CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The background of a study is one of the most important components of a
research paper. The quality of the background determines whether the reader
would be interested in the rest of the study. Thus, to ensure that the reader is
invested in reading the entire research paper, it is important to write an
appealing and effective background.
The background to the study is the first section of the paper. It establishes the
context underlying the research. The background forms the crux of the study
because it contains the rationale for the study and introduces an unaware
reader to the research and its importance in a clear an logical manner. At
times the background may even explore whether the study builds on or
refutes findings from previous studies. The background provides a detailed
understanding of the topic. Any relevant information that the readers need to
know before delving into the research paper should be made available to
them in the background.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The world is full of problems but not all problems make good research
problems. A research problem is a gap in existing knowledge, a contradiction
in an established theory, or a real-world challenge that a researcher aims to
address in their research. Research problem is the very core of any research
directing the trajectory of the investigation. Before you embark on any
research, you must first of all study previous/existing researches on the area
of study so as to pinpoint their limitations (what they did not do) for therein
lies your research gap. The statement of the problem can be written in two
ways: (1) research gap (2) practical problem
A research gap is a theoretical concept that points to missing knowledge or
understanding while a practical problem is a challenging or harmful situation
that needs to be corrected.
Every research must obligatorily fill a research gap but every research does
not set out to solve a practical problem
 Characteristics of a Good Research Problem
 Novel: an ideal research problem introduces a fresh perspective,
offering something new to the existing body of knowledge. It should
contribute original insights and address unresolved matters or essential
knowledge.
 Significance: it should be significant in terms of its potential impact on
theory, practice, policy or the understanding of a particular
phenomenon. It should be relevant to the field of study addressing a
gap in knowledge, a practical concern, or a theoretical dilemma that
holds significance.
 Feasibility: A feasible research problem is one that can realistically be
investigated given the available resources, time, and expertise.
 Clear and Specific: A well-defined research problem is clear and specific,
leaving no room for ambiguity. It should be easily understandable and
precisely articulated.
 Researchable: It should be amenable to investigation through empirical
research methods such as data collection, analysis and interpretation,
to arrive at meaningful conclusions.
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is also called aims or objectives of the study simply
mean reasons for doing the research and the specific goals you hope to
achieve. A well-crafted purpose of the study should flow directly from the
problem statement (the gaps in existing literature) and set the stage for the
research questions and methodology. The purpose of the study must be
written in measurable/ performative verbs e.g explore, describe, explain, e.t.c.
1.4 Significance of the Study
The significance of the study refers to its importance. It refers to the
contribution(s) to and impact of the study on a research field. The significance
also signals who benefits from the research findings and how. Researchers will
be able to appreciate your work better when they understand the relevance
and its (potential) impact.
1.5 Scope of the Study

Understanding the scope of a study is crucial for defining its parameters and
ensuring focused research efforts. The scope of research delineates its extent or
range of inquiry, setting clear parameters for what the study will cover. Defining
the scope helps in focusing the research efforts, ensuring that the study remains
manageable and within realistic bounds. Understanding the scope of the study
allows researchers to allocate resources efficiently ensuring that every aspect of
the study receives adequate attention. It also helps in avoiding a common pitfall
of overreaching, which can dilute the research’s impact. Furthermore, a well-
defined scope can facilitate a more targeted and effective literature review, laying
a solid foundation for the research study. Defining the scope of a research is akin
to drawing a map for a journey; it outlines the terrain to be explored and the
boundaries within which the exploration will occur. This is essential for guiding
the research process, ensuring the investigation remains focused and relevant.
Elements of the scope include –

 Research Objectives: The specific aim the study is designed to achieve

 Geographical Coverage: The physical or virtual locations where the research
is conducted
 Time Frame: The period during which the study takes place
 Subject: The specific topics or issues the research intends to address
 Population Being Studied: The group of individuals, texts, organization or
phenomena being investigated
1.5 Research Questions
Research questions are the main questions that your study seeks to answer.
The formulation of well-defined research questions is central to addressing a
research problem. Clear research questions guide your research paper giving
your work a focus. They help the researcher develop methodologies, collect
data, and analyze results in a systematic and coherent manner. A good
research question should:
  Be clear and provide specific information so readers can easily
understand the purpose. Example of a vague and specific research
question: Vague- How are children affected by exposure to social
media? Clear – What is the effect of Instagram likes on the self-esteem
of young children under the age of 12? There is no specific information
on what “exposure” means. Does this refer to comments, likes,
engagement, or just how much time is spent on the social media
platform? Also, there is no useful information on what exactly
“affected” means. Does the subject’s behaviour change in some
measurable way? Or does this term refer to another factor such as the
user’s emotions?
 Be focused in scope and narrow enough to be addressed in the space
allowed by your paper. There are two main constraints to the research
process: time frame and budget. A good research question should able
to be executed within a feasible time frame.
 Be precise and complex enough that it does not simply answer a closed
“yes or no” question, but requires an analysis data to derive an answer.
 It must be relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Literature can be described as a summary of the previously published works on a

