore, 10 – 2t = 0 hence t = 5 seconds

Example
A closed cylindrical tin is to have a capacity of 250π ml. if the area of the metal used is to be minimum,
what should the radius of the tin be?
Solution
Let the total surface area of the cylinder be A ,radius r cm and height h cm.
Then, A = 2
Volume = 2

Making h the subject, h =

=
Put h = in the expression for surface area to get;
A=2
=2

For minimum surface area,

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 =5
Therefore the minimum area when r = 5 cm
Example
A farmer has 100 metres of wire mesh to fence a rectangular enclosure. What is the greatest area he can
enclose with the wire mesh?
Solution
Let the length of the enclosure be x m. Then the width is
Then the area A of the rectangle is given by;
A = x (50 –x)
= 50x -
For maximum or minimum area,

Thus, 50 – 2x = 0

The area is maximum when x = 25 m

That is A = 50 X 25 – (25
= 625 .

CHAPTER SIXTY FOUR

INTERGRATION
Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) Carry out the process of differentiation;
(b) Interpret integration as a reverse process of differentiation;
(c) Relate integration notation to sum of areas of trapezia under a curve;

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(d) Integrate a polynomial;
(e) Apply integration in finding the area under a curve,
(f) Apply integration in kinematics.
Content
(a) Differentiation
(b) Reverse differentiation
(c) Integration notation and sum of areas of trapezia
(d) Indefinite and definite integrals
(e) Area under a curve by integration
(f) Application in kinematics.

Introduction

The process of finding functions from their gradient (derived) function is called integration
Suppose we differentiate the function y=x2. We obtain

dy
 2x
dx
Integration reverses this process and we say that the integral of 2x is .

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 Differenti
ate

x2 2x

Integrat
From differentiation we know thatethe gradient is not always a constant. For example, if = 2x, then this
comes from the function of the form y=, Where c is a constant.
Example
Find y if is:
a.)
b.)
Solution
a.)
Then, y =

b.)
Then, y =

Note;
To integrate we reverse the rule for differentiation. In differentiation we multiply by the power of x and
reduce the power by 1.In integration we increase the power of x by one and divide by the new power.
If ,then, where c is a constant and n.since c can take any value we call it an arbitrary constant.
Example

Integrate the following expression

a.)
b.)
c.) 2x +4
Solution

Then, y =

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 =
=
B.)
Then, y =
=
=-

C.) 2x +4
Then, y =
=
=
Example
Find the equation of a line whose gradient function is and passes through (0,1)
Solution
Since ,the general equation is y =.The curve passes through ( 0,1).Substituting these values in the
general equation ,we get 1 = 0 + 0 + c
1=c
Hence, the particular equation is y =
Example
Find v in terms of h if and V =9 when h=1
Solution
The general solution is
V =
=
V= 9 when h= 1.Therefore

9=5+c
4=C
Hence the particular solution is ;
V

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Definite and indefinite integrals
It deals with finding exact area.
Estimate the area shaded beneath the curve shown below

The area is divided into rectangular strips as follows.

The shaded area in the figure above shows an underestimated and an overestimated area under the curve.
The actual area lies between the underestimated and overestimated area. The accuracy of the area can be
improved by increasing the number of rectangular strips between x = a and x = b.
The exact area beneath the curve between x = a and b is given by

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The symbol
Thus means integrate the expression for y with respect to x.

The expression ,where a and b are limits , is called a definite integral. ‘a’ is called the lower limit while b
is the upper limit. Without limits, the expression is called an indefinite integral.
Example

The following steps helps us to solve it

i.) Integrate with respect to x , giving
ii.) Place the integral in square brackets and insert the limits, thus

iii.)
Substitute the limits ;
X = 6 gives
x = 6 gives
iv.) Subtract the results of the lower limit from that of upper limit, that is;
(162 + c) – (
We can summarize the steps in short form as follows:
=
=
=150
Example
a.) Find the indefinite integral
i.)
ii.)

b.) Evaluate
i.)
i.)
ii.)

