BASIC COMPUTER SKILLS(BCS)

UNIT I:
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTATION AND
COMPUTERS
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER:
In the modern era, computers are an essential part of our everyday existence. That means
computers are present in almost every field, making our day-to-day tasks easier and faster.
Nowadays, computers can be seen in banks, shops, schools, hospitals, railways, and many
more places, including our home. As they are such an essential part of our lives, we must
know about the basic computer introduction. Let us start with defining the computer first:
WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
The straightforward meaning of a computer is a machine that can calculate. However,
modern computers are not just a calculating device anymore. They can perform a variety of
tasks. In simple terms, a computer is a programmable electronic machine used to store,
retrieve, and process data.
According to the definition, "A computer is a programmable electronic device that takes data,
perform instructed arithmetic and logical operations, and gives the output."
Whatever is given to the computer as input is called 'data', while the output received after
processing is called 'information'.
• The word “computer” is comes from the word “TO COMPUTE” means to
calculate.
• A computer is normally considered to be a calculation device which can
perform the arithmetic operations very speedily.
• A computer may be defined as a device which operates upon the data.
• Data can be in the form of numbers, letters, symbols, size etc. And it comes in
various shapes & sizes depending upon the type of computer application.
• A computer can store, process & retrieve data as and when we desired.
• The fact that computer process data is so fundamental that many people have
started calling as “Data Processor”.
• A computer first it gets the Data, does Process on it and then produces
Information.

DATA PROCESS INFORMATION

 DEFINITION OF COMPUTER
o A computer is an electronic device which takes input from the user,
processes it and gives the output as per user’s requirement.
o So the main tasks of performed by the computer are:

▪ Input

▪ Process

▪ Output

FUNCTIONS OF COMPUTER:
There are four core functions of the computer, as explained below:
Input: Whatever is given to a computer is called the input. The input data is given to the
computer using the input devices. The computer only takes data in a binary form (raw
format). The input devices help convert the entered data in the binary form to be
understandable by the computer. Data can be inputted in various forms, such as letters,
numbers, images, etc.
Processing: Processing is the primary function of the computer. CPU helps to process the
data according to the instructions entered into the computer system. The processing of data is
an internal process of the computer system, and the data is executed in a queue. After the
processing has been completed, the data is further transferred as the output. The processor
(CPU) is the computer's brain, and it is a microchip. The processor's speed varies in different
computers because it depends on several factors, such as the type of CPU, memory, and
motherboard.
Typically, the following operations are performed on the data during the processing:
o Arithmetic Operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, differentials,
square root, etc.
o Logical Operations, such as equal to, not equal to, greater than, less than, opposite,
etc.
Output: Anything that comes out from the computer is called the output. It is the human-
readable data and displayed on the computer screen (monitor). Output can be stored in the
storage devices if desired. The output devices help convert the processed data of the CPU into
the human-understandable form.
Storage: The device used to store the data of a computer system is called the storage. Storage
devices help to store digital data. They can store the data while the computer is operating and
after processing. There are volatile and non-volatile storage options. The volatile storage can
store the data as long as the power source is connected, whereas non-volatile can store the
data permanently even after the power source is disconnected.

Applications of Computers:

1. Business and Office Work:

Computers are essential in the business world for managing data, automating
administrative tasks, and improving communication. Tools like email and video
conferencing enhance connectivity, while software for accounting, inventory
management, and document creation streamline day-to-day operations. Computers
help businesses operate efficiently, from handling payroll to creating reports, making
them indispensable in modern offices.
2. Education and Learning:
In education, computers have transformed how knowledge is delivered and accessed.
E-learning platforms, virtual classrooms, and research tools make education more
accessible, breaking down geographical barriers. Software for simulations and
modeling helps students understand complex topics, offering a hands-on learning
experience. Computers also aid in creating digital textbooks, resources, and materials
for both teachers and learners.
3. Healthcare:
Computers are critical in healthcare for managing patient data through Electronic
Health Records (EHR), assisting in diagnostics with medical imaging systems, and
enabling telemedicine for remote consultations. They also support medical research
by storing vast amounts of research data and conducting simulations, advancing
 treatments and discoveries. Computers in healthcare improve the quality of care by
streamlining operations and enhancing patient-provider communication.
4. Entertainment:
Computers play a vital role in the entertainment industry, powering video games,
multimedia production, and streaming services. Platforms like Netflix and Spotify
rely on computers for delivering content to millions of users. In creative fields,
computers are used for film editing, animation, sound production, and music
composition. Virtual reality (VR) systems, powered by computers, offer immersive
experiences in gaming, entertainment, and education.
5. Communication:
Computers have revolutionized communication, making it easier and faster than ever
to stay connected. Email, social media, and video conferencing allow people to
communicate across the globe in real-time. Platforms like Zoom, Skype, and Google
Meet enable virtual meetings, collaboration, and remote work. Computers have
broken down communication barriers, enhancing both personal and professional
interactions.
6. Science and Engineering:
Computers are indispensable in science and engineering for research, data analysis,
and simulations. Engineers use software like Computer-Aided Design (CAD) to
create models, test prototypes, and design systems. In scientific research, computers
process large datasets and perform complex simulations, enabling breakthroughs in
fields like physics, biology, and environmental science. Additionally, computers play
a key role in developing artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning systems.
7. Banking and Finance:
In banking and finance, computers enable online banking, stock trading, and
cryptocurrency transactions. Automated systems process financial transactions,
ensuring speed, accuracy, and security. Computers also support financial analysis,
forecasting, and managing investment portfolios, making them central to modern
financial systems. Additionally, the rise of digital currencies relies on computer-
powered technologies like blockchain.
8. Government and Public Services:
Governments worldwide use computers for e-government services such as online
applications for permits, tax filing, and digital record-keeping. Computers also
enhance public safety by managing surveillance systems and supporting emergency
response teams. Additionally, they streamline the management of social services like
welfare and pension programs, ensuring that citizens can access services efficiently
and securely.
9. Manufacturing and Industry:
Computers are used in manufacturing to control automation, robotics, and production
lines, improving efficiency and consistency. In industries, computers help manage
inventory, monitor production quality, and track goods throughout the supply chain.
Robotics, powered by computers, perform tasks like assembly and packaging with
precision, making factories more productive and less reliant on human labor.
 10. Retail and E-Commerce:
Computers have transformed retail, enabling online shopping, order processing, and
inventory management. E-commerce platforms like Amazon rely on computers to
manage product listings, payments, and shipping logistics. Point-of-sale (POS)
systems in physical stores also use computers to process transactions and keep track
of sales data, improving customer experience and operational efficiency.
11. Transportation:
In the transportation sector, computers control navigation systems in cars, airplanes,
and ships. GPS systems guide vehicles, helping drivers navigate unfamiliar routes and
avoid traffic. Computers are also integral to air traffic control, ensuring the safe and
efficient movement of planes. Additionally, autonomous vehicles, powered by
computers, use sensors and software to drive themselves, promising a future of self-
driving transportation.
12. Law and Criminal Justice:
Computers are used in law and criminal justice for managing case files, analyzing
crime data, and supporting investigations. Law enforcement agencies use computers
to track crime patterns, manage evidence, and predict criminal behavior. In the legal
field, computers help organize legal documents, conduct research, and streamline
court procedures, making the judicial process faster and more efficient.
CAPABILITIES OF COMPUTERS / CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS:
1.Speed:
Computers are capable of processing information at extremely high speeds. They can execute
millions or even billions of instructions per second, making them incredibly efficient in
performing complex calculations and tasks in a fraction of the time it would take humans.