particular subject. It is often lengthy. It is important to note that the literature
review section is not a dumping ground for quotations and definitions. The idea is
to review/critique what others have said/done and lend your voice. You can do
this by looking at arguments and dissenting voices in a particular area and throw
in your weight. The literature review section is written under the following
headings:

 Conceptual Framework
 Theoretical Framework
 Empirical Studies
  Summary of the Literature Reviewed

2.1 Conceptual Framework

A conceptual framework is a representation of the relationship you expect to see

between your variables, or the characteristics or properties you want to study. It
is used to understand ideas and concepts and how they relate to each other. It
guides the development and analysis of the research by serving as a roadmap to
structure your work by providing an outline that connects different ideas and
concepts within the field of study. Conceptual frameworks are generally
developed based on a literature review of existing studies about your topic.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

A theoretical framework is a review of existing theorie(s) that serve as a roadmap

for developing the arguments you will use in your own work. This shows that your
work is relevant and grounded in established ideas. By framing your research
within a clearly defined theory, you make the reader aware of the assumptions
that inform your approach, showing the rationale behind your choices for later
sections like methodology and discussion. Theoretical framework should support
your analysis and help you interpret your results.

If you are using two or more theories in your study, it is important that you
triangulate them by saying how they all relate to your work. If there is a well -
established theory that you do not want to apply to your research, explain why it
is not suitable for your purpose.

2.3 Empirical Studies

An empirical study should provide information on the name of the author(s), the
title of the paper, year of publication, problem of the study, methodology,
findings and conclusion. It is important to find the limitations of the empirical
studies by further critiquing the reviewed empirical studies by highlighting the
strengths and weaknesses of the various methodological tools and techniques
adopted by the author(s) of the reviewed empirical studies.
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

A research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen

by a researcher to conduct a study. The design allows researchers to sharpen the
research methods suitable for the subject matter and set up their studies for
success.

Types of Research Design

Research design can be broadly classified into qualitative and quantitative.

 Qualitative Research is expressed in words. It is used to understand

concepts, thoughts or experiences. This type of research enables you to
gather in-depth insights on topics that are not well understood. Common
qualitative methods of data collection include interviews with open-ended
questions and ethnography.
 Quantitative Research is expressed in numbers and figures. It is used to test
or confirm theories and assumptions. Common qualitative methods include
experiments, observations recorded as numbers, and questionnaires with
close-ended questions.
Major Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Focuses on explaining and Focuses on quantifying and
understanding experiences and measuring phenomena.
perspectives.
Use of non-numerical data such as Use of numerical data such as
words, images, and observations statistics and surveys
Usually uses small sample size Usually uses large sample size
Typically emphasizes in-depth Typically emphasizes precision and
exploration and interpretation. objectivity.
Data analysis involves Data analysis involves statistical
interpretation and narrative analysis and hypothesis testing.
analysis.
Results are presented descriptively. Results are presented numerically
and statistically.

Research design can also be classified as pure or basic or fundamental

research and applied research design. Basic/pure/fundamental research is
a type of research approach that is aimed at gaining a better understanding
of a subject, phenomenon or basic law of nature. This type of research is
primarily focused on the advancement of knowledge rather than solving a
specific problem. Basic research can be descriptive, exploratory or
explanatory in nature. Applied research on the other hand is carried out to
solve practical problems. This type uses empirical methodologies such as
experiments to collect further data in an area of study. There are three
types of applied research:
 Action Research: this helps businesses find practical solutions to
problems guiding them.
 Evaluation Research: here, researchers analyze existing information
to help clients make informed decision.
 Research and Development: this focuses on creating new products
or services to meet the needs of a target market.
Types of research can be further broken down into these categories-
1. Descriptive Research: Here, a researcher is solely interested in
describing the situation or case under their research study. It is a
theory based method created by gathering, analyzing, and presenting
collected data. This allows a researcher to provide insights into the
why and how of research.
2. Exploratory Research: This establishes a relationship between the
cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal research design where
one observes the impact caused by the independent variable on the
dependent variable.
3. Explanatory Research: This uses a researcher’s ideas and thoughts on
a subject to further explore their theories. It explains unexplored
 aspects of a subject and details the research questions – what, how
and why.