Solution

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 Evaluate

ii.)
4 + 10 -4 ) – ( -)

iii.)
= (27 – 18 +15) – (8 – 8 +10)
= 14

Area under the curve

Find the exact area enclosed by the curve y = ,the axis, the lines x = 2 and x = 4

Solution

2 4

The area is given by;

Example

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Find the area of the region bounded by the curve , the x axis x = 1 and x = 2
Solution

The area is given by;

= (4 – 8 + 4) – (
=0- =

Note;
The negative sign shows that the area is below the x – axis. We disregard the negative sign and give it as
positive as positive .The answer is .
Example
Find the area enclosed by the curve the x – axis and the lines x = 4 and x =10.
Solution
The required area is shaded below.

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Area =

Example
Find the area enclosed by the curve y and the line y =x.
Solution
The required area is

To find the limits of integration, we must find the x co-ordinates of the points of intersection when;

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The required area is found by subtracting area under y = x from area under y =
The required area =

Application in kinematics
The derivative of displacement S with respect to time t gives velocity v, while the derivative of velocity
with respect to time gives acceleration, a
Differentiation. Integration
Displacement. displacement

Velocity. Velocity

Acceleration. Acceleration

Note;
Integration is the reverse of differentiation. If we integrate velocity with respect to time we get displacement
while if velocity with respect to time we get acceleration.

Example
A particle moves in a straight line through a fixed point O with velocity ( 4 – 1)m/s.Find an expression for
its displacement S from this point, given that S = when t = 0.
Solution
Since
S=
Substituting S = 4, t = 0 to get C;

4=C
Therefore.

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Example
A ball is thrown upwards with a velocity of 40 m s
a.) Determine an expression in terms of t for
i.) Its velocity
ii.) Its height above the point of projection
b.) Find the velocity and height after:
i.) 2 seconds
ii.) 5 seconds
iii.) 8 seconds
c.) Find the maximum height attained by the ball. (Take acceleration due to gravity to be 10 m/.
Solution
a.) = -10 ( since the ball is projected upwards)
Therefore, v =-10 t + c
When t = 0, v = 40 m/s
Therefore, 40 = 0 + c
40 = c
i.) The expression for velocity is v = 40 – 10t
ii.) Since

When t = 0 , S = 0
C=0
The expression for displacement is ;

b.) Since v = 40 – 10t

i.) When t = 2
v = 40 – 10 (2)
= 40 – 20
= 20 m/s

S =40t -
= 40 (2) – 5 (
= 80 – 20
= 60 m
ii.) When t = 5
V = 40 – 10 (5)
= -10 m/s
S

= 75 m
iii.) When t = 8
V = 40

S
= 320 – 320

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 =0
c.) Maximum height is attained when v = 0.
Thus , 40 – 10t = 0
t= 4
Maximum height S = 160 – 80
= 80 m

Example
The velocity v of a particle is 4 m/s. Given that S = 5 when t =2 seconds:
a.) Find the expression of the displacement in terms of time.
b.) Find the :
i.) Distance moved by the particle during the fifth second.
ii.) Distance moved by the particle between t =1 and t =3.
Solution
a.)
S=4t + c
Since S = 5 m when t =2;
5 = 4 (2) + C
5–8=C
-3 = C
Thus, S =4t – 3
b.) I.)

II.)

CHAPTER SIXTY FIVE

AREA APPROXIMATION
Specific Objectives

By the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

(a) Approximate the area of irregular shapes by counting techniques;
(b) Derive the trapezium rule;

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(c) Apply trapezium rule to approximate areas of irregular shapes;
(d) Apply trapezium rule to estimate areas under curves;
(e) Derive the mid-ordinate rule;
(f) Apply mid-ordinate rule to approximate area under curves.

Content
(a) Area by counting techniques
(b) Trapezium rule
(c) Area using trapezium rule
(d) Mid-ordinate
(e) Area by the mid-ordinate rule

Introduction
Estimation of areas of irregular shapes such as lakes, oceans etc. using counting method. The following
steps are followed

 Copy the outline of the region to be measured on a tracing paper

 Put the tracing on a one centimeter square grid shown below

 Count all the whole squares fully enclosed within the region
 Count all the partially enclosed squares and take them as half square centimeter each
 Divide the number of half squares by two and add it to the number of full squares.
Number of compete squares = 4

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 Number of half squares = 16/ 2 = 8
Therefore the total number of squares = 25 + 8
= 33

The area of the land mass on the paper is therefore 33

Note;
The smaller the subdivisions, the greater the accuracy in approximating area.