2.Accuracy:
Computers perform operations with a high level of accuracy. Given the correct input and
proper programming, they produce precise and consistent results without errors, minimizing
mistakes in calculations or tasks.

3.Automation:
Once a computer is programmed with specific instructions, it can carry out tasks
automatically without human intervention. This ability allows computers to perform
repetitive, time-consuming tasks efficiently, which would be impossible for humans to
execute continuously without error or fatigue.

4.Storage Capacity:
Computers have the ability to store vast amounts of data, ranging from small files on personal
computers to terabytes or even petabytes of data in data centers. Storage is categorized into
primary (RAM) and secondary (hard drives, SSDs) storage, and modern systems are designed
to handle large volumes of data efficiently, making it easy to retrieve information when
needed.

5.Memory:
One of the key features of a computer is its ability to remember data and information, which
is essential for its operation. This capability is powered by the computer's memory. The
"power of remembering" in a computer refers to its ability to store, retrieve, and retain data,
allowing it to function efficiently over time.

6.Versatility:
Computers can perform a wide range of tasks across different fields. They can be used for
data processing, running applications, simulations, scientific calculations, gaming, and much
more. This versatility makes them essential in industries such as business, healthcare,
education, entertainment, and engineering.

7.Diligence:
Computers can perform the same task continuously without fatigue or loss of performance.
Unlike humans, who may get tired or distracted, computers maintain the same level of
efficiency and accuracy over extended periods, making them ideal for repetitive tasks.

8.No Feelings and No IQ:

Computers do not possess emotions, consciousness, or intelligence in the human sense. They
lack the ability to "feel," "think," or make subjective decisions. Instead, they process data
strictly according to their programming and logic, following instructions precisely without
any emotional or cognitive involvement.

9.Consistency:
Computers produce the same output every time when given the same input. They follow their
programming and data instructions precisely, ensuring that results are predictable and
reliable, unlike humans who may make mistakes due to various factors like fatigue or
distraction.

Limitations of Computer
1.No IQ
A computer cannot act on situations that are not fed or programmed into them. They have
zero IQ(Intelligent Quotient). These outputs are completely dependent on the user’s input.
That is they produce the wrong output if the wrong input is provided instead of correcting it.

This is why the computer is also called the dump machine. The more the computer is
instructed to perform tasks, the more it processes outputs.

2.No feelings/ EQ
While the computer can work tirelessly and relentlessly. However, a few tasks require
suggestions and ideas. This can only be done if a person feels positive, negative, or some
feeling toward the task.

A computer proves unsuccessful in such scenarios as it does not have feelings/ EQ(Emotional
Quotient). A computer can be used to search for any information from the web. But it cannot
personally help a person in a task. This is the biggest limitation of the computer.

3.Lack of Decision Making

A computer cannot decide on its own. Each operation that the computer performs is fed with
an algorithm to perform different processes for each situation. However, if it faces a problem
that is not fed into the system, the computer is not ready for it. It either gets corrupt or does
not respond.

For making a decision humans have knowledge, wisdom, intelligence, the power to decide,
etc. Computers have none of these. They are programmed to work with logic and algorithms,
not judgment.

4.Lack of Common Sense

A computer might be an automated machine, but it requires human assistance. It works only
when it is provided with some input. For example, you have to do calculations for your math
homework. You will have to feed each sum to get the output. The computer cannot read the
whole homework and provide results.

5.Cannot Implement
A computer has huge storage and can store a hundred times more than a human brain.
However, due to a lack of implementation, it proves to be useless. A computer can store a
book of law but cannot implement it.

It can store hundreds of guides to solve different problems. Yet, it can only solve problems of
which algorithms are fed into it. This is where humans outperform computers.

6.Human dependency
A computer is a machine that is fully automated once switched on. But it cannot work to
switch itself on. The computer also does not when to start and when to stop unless it is fed
with such a program.

Some human assistance is always required in most situations. It cannot work completely on
its own without human intervention.

FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER:

A computer is a versatile machine designed to perform a wide range of tasks by processing
data into useful information. This capability is achieved through its various functional
components, which work together seamlessly. These components can be broadly categorized
into input, processing, storage, output, and control units, each playing a critical role in the
operation of the computer.
Understanding these functional components provides insight into how a computer takes raw
data, processes it, and produces meaningful results. Let’s explore each of these components
briefly:
1.Input Unit: The input unit consists of input devices that are attached to the computer.
These devices take input and convert it into binary language that the computer understands.
Some of the common input devices are keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner etc.
2.Central Processing Unit (CPU) : Once the information is entered into the computer by the
input device, the processor processes it. The CPU is called the brain of the computer because
it is the control center of the computer. It first fetches instructions from memory and then
interprets them so as to know what is to be done. If required, data is fetched from memory or
input device. Thereafter CPU executes or performs the required computation and then either
stores the output or displays on the output device. The CPU has three main components
which are responsible for different functions – Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit
(CU) and Memory registers.
Different Parts of CPU
Now, the CPU consists of 3 major units, which are:

● Memory or Storage Unit

● Control Unit

● ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Let us now look at the block diagram of the computer:

 ● Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) : The ALU, as its name suggests performs
mathematical calculations and takes logical decisions. Arithmetic calculations
include addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Logical decisions
involve comparison of two data items to see which one is larger or smaller or
equal.

● Control Unit : The Control unit coordinates and controls the data flow in and out
of CPU and also controls all the operations of ALU, memory registers and also
input/output units. It is also responsible for carrying out all the instructions stored
in the program. It decodes the fetched instruction, interprets it and sends control
signals to input/output devices until the required operation is done properly by
ALU and memory.

● Memory Registers : A register is a temporary unit of memory in the CPU. These

are used to store the data which is directly used by the processor. Registers can be
of different sizes(16 bit, 32 bit, 64 bit and so on) and each register inside the CPU
has a specific function like storing data, storing an instruction, storing address of a
location in memory etc. The user registers can be used by an assembly language
programmer for storing operands, intermediate results etc. Accumulator (ACC) is
the main register in the ALU and contains one of the operands of an operation to
be performed in the ALU.
3.Output Unit : The output unit consists of output devices that are attached with the
computer. It converts the binary data coming from CPU to human understandable form. The
common output devices are monitor, printer, plotter etc.