3.2 Population of the Study

Study population is a subset of the target population from which the sample is
being selected. It is all individuals who possess the desired characteristics to
participate in the study.

3.3 Method of Data Collection

Data is a collection of facts, figures, objects, symbols, and events from different
sources. Data collection methods are techniques and procedures for gathering
information for research purposes. They can range from simple self-reported
surveys to more complex quantitative or qualitative experiments.

Types of Data Collection Methods

The choice of data collection method depends on the research question being
addressed, the type of data needed, and the resources and time available. Data
collection methods can be categorized into primary and secondary methods.

1. Primary Data: This is collected from first-hand experience and has not been
used in the past. It is data that has been generated by the researcher
himself/herself and specially designed for understanding and solving the
research problem at hand. The two main types of primary data qualitative
data and quantitative data. Quantitative data is data that can be
measured while qualitative data is data that cannot be quantified or
measured. Methods of primary data are:
a. Questionnaires – Questionnaires are a versatile and widely used data
collection method. Questionnaires offer a direct line of communication
with your audience, enabling you to gather specific data tailored to your
research objectives. Questionnaire can be used to collect either
qualitative or quantitative data or both. A questionnaire consists of a list
of questions respondents can answer in just one or two words and often
gives participants a list of responses to choose from. Questionnaires can
 be conducted online, over the phone, over email or in person.
Questions for questionnaire can be open-ended questions, close-ended
questions, Likert scale questions, multiple choice questions.
 An open-ended question is a type of research question that does
not restrict respondents to a set of predetermined answers
rather, respondents are required to fully articulate their thoughts,
opinions, and experiences.
 Closed-ended question on the other hand is one that limits
possible responses to options like- ‘yes/no, true/false, and the
like.
 Likert Scale Question is a type of psychometric question that
measures the respondent’s perception or opinion on a topic or
subject matter. It uses points to rank different opinions, thoughts
and experiences in line with the topic at hand and the overall
research context. Example of a 5 point Likert scale- very poor,
poor, average, good excellent/ strongly agree, agree, undecided,
disagree, strongly disagree.
 Multiple-Choice Question is one that gives respondents more than
two answer options to choose from. It is sometimes referred to
objective response questions and it requires the respondents to
choose the most relevant option from the available choices.
The advantages of a questionnaire include-
 It is cost-effective.
 It can be completed anonymously.
 It is easy to compare and analyze.
 It can be administered to many people.
 Lots of data can be generated through it.
A disadvantage of questionnaire is that it is impersonal and so,
you might not get an accurate feedback/data.
Steps in Designing a Questionnaire
1. Define your objectives: your aims/objectives will help you to turn your
variables into questionnaire items.
2. Use questions that are suitable for your sample: consider your samples
language proficiency and available time when answering the
questionnaire.
3. Decide your questions length and order.
4. Pretest your questionnaire. When you have a list of complete questions,
you will need to pretest it to make sure to make sure that your
questions are clear and unambiguous and to catch any errors before
performing your study.
b. Interviews- An interview is a one-on-one conversation where an
interviewer asks questions to the respondent. Interviews are best for
qualitative data collection because they allow the interviewer to get a
deeper understanding of the respondent’s experience by asking open-
ended and follow-up questions. However, it is time consuming to
conduct and analyze. Interviews can be obtained through:
 Personal Interview- In this method, the intervieweris expedcted to
ask questions face-to face to the other person.
 Telephone Interview- Here, the interviewer obtains information
by contacting people on the telephone.
c. Observation – is a method of gathering primary data in which a
researcher observes participants in their natural environment without
intervening or manipulating variables. It involves watching and taking
note on behaviour, actions and interactions and can be used to gather
information on attitudes, beliefs, and habits.