Approximating Area by Trapezium Method.

Find the area of the region shown, the region may be divided into six trapezia of uniform as shown

The area of the region is approximately equal to the sum of the areas of the six trapezia.
Note;

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The width of each trapezium is 2 cm, and 4 and 3.5 are the lengths of the parallel sides of the first
trapezium.
The area of the trapezium A =
Area of the trapezium B =
Area of the trapezium C =
Area of the trapezium D =
Area of the trapezium E =
Area of the trapezium F =
Therefore, the total area of the region is

If the lengths of the parallel sides of the trapezia (ordinates) are

Note;
In trapezium rule, except for the first and last lengths, each of the other lengths is counted twice. Therefore,
the expression for the area can be simplified to:

In general, the approximate area of a region using trapezium method is given by:
;
Where h is the uniform width of each trapezium, are the first and last length respectively. This method of
approximating areas of irregular shape is called trapezium rule.
Example
A car start from rest and its velocity is measured every second from 6 seconds.

Time 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(t)
Velocity
0 12 24 35 41 45 47
v ( m/s

Use the trapezium rule to calculate distance travelled between t = 1 and t = 6

Note;
The area under velocity – time graph represents the distance covered between the given times.
To find the required displacement, we find the area of the region bounded by graph, t =1 and t =6

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 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Solution
Divide the required area into five trapezia, each of with 1 unit. Using the trapezium rule;
;
The required displacement =

Example
Estimate the area bounded by the curve y = , the x – axis, the line x =1 and x = 5 using the trapezium rule.
Solution
To plot the graph y = , make a table of values of x and the corresponding values of y as follows:

x 0 1 2 3 4 5

Y= 5 5.5 7 9.5 13 17.5

By taking the width of each trapezium to be 1 unit, we get 4 trapezium .A, B , C and D .The area under
curve is approximately;

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= sq.units

The Mid- ordinate Rule

The area OPQR is estimated:

The area of OPQR is estimated as follows

 Divide the base OR into a number of strips, each of their width should be the same .In the example
we have 5 strips where h =

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  From the midpoints of OE ,EF ,FG ,GH and HR , draw vertical lines ( mid- ordinates) to meet the
curve PQ as shown above
 Label the mid-ordinates
 We take the area of each trapezium to be equal to area of a rectangle whose width is the length of
interval (h) and the length is the value of mid –ordinates. Therefore, the area of the region OPQR
is given by;

This the mid –ordinate rule.

Note:
The mid-ordinate rule for approximating areas of irregular shapes is given by ;
Area = (width of interval) x (sum of mid – ordinates)

Example
Estimate the area of a semi-circle of radius 4 cm using the mid – ordinate rule with four equal strips, each
of width 2 cm.

Solution
The above shows a semicircle of radius 4 cm divided into 4 equal strips, each of width 2 cm. The dotted
lines are the mid-ordinates whose length are measured.
By mid- ordinate rule;

= 2 (2.6 + 3.9 + 3.9 + 2.6)

= 2 x 13
= 26
The actual area is
= 25.14 to 4 s.f

Example

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Estimate the area enclosed by the curve y = and the x – axis using the mid-ordinate rule.
Solution
Take 3 strips. The dotted lines are the mid – ordinate and the width of each of the 3 strips is 1 unit.

By calculation, are obtained from the equation;

y=

When x = 0.5,

When x = 1.5,

When x = 2.5,

Using the mid ordinate rule the area required is

A=1
= 1 (1.125 + 2.125 + 4.125)
= 7.375 square units

End of topic

Did you understand everything?

If not ask a teacher, friends or anybody and make sure you understand before
going to sleep!

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Past KCSE Questions on the topic.
1. The shaded region below represents a forest. The region has been drawn to scale
where 1 cm represents 5 km. Use the mid – ordinate rule with six strips to estimate the
area of forest in hectares. (4 marks)

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2. Find the area bounded by the curve y=2x3 – 5, the x-axis and the lines x=2 and x=4.
3. Complete the table below for the function y=3x2 – 8x + 10 (1 mk)

x 0 2 4 6 8 10

y 10 6 70 230

Using the values in the table and the trapezoidal rule, estimate the area bounded by the curve y=
3x2 – 8x + 10 and the lines y=0, x=0 and x=104. Use the trapezoidal rule with intervals of 1 cm to
estimate the area of the shaded region below

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5. (a) Find the value of x at which the curve y= x- 2x2 – 3 crosses the x- axis

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 (b) Find (x2 – 2x – 3) dx
(c) Find the area bounded by the curve y = x2 – 2x – 3, the axis and the lines x= 2 and x = 4.