Computer Memory:

Computer memory is the part of the system where data and instructions are stored, either
temporarily or permanently, to enable the computer to perform tasks. Computers use a binary
numbering system to represent and store data, which consists of 0's and 1's. These binary
digits, called bits, are the smallest unit of data in a computer. The use of 0's and 1's allows
computers to work efficiently with digital electronics, as these values represent the two states
of an electrical circuit: on (1) and off (0).
How Computers Store Data
● Binary Representation: All data, whether it’s text, numbers, images, or videos, is
converted into a sequence of 0's and 1's for processing and storage.
● Bits and Bytes: A group of 8 bits forms a byte, which is the standard unit used to
represent a single character (like a letter or number) in a computer.
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT FOR STORAGE:

Unit Shortened Capacity

Bit b 1 or 0 (on or off)
Byte B 8 bits
Kilobyte KB 1024 bytes
Megabyte MB 1024 kilobytes
Gigabyte GB 1024 megabytes
Terabyte TB 1024 gigabytes
Petabyte PB 1024 terabytes
Exabyte EB 1024 petabytes
Zettabyte ZB 1024 exabytes
Yottabyte YB 1024 zettabytes

Types of Computer Memory

In general, computer memory is of three types:
1) Primary memory
2) Secondary memory
3) Cache memory
Primary Memory
Primary memory is a segment of computer memory that can be accessed directly by the
processor. In a hierarchy of memory, primary memory has access time less than secondary
memory and greater than cache memory. Generally, primary memory has a storage capacity
lesser than secondary memory and greater than cache memory.
Classification of Primary Memory
Primary memory can be broadly classified into two parts:
1. Read-Only Memory (ROM)
2. Random Access Memory (RAM)

Random Access Memory:

Any process in the system which needs to be executed is loaded in RAM which is processed
by the CPU as per Instructions in the program. Like if we click on applications like Browser,
firstly browser code will be loaded by the Operating system into the RAM after which the
CPU will execute and open up the Browser.

Types of RAM:
RAM can be broadly classified into SRAM (Static RAM) and DRAM (Dynamic RAM)
based on their behavior:

DRAM: Dynamic RAM or DRAM needs to periodically refresh in a few milliseconds to

retain data. DRAM is made up of capacitors and transistors and electric charge leaks from
capacitors and DRAM needs to be charged periodically. DRAM is widely used in home PCs
and servers as it is cheaper than SRAM.
SRAM: Static RAM or SRAM keeps the data as long as power is supplied to the system.
SRAM uses Sequential circuits like a flip-flop to store a bit and hence need not be
periodically refreshed. SRAM is expensive and hence only used where speed is the utmost
priority.

Read-Only Memory
Any data which need not be altered are stored in ROM. ROM includes those programs which
run on booting of the system (known as a bootstrap program that initializes OS) along with
data like algorithm required by OS. Anything stored in ROM cannot be altered or changed.

Types of ROM:
ROM can be broadly classified into 4 types based on their behavior:

● MROM: Masked ROM is hardwired and pre-programmed ROM. Any content that is
once written cannot be altered anyhow.

● PROM: Programmable ROM can be modified once by the user. The user buys a
blank PROM and writes the desired content but once written content cannot be
altered.

● EPROM: Erasable and Programmable ROM Content can be changed by erasing the
initial content which can be done by exposing EPROM to UV radiation. This
exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge on ROM and content can be
rewritten on it.

● EEPROM: Electrically Erasable and Programmable ROM Content can be changed

by erasing the initial content which could be easily erased electrically. However, one
byte can be erased at a time instead of deleting in one go. Hence, reprogramming of
EEPROM is a slow process.

Secondary Memory:
Secondary memory is a type of computer memory that is used to store data and programs that
can be accessed or retrieved even after the computer is turned off. Unlike primary memory,
which is volatile and temporary, secondary memory is non-volatile and can store data and
programs for extended periods of time.
Secondary memory devices
Following are the commonly used secondary memory devices are:
1. Floppy Disk: A floppy disk consists of a magnetic disc in a square plastic case. It is used
to store data and to transfer data from one device to another device. Floppy disks are
available in two sizes (a) Size: 3.5 inches, the Storage capacity of 1.44 MB (b) Size: 5.25
inches, the Storage capacity of 1.2 MB. To use a floppy disk, our computer needs to have a
floppy disk drive. This storage device becomes obsolete now and has been replaced by CDs,
DVDs, and flash drives.
2. Compact Disc: A Compact Disc (CD) is a commonly used secondary storage device. It
contains tracks and sectors on its surface. Its shape is circular and is made up of
polycarbonate plastic. The storage capacity of CD is up to 700 MB of data. A CD may also
be called a CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only Memory), in this computers can read the
data present in a CD-ROM, but cannot write new data onto it. For a CD-ROM, we require a
CD-ROM. CD is of two types:

● CD-R (compact disc recordable): Once the data has been written onto it cannot be
erased, it can only be read.

● CD-RW (compact disc rewritable): It is a special type of CD in which data can be

erased and rewritten as many times as we want. It is also called an erasable CD.
3. Digital Versatile Disc: A Digital Versatile Disc also known as DVD it is looks just like a
CD, but the storage capacity is greater compared to CD, it stores up to 4.7 GB of data. DVD-
ROM drive is needed to use DVD on a computer. The video files, like movies or video
recordings, etc., are generally stored on DVD and you can run DVD using the DVD player.
DVD is of three types:

● DVD-ROM(Digital Versatile Disc Readonly): In DVD-ROM the manufacturer

writes the data in it and the user can only read that data, cannot write new data in it.
For example movie DVD, movie DVD is already written by the manufacturer we can
only watch the movie but we cannot write new data into it.

● DVD-R(Digital Versatile Disc Recordable): In DVD-R you can write the data but
only one time. Once the data has been written onto it cannot be erased, it can only be
read.

● DVD-RW(Digital Versatile Disc Rewritable and Erasable): It is a special type of

DVD in which data can be erased and rewritten as many times as we want. It is also
called an erasable DVD.
4. Blu-ray Disc: A Blu-ray disc looks just like a CD or a DVD but it can store data or
information up to 25 GB data. If you want to use a Blu-ray disc, you need a Blu-ray reader.
The name Blu-ray is derived from the technology that is used to read the disc ‘Blu’ from the
blue-violet laser and ‘ray’ from an optical ray.
5. Hard Disk: A hard disk is a part of a unit called a hard disk drive. It is used to storing a
large amount of data. Hard disks or hard disk drives come in different storage capacities.(like
256 GB, 500 GB, 1 TB, and 2 TB, etc.). It is created using the collection of discs known as
platters. The platters are placed one below the other. They are coated with magnetic material.
Each platter consists of a number of invisible circles and each circle having the same centre
called tracks. Hard disk is of two types (i) Internal hard disk (ii) External hard disk.
6. Flash Drive: A flash drive or pen drive comes in various storage capacities, such as 1 GB,
2 GB, 4 GB, 8 GB, 16 GB, 32 GB, 64 GB, up to 1 TB. A flash drive is used to transfer and
store data. To use a flash drive, we need to plug it into a USB port on a computer. As a flash
drive is easy to use and compact in size, Nowadays it is very popular.
7. Solid-state disk: It is also known as SDD. It is a non-volatile storage device that is used to
store and access data. It is faster, does noiseless operations(because it does not contain any
moving parts like the hard disk), consumes less power, etc. It is a great replacement for
standard hard drives in computers and laptops if the price is low and it is also suitable for
tablets, notebooks, etc because they do not require large storage.
8. SD Card: It is known as a Secure Digital Card. It is generally used in portable devices like
mobile phones, cameras, etc., to store data. It is available in different sizes like 1 GB, 2 GB, 4
GB, 8 GB, 16 GB, 32 GB, 64 GB, etc. To view the data stored in the SD card you can
remove them from the device and insert them into a computer with help of a card reader. The
data stores in the SD card is stored in memory chips(present in the SD Card) and it does not
contain any moving parts like the hard disk.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS:
The computer systems can be classified on the following basis:
1. On the basis of size.
2. On the basis of number of Users.
3. On the basis of Input.
4.On the basis of usage.
Classification on the basis of size
1. Super computers : The super computers are the most high performing system. A
supercomputer is a computer with a high level of performance compared to a general-
purpose computer. The actual Performance of a supercomputer is measured in FLOPS
instead of MIPS. All of the world’s fastest 500 supercomputers run Linux-based
operating systems. Additional research is being conducted in China, the US, the EU,
Taiwan and Japan to build even faster, more high performing and more
technologically superior supercomputers. Supercomputers actually play an important
role in the field of computation, and are used for intensive computation tasks in
various fields, including quantum mechanics, weather forecasting, climate research,
oil and gas exploration, molecular modeling, and physical simulations. and also
Throughout the history, supercomputers have been essential in the field of the
cryptanalysis.
eg: PARAM, jaguar, roadrunner.
 2. Mainframe computers : These are commonly called as big iron, they are usually
used by big organisations for bulk data processing such as statistics, census data
processing, transaction processing and are widely used as the servers as these systems
has a higher processing capability as compared to the other classes of computers, most
of these mainframe architectures were established in 1960s, the research and
development worked continuously over the years and the mainframes of today are far
more better than the earlier ones, in size, capacity and efficiency.
Eg: IBM z Series, System z9 and System z10 servers.
3. Mini computers : These computers came into the market in mid 1960s and were sold
at a much cheaper price than the main frames, they were actually designed for control,
instrumentation, human interaction, and communication switching as distinct from
calculation and record keeping, later they became very popular for personal uses with
evolution.
In the 60s to describe the smaller computers that became possible with the use of
transistors and core memory technologies, minimal instructions sets and less
expensive peripherals such as the ubiquitous Teletype Model 33 ASR.They usually
took up one or a few inch rack cabinets, compared with the large mainframes that
could fill a room, there was a new term “MINICOMPUTERS” coined
Eg: Personal Laptop, PC etc.