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6. The graph below consists of a non- quadratic part (0 ≤ x ≤ 2) and a quadrant part (2 ≤ x 8). The
quadratic part is y = x2 – 3x + 5, 2 ≤ x ≤ 8

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(a) Complete the table below

x 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
y 3

(1mk)
(b) Use the trapezoidal rule with six strips to estimate the area enclosed by the
curve, x = axis and the line x = 2 and x = 8 (3mks)
(c) Find the exact area of the region given in (b) (3mks)
(d) If the trapezoidal rule is used to estimate the area under the curve between
x = 0 and x = 2, state whether it would give an under- estimate or an over- estimate. Give
a reason for your answer.
7. Find the equation of the gradient to the curve Y= (x2 + 1) (x – 2) when x = 2

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8. The distance from a fixed point of a particular in motion at any time t seconds is given by
S = t3 – 5t2 + 2t + 5
2t2
Find its:
(a) Acceleration after 1 second
(b) Velocity when acceleration is Zero
9. The curve of the equation y = 2x + 3x2, has x = -2/3 and x = 0 and x intercepts.
The area bounded by the axis x = -2/3 and x = 2 is shown by the sketch below.

Find:
(a) (2x + 3 x2) dx
(b) The area bounded by the curve x – axis, x = - 2/3 and x =2
10. A particle is projected from the origin. Its speed was recorded as shown in the table below

Time (sec) 0 5 10 15 20 25 39 35

Speed (m/s) 0 2.1 5.3 5.1 6.8 6.7 4.7 2.6

Use the trapezoidal rule to estimate the distance covered by the particle within the 35 seconds.
11. (a) The gradient function of a curve is given by dy = 2x2 – 5
dx

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 Find the equation of the curve, given that y = 3, when x = 2
(b) The velocity, vm/s of a moving particle after seconds is given:
v = 2t3 + t2 – 1. Find the distance covered by the particle in the interval 1 ≤ t ≤ 3
12. Given the curve y = 2x3 + 1/2x2 – 4x + 1. Find the:
i) Gradient of curve at {1, -1/2}
ii) Equation of the tangent to the curve at {1, - 1/2}

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13. The diagram below shows a straight line intersecting the curve y = (x-1)2 + 4
At the points P and Q. The line also cuts x-axis at (7, 0) and y axis at (0, 7)

a) Find the equation of the straight line in the form y = mx +c.

b) Find the coordinates of p and Q.
c) Calculate the area of the shaded region.
14. The acceleration, a ms-2, of a particle is given by a =25 – 9t2, where t in seconds after the particle
passes fixed point O.

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 If the particle passes O, with velocity of 4 ms-1, find
(a) An expression of velocity V, in terms of t
(b) The velocity of the particle when t = 2 seconds
15. A curve is represented by the function y = 1/3 x3 + x2 – 3x + 2
(a) Find: dy
dx
(b) Determine the values of y at the turning points of the curve
y = 1/3x3 + x2 – 3x + 2
(c) In the space provided below, sketch the curve of y = 1/3 x3 + x2 – 3x + 2
16. A circle centre O, ha the equation x2 + y2 = 4. The area of the circle in the first quadrant is divided
into 5 vertical strips of width 0.4 cm
(a) Use the equation of the circle to complete the table below for values of y
correct to 2 decimal places

X 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0

Y 2.00 1.60 0

(b) Use the trapezium rule to estimate the area of the circle
17. A particle moves along straight line such that its displacement S metres from a given point is S =
t3 – 5t2 + 4 where t is time in seconds
Find
(a) The displacement of particle at t = 5
(b) The velocity of the particle when t = 5
(c) The values of t when the particle is momentarily at rest
(d) The acceleration of the particle when t = 2
18. The diagram below shows a sketch of the line y = 3x and the curve y = 4 – x2 intersecting at points
P and Q.

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 (a) Find the coordinates of P and Q
(b) Given that QN is perpendicular to the x- axis at N, calculate
(i) The area bounded by the curve y = 4 – x2, the x- axis and the line QN
(2 marks)
(ii) The area of the shaded region that lies below the x- axis
(iii) The area of the region enclosed by the curve y = 4-x2, the line
y – 3x and the y-axis.
2007
19. The gradient of the tangent to the curve y = ax3 + bx at the point (1, 1) is -5
Calculate the values of a and b.
2007
20. The diagram on the grid below represents as extract of a survey map showing
two adjacent plots belonging to Kazungu and Ndoe.

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 The two dispute the common boundary with each claiming boundary along different smooth curves
coordinates (x, y) and (x, y2) in the table below, represents points on the boundaries as claimed by
Kazungu Ndoe respectively.

X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Y1 0 4 5.7 6.9 8 9 9.8 10.6 11.3 12

Y2 0 0.2 0.6 1.3 2.4 3.7 5.3 7.3 9.5 12

(a) On the grid provided above draw and label the boundaries as claimed by Kazungu and
Ndoe.

(b) (i) Use the trapezium rule with 9 strips to estimate the area of the
section of the land in dispute
(ii) Express the area found in b (i) above, in hectares, given that 1 unit on each axis
represents 20 metres
21. The gradient function of a curve is given by the expression 2x + 1. If the curve passes through the
point (-4, 6);
(a) Find:
(i) The equation of the curve
(ii) The vales of x, at which the curve cuts the x- axis
(b) Determine the area enclosed by the curve and the x- axis
22. A particle moves in a straight line through a point P. Its velocity v m/s is given by v= 2 -t, where t
is time in seconds, after passing P. The distance s of the particle from P when t = 2 is 5 metres. Find
the expression for s in terms of t.

23. Find the area bonded by the curve y=2x – 5 the x-axis and the lines x=2 and x = 4.

23. Complete the table below for the function

Y = 3x2 – 8 x + 10

X 0 2 4 6 8 10

Y 10 6 - 70 - 230

Using the values in the table and the trapezoidal rule, estimate the area bounded by the curve y =
3x2 – 8x + 10 and the lines y – 0, x = 0 and x = 10

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24. (a) Find the values of x which the curve y = x2 – 2x – 3 crosses the axis
(b) Find (x2 – 2 x – 3) dx
(c) Find the area bounded by the curve Y = x2 – 2x – 3. The x – axis and the
lines x = 2 and x = 4

25. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = (x + 1) (x- 2) when x = 2

26. The distance from a fixed point of a particle in motion at any time t seconds is given by s = t – 5/2t2
+ 2t + s metres
Find its
(a) Acceleration after t seconds
(b) Velocity when acceleration is zero
27. The curve of the equation y = 2x + 3x2, has x = - 2/3 and x = 0, as x intercepts. The area bounded
by the curve, x – axis, x = -2/3 and x = 2 is shown by the sketch below.

(a) Find (2x + 3x2) dx

(b) The area bounded by the curve, x axis x = -2/3 and x = 2

28. A curve is given by the equation y = 5x3 – 7x2 + 3x + 2

Find the
(a) Gradient of the curve at x = 1

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 (b) Equation of the tangent to the curve at the point (1, 3)

29. The displacement x metres of a particle after t seconds is given by x = t2 – 2t + 6, t> 0

(a) Calculate the velocity of the particle in m/s when t = 2s
(b) When the velocity of the particle is zero,
Calculate its
(i) Displacement
(ii) Acceleration

30. The displacement s metres of a particle moving along a straight line after t seconds is given by s =
3t + 3/2t2 – 2t3
(a) Find its initial acceleration
(b) Calculate
(i) The time when the particle was momentarily at rest.
(ii) Its displacement by the time it comes to rest momentarily when
t = 1 second, s = 1 ½ metres when t = ½ seconds
(c) Calculate the maximum speed attained

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 This book was compiled and edited by
OGEMBO REAGAN OMONDI
ZNMO

UNIVERSITY OF ELDORET

ELIJAH OLILO
MASENO UNIVERSITY

Contact;
E-mail; usheya1@gmail.com

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