4. Micro computers : A microcomputer is a small, relatively inexpensive computer

with a microprocessor as its CPU. It includes a microprocessor, memory, and minimal
I/O circuitry mounted on a single printed circuit board.The previous to these
computers, mainframes and minicomputers, were comparatively much larger, hard to
maintain and more expensive. They actually formed the foundation for present day
microcomputers and smart gadgets that we use in day to day life.
Eg: Tablets, Smartwatches.

2. Classification Based on the Number of Users

1. Single-User Computers:
These computers are designed for one user at a time. Personal computers (PCs),
laptops, and smartphones are typical examples. They are suitable for individual use in
homes, offices, and schools.
2. Multi-User Computers:
Multi-user systems allow multiple users to access and use the computer
simultaneously or sequentially. These are commonly used in shared environments like
organizations and research facilities. Examples include:
o Workstations: High-performance systems used in fields like engineering and
graphic design, supporting a small number of users.
o Servers: Designed to manage multiple users by hosting applications, websites,
or databases.
 o Mainframes: Allow thousands of users to access data or processes at the same
time.
Classification on the basis of data handling

1. Analog : An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously-

changeable aspects of physical fact such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic
quantities to model the problem being solved. Any thing that is variable with respect
to time and continuous can be claimed as analog just like an analog clock measures
time by means of the distance traveled for the spokes of the clock around the circular
dial.
2. Digital : A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities
represented as digits, usually in the binary number system of “0” and “1”, “Computer
capable of solving problems by processing information expressed in discrete form.
from manipulation of the combinations of the binary digits, it can perform
mathematical calculations, organize and analyze data, control industrial and other
processes, and simulate dynamic systems such as global weather patterns.
3. Hybrid : A computer that processes both analog and digital data, Hybrid computer is
a digital computer that accepts analog signals, converts them to digital and processes
them in digital form.

Classification Based on Usage

1. General-Purpose Computers:
These computers are designed for a wide range of tasks, such as document creation,
browsing the internet, gaming, and multimedia. They are commonly used in homes,
schools, and offices. Examples include personal computers (PCs), laptops, and
smartphones.
2. Special-Purpose Computers:
These computers are designed to perform specific tasks and are not versatile like
general-purpose computers. They are often embedded in devices such as ATMs,
washing machines, or medical equipment. Examples include industrial robots,
scientific research tools, and calculators.

INTRODUCTION TO INPUT DEVICES:

Input Devices:
Input devices are hardware components used to provide data and instructions to a computer.
They serve as the bridge between the user and the computer, enabling interaction by
converting user actions or signals into a format the computer can process. Input devices can
handle various types of input, such as text, images, audio, or commands, depending on the
task.
Different type of input devices:
Keyboard
For entering data into a computer, the keyboard is the most common and commonly used
input device. It contains various keys for entering letters, numbers, and characters. Although
there are some additional keys for completing various activities, the keyboard layout is
identical to that of a standard typewriter. It is generally available in two different sizes 84
keys or 101/102 keys and for Windows and the Internet, it is also available with 104 keys or
108 keys. It is connected to a computer system with the help of a USB or a Bluetooth device.
The keys on the keyboard are:
Numeric Keys: These keys are used to enter numeric data and move the cursor. It is typically
made up of 17 keys.
Keyboard Shortcuts: These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and the number keys (09).
Control Keys: The pointer and the screen are controlled by these keys. It comes with four
directional arrow keys. Control keys include Home, End, Insert, Alternate(Alt), Delete,
Control(Ctrl), and Escape.
Special Keys: Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, NumLk, Tab, and Print Screen are some of the special
function keys on the keyboard.
Function Keys: The 12 keys from F1 to F12 are on the topmost row of the keyboard.

MICR:
The full form of MICR is Magnetic Ink Character Recognition. Magnetic Ink Character
Recognition is a technology used for the recognition and processing of characters printed
with magnetic ink. It involves encoding information using a specific set of characters that can
be easily read by machines equipped with magnetic sensors.
Characteristics of MICR:
• Magnetic Ink: MICR uses specially formulated magnetic ink that contains iron oxide
particles. This ink allows the characters to be easily detected and read by magnetic
sensors.
• Character Recognition: MICR enables the automated recognition and processing of
characters, typically numeric digits and special symbols, printed in a specific MICR
font.
• Machine Reading: MICR characters are read by magnetic sensors or MICR readers,
which detect the magnetic properties of the characters and convert them into digital
data.
• High Accuracy and Reliability: MICR technology provides high accuracy and
reliability in reading characters since it is resistant to smudging, fading, or tampering.
This makes it suitable for applications that require secure and error-free data capture,
such as banking and finance.
 • Standardized Format: MICR follows a standardized format defined by international
standards organizations, ensuring consistency in character placement, font design, and
encoding rules.

OCR:
OCR stands for Optical Character Recognition. It is the procedure that transforms a text
image into a text format that can be read by computers. Your computer will save the scan as
an image file, for instance, if you scan an invoice or a receipt. The phrases contained in the
image file cannot be edited, searched for or counted using a text editor. The image can be
transformed into a text file with its contents saved as text data using OCR.
Applications of OCR:
• Mobile Banking Applications: Applications of mobile banking use OCR to capture
and recover data from cheques for deposit.
• Healthcare records: OCR is used in the healthcare department to manage the
information of the patient so that healthcare facilities can be
• Scanners for business cards: Apps with OCR capabilities can scan cards for business
and save contacts right into the consumer's address book.
• Recognition of License plate number: OCR technology is used by parking lots and
law enforcement to read and recognize license plates for safety and parking
management.
• Mails: Sorting and processing of mail according to addresses and ZIP codes is done
automatically by postal services using OCR.
• accessed quickly.
GRAPHIC INPUT DEVICES:
Mouse:
A mouse is an input device that is moved across the desk surface by the user so as to interact
with the computer. It basically interacts with the Graphical User Interface of the computer. A
mouse is used to perform actions such as selection, double-clicking, dragging, scrolling etc.
Many kinds of mouses have been introduced and each of them has its ow purpose. In cases of
laptop, the mouse is an external touchpad that has been embedded in front of the keyboard.
However, users can use an external mouse for interaction with the computer.

Parts of Computer Mouse:

• Mouse Buttons: Mouse Buttons are present on the outer part of the mouse. These
buttons help users to click and navigate. Left button is used for clicking and double
clicking whereas right click opens up the additional menu.
• Scroll wheel: Scroll wheel is used to scroll the page up and down. When we click on
the middle of the scroll wheel it helps to click on hyperlinks.
• Motion Detection: Earlier trackballs were embedded inside the mouses which helped
to detect the movements and convert it to signals which were further processed.
 Nowadays lasers are used which detect the movements and provide the output
accordingly.
• Outer Cover or Shell: An outer covering is given to the mouse which covers the inner
components of the mouse including track ball or sensors.
Graphics Tablet:
A graphics tablet, also called a drawing tablet, digital artboard, or pen tablet, is a device that
enables users to manually draw images and graphics directly onto a computer. The tablet
consists of types of graphic tablets with flat surfaces and a stylus pen that captures the user's
hand movements and translates them into digital form. Graphics tablets connect to computers
via USB or wirelessly through Bluetooth, allowing drawing data to be transferred. In simple
terms, a device by which pictures, graphs, or maps are put into a computer-like drawing is
known as a graphic tablet. The first-ever graphics tablet for home computers was the
KoalaPad. It was introduced by Koala Technologies in 1984, it was originally designed for
use by the Apple II computer. However, it was eventually made available for the IBM PC-
compatible computer as well.
Features of a Graphics Tablet: Lightweight and Portable

Pressure Sensitivity Compatibility with Software and Devices

Customizable Buttons Battery-Free Stylus or Rechargeable

Stylus
Active Drawing Area
Ergonomic Design
Stylus Compatibility
Wide Aspect Ratio Options
Tilt Support
Fast Response Time
High Resolution (LPI - Lines Per Inch
Durable Surface Material
Multi-Touch Input
Joystick:
Connectivity Options (USB, Bluetooth)
A joystick is a pointing and controlling device that is commonly used for controlling video
games and moving required objects on the system screen. An input device which is called a
joystick is used to control a machine or character in a computer program, like an aircraft in a
flight simulator system. The US Naval Research Board successfully tested and produced a
joystick in 1926, and the nation patented it for use in military operations as per requirement.
The machine operation in the computer program is controlled using this special gadget. A
joystick comprises a base and a stick that can be moved left and right at any angle in the
process. While some joysticks are integrated into the system's keyboards, others are
standalone devices. Joysticks can be connected to a computer by several required interfaces,
such as USB, Bluetooth, or ports specifically designed for gaming platforms.

INTRODUCTION TO OUTPUT DEVICES:

There are many kind of output devices which can connect to the computer and give us the
desired results. Monitor is the main output device of the computer system, without it we can’t
imagine the computer. Output from the output device may be in the form of text, audio, or
video.
Both input and output devices are distinct to each other input gives the instruction to the
processor and output gives the result after the instruction completed.
A device that can receive data from computer or another device and create output with that
data is called output device. Examples of various output devices are as:
Computer Monitor
Speakers
Headphones
Printers
Projectors
Plotters
1. Computer Monitor:
A computer monitor is a visual screen display unit and it is the most common example of an
output device. All monitors work with your computer video card to show a real-time picture
of what your computer’s operating system, programs, and doing.
For example, when you type a letter using your keyboard connected to your computer, it
displays or outputs on your monitor. Without the monitor, you will not be able to see how the
letter looks like talk less of reading it.
There are two common types of monitors; Cathode ray tube and the Flat panel screen.
Monitors come in various sizes, shapes and display technologies. Also, due to modern
advancement, some monitors can equally serve as an input device if they have a touch screen
you can use instead of a mouse or keyboard.

2. Speakers
Speakers are also common examples of output devices of computer. Also, you use them for
listening to sounds and other audio materials from your computer. Furthermore, Laptops and
monitors often have speakers inbuilt in them. In addition, you need Sound cards on a
computer for the speakers to function. Similarly, a speaker converts digital signals into
analog sound waves that are audible to the human ear. Finally, speakers range from simple
two speaker output devices to sound multi-channel units.

3. Headphones
Another common example of an output device is a headphone. Some computer headphones
have both the speakers and microphones. Headphones aren’t just for music; they also allow
us to hear when communicating with others via voice calls. Headphones also ensure privacy
and are perfect for gaming.

4.Printers
Printer produces hard copies of the processed data. It enables the user, to print images, text or
any other information onto the paper. Users can pick from various printer types, such as
inkjet, laser, or dot matrix, to meet their printing demands. Printers enable the generation of
tangible copies for record-keeping, presentations, marketing materials, and other purposes,
from household to professional settings. Printers are essential for personal and commercial
use due to their simplicity and adaptability.

Based on the printing mechanism, the printers are of two types: Impact Printers and Non-
impact Printers.
o Impact Printers: They are of two types:
o Character Printers
o Dot Matrix printers
o Daisy Wheel printers
 o Line printers
o Drum printers
o Chain printers
o Non-impact printers: They are of two types:
o Laser printers
o Inkjet printers
o Thermal Printers

Impact Printer:
The impact printer uses a hammer or print head to print the character or images onto the
paper. The hammer or print head strikes or presses an ink ribbon against the paper to print
characters and images.
Impact printers are further divided into two types.
A. Character Printers
B. Line printers
A) Character Printers
Character printer prints a single character at a time or with a single stroke of the print head or
hammer. It does not print one line at a time. Dot Matrix printer and Daisy Wheel printer are
character printers. Today, these printers are not in much use due to their low speed and
because only the text can be printed. The character printers are of two types, which are as
follows:
i) Dot Matrix Printer
In the market one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are
popular because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in
form of pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size 5∗ 7, 7∗ 9, 9∗ 7or9∗ 9
which come out to form a character that is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages:

● Inexpensive

● Widely Used

● Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages:

● Slow Speed
 ● Poor Quality

ii) Daisy Wheel Printer

Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy
flowername
that is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-
processing
in offices which require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.
Advantages

● More reliable than DMP

● Better quality

● The fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages

● Slower than DMP

● Noisy

● More expensive than DMP

B) Line Printers:
Line printer, which is also as a bar printer, prints one line at a time. It is a high-speed impact
printer as it can print 500 to 3000 lines per minute. Drum printer and chain printer are
examples of line printers.

i) Drum Printer:
This printer is like a drum in shape so it is called drum printer. The surface of drum is divided
into number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e. for a paper width of 132
characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on track. The different
character sets available in the market are 48-character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One
rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000
lines per minute.
Advantages
Very high speed
Disadvantages
Very expensive
Characters fonts cannot be changed

ii) Chain Printer:

In this printer, chain of character sets are used so it is called Chain Printer. A standard
character
set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
Character fonts can easily be changed.
Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages
Noisy
Non-Impact Printer:
Non-impact printers don't print characters or images by striking a print head or hammer on
the ink ribbon placed against the paper. They print characters and images without direct
physical contact between the paper and the printing machinery. These printers can print a
complete page at a time, so they are also known as page printers. The common types of non-
impact printers are Laser printer and Inkjet printer:

i) Laser Printer:
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form
the characters to be printed on a page.
Advantages

● Very high speed

● Very high-quality output

● Give good graphics quality

● Support many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages

● Expensive.

● Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.

ii) Inkjet Printer:

Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They
print
characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality
output
with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Colour printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce
multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages

● High quality printing

● More reliable

Disadvantages

● Expensive as cost per page is high

● Slow as compared to laser printer

iii)Thermal Printer:
Thermal printers use heat for producing the image on the paper. Thermal Printers have
become more popular due to their speed, advanced tech and high quality print. Thermal
printers don't use ink or toners, rather they largely depend on the thermal papers for printing
the images. Thermal printers are very easy to use as they have less buttons and use softwares
for the printing process. Also, thermal printers are less expensive and come in different sizes
and models which makes them easily affordable by most of the consumers.
Thermal printers are mostly used in banking sectors, airline, retail, healthcare industries,
grocery stores, etc.
5. Projectors
Projectors are output devices used mainly by companies, schools, and churches to show
information to a large body of people at the same time. They are also used during meetings or
classes for presentations. In addition, Data projectors connect your computer graphics card
and allow you to mirror your computer screen to a wall or smooth surface (Whiteboard,
White cloth surface). The most common types are the LCD and digital light processing
(DLP) projectors although the latter is more expensive. One of its features is a color wheel
filter.

6. Plotters
Plotters are generally used with engineering applications, for generating a hard copy of a
digitally created design. In addition, Plotters are also often used by graphic artists, architects,
constructions engineers, etc. The user has to send a design to the plotter through a graphics
card that then forms the design through a pen. Also, the Plotter draws pictures with the use of
straight lines.

Software:
Software is a collection of instructions, data, or computer programs that are used to run
machines and carry out particular activities. It is the antithesis of hardware, which refers to a
computer’s external components. A device’s running programs, scripts, and applications are
collectively referred to as “software” in this context.
What is a Software?
In a computer system, the software is basically a set of instructions or commands that tell a
computer what to do. In other words, the software is a computer program that provides a set
of instructions to execute a user’s commands and tell the computer what to do. For example
like MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
Definition of Hardware
Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system that you can see and
touch. It includes all tangible parts such as the central processing unit (CPU), memory,
storage devices, input/output devices, and peripherals. Hardware works in conjunction with
software to perform various computational tasks and operations.
Computer Hardware Parts:
Some of the commonly used hardware in your computer are described below:
1. Motherboard
2. Monitor
3. Keyboard
4. Mouse

Types of Software
It is a collection of data that is given to the computer to complete a particular task. The chart
below describes the types of software:
Above is the diagram of types of software. Now we will briefly describe each type and its
subtypes:
System Software
• Operating System
• Language Processor
• Device Driver
Application Software
• General Purpose Software
• Customize Software
• Utility Software
System Software:
System software is software that directly operates the computer hardware and provides the
basic functionality to the users as well as to the other software to operate smoothly. Or in
other words, system software basically controls a computer’s internal functioning and also
controls hardware devices such as monitors, printers, and storage devices, etc. It is like an
interface between hardware and user applications, it helps them to communicate with each
other because hardware understands machine language(i.e. 1 or 0) whereas user applications
are work in human-readable languages like English, Hindi, German, etc. so system software
converts the human-readable language into machine language and vice versa.
Types of System Software
It has two subtypes which are:
Operating System: It is the main program of a computer system. When the computer system
ON it is the first software that loads into the computer’s memory. Basically, it manages all
the resources such as computer memory, CPU, printer, hard disk, etc., and provides an
interface to the user, which helps the user to interact with the computer system. It also
provides various services to other computer software. Examples of operating systems are
Linux, Apple macOS, Microsoft Windows, etc.
Language Processor: As we know that system software converts the human-readable
language into a machine language and vice versa. So, the conversion is done by the language
processor. It converts programs written in high-level programming languages like Java, C,
C++, Python, etc(known as source code), into sets of instructions that are easily readable by
machines(known as object code or machine code).
Device Driver: A device driver is a program or software that controls a device and helps that
device to perform its functions. Every device like a printer, mouse, modem, etc. needs a
driver to connect with the computer system eternally. So, when you connect a new device
with your computer system, first you need to install the driver of that device so that your
operating system knows how to control or manage that device.
Features of System Software:
Let us discuss some of the features of System Software:
 ● System Software is closer to the computer system.

● System Software is written in a low-level language in general.

● System software is difficult to design and understand.

● System software is fast in speed(working speed).

● System software is less interactive for the users in comparison to application software.

Application Software
Software that performs special functions or provides functions that are much more than the
basic operation of the computer is known as application software. Or in other words,
application software is designed to perform a specific task for end-users. It is a product or a
program that is designed only to fulfill end-users’ requirements. It includes word processors,
spreadsheets, database management, inventory, payroll programs, etc.

Types of Application Software

There are different types of application software and those are:

General Purpose Software: This type of application software is used for a variety of tasks
and it is not limited to performing a specific task only. For example, MS-Word, MS-Excel,
PowerPoint, etc.
Customized Software: This type of application software is used or designed to perform
specific tasks or functions or designed for specific organizations. For example, railway
reservation system, airline reservation system, invoice management system, etc.
Utility Software: This type of application software is used to support the computer
infrastructure. It is designed to analyze, configure, optimize and maintains the system, and
take care of its requirements as well. For example, antivirus, disk fragmenter, memory tester,
disk repair, disk cleaners, registry cleaners, disk space analyzer, etc.
Features of Application Software:
• Let us discuss some of the features of Application Software:

• An important feature of application software is it performs more specialized tasks like

word processing, spreadsheets, email, etc.

• Mostly, the size of the software is big, so it requires more storage space.
 • Application software is more interactive for the users, so it is easy to use and design.

• The application software is easy to design and understand.

• Application software is written in a high-level language in general.

INTRODUCTION OF OPERATING SYSTEM

An operating system acts as an intermediary between the user of a computer and computer
hardware. The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment in which a user
can execute programs in a convenient and efficient manner.
An operating system is software that manages the computer hardware. The hardware must
provide appropriate mechanisms to ensure the correct operation of the computer system and
to prevent user programs from interfering with the proper operation of the system.
Operating System:

● An operating system is a program that controls the execution of application programs

and acts as an interface between the user of a computer and the computer hardware.
● A more common definition is that the operating system is the one program running at
all times on the computer (usually called the kernel), with all else being application
programs.
An operating system is concerned with the allocation of resources and services, such as
memory, processors, devices, and information. The operating system correspondingly
includes programs to manage these resources, such as a traffic controller, a scheduler,
memory management module, I/O programs, and a file system.
Operating system as User Interface –
1. User
2. System and application programs
3. Operating system
4. Hardware
Every general-purpose computer consists of the hardware, operating system, system
programs, and application programs. The hardware consists of memory, CPU, ALU, and I/O
devices, peripheral device, and storage device. System program consists of compilers,
loaders, editors, OS, etc. The application program consists of business programs, database
programs.
Every computer must have an operating system to run other programs. The operating system
coordinates the use of the hardware among the various system programs and application
programs for various users. It simply provides an environment within which other programs
can do useful work. The operating system is a set of special programs that run on a computer
system that allows it to work properly. It performs basic tasks such as recognizing input from
the keyboard, keeping track of files and directories on the disk, sending output to the display
screen and controlling peripheral devices.

OS is designed to serve two basic purposes:

1. It controls the allocation and use of the computing System’s resources among the various
user and tasks.
2. It provides an interface between the computer hardware and the programmer that simplifies
and makes feasible for coding, creation, debugging of application programs.

EVOLUTION OF OPERATING SYSTEM:

An operating system is a type of software that acts as an interface between the user and the
hardware. It is responsible for handling various critical functions of the computer and
utilizing resources very efficiently so the operating system is also known as a resource
manager. The operating system also acts like a government because just as the government
has authority over everything, similarly the operating system has authority over all resources.
Various tasks that are handled by OS are file management, task management, garbage
management, memory management, process management, disk management, I/O
management, peripherals management, etc.
Generations of Operating Systems:
1940s-1950s: Early Beginnings
• Computers operated without operating systems (OS).
• Programs were manually loaded and run, one at a time.
• The first operating system was introduced in 1956. It was a batch processing system
GM-NAA I/O (1956) that automated job handling.
1960s: Multiprogramming and Timesharing
• Introduction of multiprogramming to utilize CPU efficiently.
• Timesharing systems, like CTSS (1961) and Multics (1969), allowed multiple users to
interact with a single system.
1970s: Unix and Personal Computers
• Unix (1971) revolutionized OS design with simplicity, portability, and multitasking.
• Personal computers emerged, leading to simpler OSs like CP/M (1974) and PC-DOS
(1981).
1980s: GUI and Networking
• Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs) gained popularity with systems like Apple
Macintosh (1984) and Microsoft Windows (1985).
• Networking features, like TCP/IP in Unix, became essential.
1990s: Linux and Advanced GUIs
• Linux (1991) introduced open-source development.
• Windows and Mac OS refined GUIs and gained widespread adoption.
2000s-Present: Mobility and Cloud
• Mobile OSs like iOS (2007) and Android (2008) dominate.
• Cloud-based and virtualization technologies reshape computing, with OSs like
Windows Server and Linux driving innovation.
AI Integration – (Ongoing)
With the growth of time, Artificial intelligence came into picture. Operating system integrates
features of AI technology like Siri, Google Assistant, and Alexa and became more powerful
and efficient in many way. These AI features with operating system create a entire new
feature like voice commands, predictive text, and personalized recommendations.

Functions of Operating System:

An Operating System acts as a communication interface between the user and computer
hardware. Its purpose is to provide a platform on which a user can execute programs
conveniently and efficiently. An operating system is software that manages the allocation of
Computer Hardware. The coordination of the hardware must be appropriate to ensure the
computer system’s correct operation and to prevent user programs from interfering with
it. The main goal of the Operating System is to make the computer environment more
convenient to use and the Secondary goal is to use the resources most efficiently.

Why Operating Systems Used?

Operating System is used as a communication channel between the Computer hardware and
the user. It works as an intermediate between System Hardware and End-User. Operating
System handles the following responsibilities:

● It controls all the computer resources.

● It provides valuable services to user programs.

 ● It coordinates the execution of user programs.

● It provides resources for user programs.

● It provides an interface (virtual machine) to the user.

● It hides the complexity of software.

● It supports multiple execution modes.

● It monitors the execution of user programs to prevent errors.

Functions of an Operating System:

Memory Management:
An operating system manages the allocation and deallocation of memory to various processes
and ensures that the other process does not consume the memory allocated to one process. An
Operating System performs the following activities for Memory Management:

● It keeps track of primary memory, i.e., which bytes of memory are used by which user
program. The memory addresses that have already been allocated and the memory
addresses of the memory that has not yet been used.

● In multiprogramming, the OS decides the order in which processes are granted

memory access, and for how long.

● It Allocates the memory to a process when the process requests it and deallocates the
memory when the process has terminated or is performing an I/O operation.

Processor Management:
An operating system manages the processor’s work by allocating various jobs to it and
ensuring that each process receives enough time from the processor to function properly.
Keeps track of the status of processes. The program which performs this task is known as a
traffic controller. Allocates the CPU that is a processor to a process. De-allocates processor
when a process is no longer required.
Device Management
An OS manages device communication via its respective drivers. It performs the following
activities for device management.
• Keeps track of all devices connected to the system. Designates a program responsible
for every device known as the Input/Output controller.
• Decide which process gets access to a certain device and for how long.
 • Allocates devices effectively and efficiently. Deallocates devices when they are no
longer required.
• There are various input and output devices. An OS controls the working of these
input-output devices.
• It receives the requests from these devices, performs a specific task, and
communicates back to the requesting process.
File Management
A file system is organized into directories for efficient or easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain other directories and other files. An Operating System carries out the
following file management activities. It keeps track of where information is stored, user
access settings, the status of every file, and more. These facilities are collectively known as
the file system. An OS keeps track of information regarding the creation, deletion, transfer,
copy, and storage of files in an organized way. It also maintains the integrity of the data
stored in these files, including the file directory structure, by protecting against unauthorized
access.
I/O Management
I/O management is the important function of operating system refers to how the OS
handles input and output operations between the computer and external devices, such as
keyboards, mice, printers, hard drives, and monitors.
User Interface or Command Interpreter
The user interacts with the computer system through the operating system. Hence OS acts as
an interface between the user and the computer hardware. This user interface is offered
through a set of commands or a graphical user interface (GUI). Through this interface, the
user makes interacts with the applications and the machine hardware.
Booting the Computer
The process of starting or restarting the computer is known as booting. If the computer is
switched off completely and if turned on then it is called cold booting. Warm booting is a
process of using the operating system to restart the computer.
Security:
The operating system uses password protection to protect user data and similar other
techniques. it also prevents unauthorized access to programs and user data. The operating
system provides various techniques which assure the integrity and confidentiality of user
data. The following security measures are used to protect user data:

● Protection against unauthorized access through login.

● Protection against intrusion by keeping the firewall active.

● Protecting the system memory against malicious access.

● Displaying messages related to system vulnerabilities.

Control Over System Performance:
Operating systems play a pivotal role in controlling and optimizing system performance.
They act as intermediaries between hardware and software, ensuring that computing
resources are efficiently utilized. One fundamental aspect is resource allocation, where the
OS allocates CPU time, memory, and I/O devices to different processes, striving to provide
fair and optimal resource utilization. Process scheduling, a critical function, helps decide
which processes or threads should run when preventing any single task from monopolizing
the CPU and enabling effective multitasking.
Job Accounting:
The operating system Keeps track of time and resources used by various tasks and users, this
information can be used to track resource usage for a particular user or group of users. In a
multitasking OS where multiple programs run simultaneously, the OS determines which
applications should run in which order and how time should be allocated to each application.
Error-Detecting Aids:
The operating system constantly monitors the system to detect errors and avoid
malfunctioning computer systems. From time to time, the operating system checks the system
for any external threat or malicious software activity. It also checks the hardware for any type
of damage. This process displays several alerts to the user so that the appropriate action can
be taken against any damage caused to the system.
Coordination Between Other Software and Users:
Operating systems also coordinate and assign interpreters, compilers, assemblers, and other
software to the various users of the computer systems. In simpler terms, think of the
operating system as the traffic cop of your computer. It directs and manages how different
software programs can share your computer’s resources without causing chaos. It ensures that
when you want to use a program, it runs smoothly without crashing or causing problems for
others. So, it’s like the friendly officer ensuring a smooth flow of traffic on a busy road,
making sure everyone gets where they need to go without any accidents or jams.
Performs Basic Computer Tasks:
The management of various peripheral devices such as the mouse, keyboard, and printer is
carried out by the operating system. Today most operating systems are plug-and-play. These
operating systems automatically recognize and configure the devices with no user
interference.

Network Management:

● Network Communication: Think of them as traffic cops for your internet traffic.
Operating systems help computers talk to each other and the internet. They manage
how data is packaged and sent over the network, making sure it arrives safely and in
the right order.
 ● Settings and Monitoring: Think of them as the settings and security guard for your
internet connection. They also let you set up your network connections, like Wi-Fi or
Ethernet, and keep an eye on how your network is doing. They make sure your
computer is using the network efficiently and securely, like adjusting the speed of
your internet or protecting your computer from online threats.

Types of Operating Systems:

Operating Systems can be categorized according to different criteria like whether an
operating system is for mobile devices (examples Android and iOS) or desktop (examples
Windows and Linux). In this article, we are going to classify based on functionalities an
operating system provides.

1. Batch Operating System

This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly. There is an
operator which takes similar jobs having the same requirements and groups them into
batches. It is the responsibility of the operator to sort jobs with similar needs. Batch
Operating System is designed to manage and execute a large number of jobs efficiently by
processing them in groups.

Advantages of Batch Operating System

● Multiple users can share the batch systems.

● The idle time for the batch system is very less.

● It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems.

Disadvantages of Batch Operating System

● CPU is not used efficiently. When the current process is doing IO, CPU is free and
could be utilized by other processes waiting.
 ● The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails.

● In batch operating system, average response time increases as all processes are
processed one by one.
Examples of Batch Operating Systems: Payroll Systems, Bank Statements, etc.

2. Multi-Programming Operating System

Multiprogramming Operating Systems can be simply illustrated as more than one program is
present in the main memory and any one of them can be kept in execution. This is basically
used for better utilization of resources.

Advantages of Multi-Programming Operating System

● CPU is better utilized and overall performance of the system improves.

● It helps in reducing the response time.

Time-Sharing Operating Systems

It is a type of Multiprogramming system with every process running in round robin manner.
Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each user gets
the time of the CPU as they use a single system. These systems are also known as
Multitasking Systems. The task can be from a single user or different users also. The time
that each task gets to execute is called quantum. After this time interval is over OS switches
over to the next task.
Advantages of Time-Sharing OS

● Each task gets an equal opportunity.

 ● Fewer chances of duplication of software.

● CPU idle time can be reduced.

● Resource Sharing: Time-sharing systems allow multiple users to share hardware

resources such as the CPU, memory, and peripherals, reducing the cost of hardware
and increasing efficiency.

● Improved Productivity: Time-sharing allows users to work concurrently, thereby

reducing the waiting time for their turn to use the computer. This increased
productivity translates to more work getting done in less time.

● Improved User Experience: Time-sharing provides an interactive environment that

allows users to communicate with the computer in real time, providing a better user
experience than batch processing.
Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS

● Reliability problem.

● One must have to take care of the security and integrity of user programs and data.

● Data communication problem.

● High Overhead

● Complexity

● Security Risks

Examples of Time-Sharing OS are IBM VM/CMS , TSO (Time Sharing Option),

Windows Terminal Services.

Multitasking:
Time Sharing and Multiprogramming systems are also called multitasking sometimes as
multiple tasks run in interleaving manner.
3. Multi-Processing Operating System
Multi-Processing Operating System is a type of Operating System in which more than one
CPU is used for the execution of resources. It betters the throughput of the System.

Advantages of Multi-Processing Operating System

It increases the throughput of the system as processes can be parallelized.
As it has several processors, so, if one processor fails, we can proceed with another
processor.
4. Multi User Operating Systems
These systems allow multiple users to be active at the same time. These system can be either
multiprocessor or single processor with interleaving.
5. Distributed Operating System
These types of operating system is a recent advancement in the world of computer technology
and are being widely accepted all over the world and, that too, at a great pace. Various
autonomous interconnected computers communicate with each other using a shared
communication network. Independent systems possess their own memory unit and CPU.
These are referred to as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems . These systems’
processors differ in size and function. The major benefit of working with these types of the
operating system is that it is always possible that one user can access the files or software
which are not actually present on his system but some other system connected within this
network i.e., remote access is enabled within the devices connected in that network.

Advantages of Distributed Operating System

 ● Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all systems are
independent of each other.

● Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed.

● Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable.

● Load on host computer reduces.

● These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the
network.

● Delay in data processing reduces.

Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System

● Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication.

● To establish distributed systems the language is used not well-defined yet.

● These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive. Not only
that the underlying software is highly complex and not understood well yet.
6. Network Operating System
These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage data, users, groups,
security, applications, and other networking functions. These types of operating systems
allow shared access to files, printers, security, applications, and other networking functions
over a small private network. One more important aspect of Network Operating Systems is
that all the users are well aware of the underlying configuration, of all other users within the
network, their individual connections, etc. and that’s why these computers are popularly
known as tightly coupled systems.

Advantages of Network Operating System

● Highly stable centralized servers.

 ● Security concerns are handled through servers.

● New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated into the system.

● Server access is possible remotely from different locations and types of systems.

Disadvantages of Network Operating System

● Servers are costly.

● User has to depend on a central location for most operations.

● Maintenance and updates are required regularly.

Examples of Network Operating Systems are Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft
Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, BSD, etc.
7. Real-Time Operating System
These types of OSs serve real-time systems. The time interval required to process and
respond to inputs is very small. This time interval is called response time.Real-time
systems are used when there are time requirements that are very strict like missile systems,
air traffic control systems, robots, etc.
Types of Real-Time Operating Systems

● Hard Real-Time Systems: Hard Real-Time OSs are meant for applications where
time constraints are very strict and even the shortest possible delay is not acceptable.
These systems are built for saving life like automatic parachutes or airbags which are
required to be readily available in case of an accident. Virtual memory is rarely found
in these systems.

● Soft Real-Time Systems: These OSs are for applications where time-constraint is
less strict.

Advantages of RTOS:
1. Deterministic behavior: Ensures predictable task execution with real-time
constraints.
2. High reliability: Ideal for critical systems like medical devices or aerospace.
3. Efficient resource utilization: Minimizes CPU idle time through task prioritization.
4. Multitasking support: Handles multiple tasks simultaneously with precise timing.
Disadvantages of RTOS:
1. Complexity: Requires in-depth knowledge to design and manage.
 2. Higher development cost: Demands specialized skills and tools.
3. Limited scalability for general-purpose tasks: Not ideal for systems with non-real-
time needs.
4. Overhead: Adds processing overhead due to scheduling and task management.

Examples of Real-Time Operating Systems are Scientific experiments, medical imaging

systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.

8. Mobile Operating Systems

These operating systems are mainly for mobile devices. Examples of such operating systems
are Android and iOS.