Types of Observation in Research

 Participant and Non-participant Observation: Participant
observation happens when the observer becomes a part of the
group being studied and actively participates in the activities
being studied non-participant observation on the other hand
involves observing from a distance without becoming a part of
the group.
  Overt and Covert Observation: Overt observation involves
observing people with their knowledge while covert
observation involves observing people without their
knowledge and consent.
 Naturalistic and Controlled Observation: naturalistic
observation involves observing people in their natural
environment without manipulating variables while controlled
observation involves observing people in a controlled
environment where variables can be manipulated to create
specific conditions (e.g lab).
d. Focus Groups – are similar to interviews as a method of data collection
but involve discussion between participants instead of one-on-one
conversations between interviewers and respondents. It explores a topic
in-depth through group discussions. This method needs a good
facilitator to anchor. It can also be hard to analyze responses.
e. Case Studies – This is a data collection method in which in-depth
descriptive information about specific entities, or cases, is collected,
organized, interpreted, and presented in a narrative format. It is a
comprehensive study of a social unit, be it a person, a group of persons,
an institution, a community or a family. It is extensively used in the
social sciences. It aims at obtaining a complete and detailed account of a
social phenomenon or a social event of a social unit.
2. Secondary Data: secondary data is collected by someone other than the
actual user/researcher. The information is already available and someone
analyzes it. Secondary data includes magazines, newspapers, books,
journals, e.t.c. it may also be published and unpublished data. Published
data are available in various resources including-
 Government publications
 Public records
 Historical and statistical documents
 Business documents
 Technical and trade journals
Unpublished data includes:

 Diaries
 Letters
 Unpublished biographies, e.t.c.

3.4 Method of Data Analysis

3.5 Sampling and Sampling Technique

Sampling is a technique /mechanism to collect data without surveying the entire

target population. A sample is a subset of the target population which possess the
appropriate characteristics for the proposed study. Sampling is important because
you cannot survey the entire population.

Sampling Techniques

There are two sampling methods- probability and non-probability sampling

methods.

1. Probability Sampling- This method is used to select objects from a

population based on probability techniques. Everyone is included in the
sample and has an equal chance of being selected. There is no bias in this
type of sample. Probability sampling can be categorized into four types-
a. Simple Random Sampling: this is the easiest way to select a sample.
The objects in this sample are chosen at random, and each member
has exactly the same probability of being selected.
b. Cluster Sampling: This is a method in which respondents are grouped
into clusters. These groups can be defined based on age, gender,
location, and demographic parameters.
c. Systematic Sampling: Here, individuals are chosen at equal intervals
from the population. A starting point is selected, and then,
respondents are chosen at predefined sample intervals.
d. Stratified Sampling: This is a process of dividing the population into
groups based on characteristics, and then the researcher randomly
selects from each group based on its size. In this method,
 respondents do not overlap but collectively represent the entire
population.
2. Non-Probability Sampling Technique: This sampling method uses the
researcher’s preference. It derives primarily from the researcher’s ability to
access the sample. Here, members of the population do not have the same
opportunity of being part of the sample. Non-probability sampling can be
categorized into-
a. Convenience Sampling: As the name implies, convenience sampling
represents the convenience with which the researcher can reach the
respondents.
b. Snowball Sampling: As a snowball speeds up, it accumulates more
snow around itself. Similarly, with snowball sampling, respondents
are tasked with providing preferences or recruiting samples for the
study once their participation ends.
c. Quota Sampling: This is a method where the researcher has the
privilege to select a sample based on its strata. In this method, two
people cannot exist under two different conditions.
d. Purposive Sampling: In this type, the researcher judges and develops
his sample on the nature of the study and the understanding of his
target audience. Only people who meet the research criteria and
objective are selected.

Reasons for Sampling

 Necessity: Sometimes, it is simply impossible to study the whole population

due to its size or inaccessibility.
 Practicality: It is easier and more efficient to collect data from a sample.
 Cost-effectiveness: There are fewer participants, laboratory, equipment,
and researcher costs involved.
 Manageability: Storing and running statistical analysis on smaller data sets
is easier and reliable.
 CHAPTER FOUR

Data Presentation and Analysis

Data presentation and analysis are crucial aspects of the research process. data
presentation involves presenting the data in a clear and concise way to
communicate the research findings. Data analysis involves processing and
analyzing the data to derive meaningful insights. The nature of your data (i.e
qualitative or quantitative) will be influenced by your research design and
purpose. The data will also influence the analysis method selected. Data can be
analyzed using the quantitative or qualitative method.

Qualitative Data Analysis

This turns non-numerical data such as surveys and interviews into insights.
Textual Analysis is a broad term for various qualitative research methods used to
describe, interpret and understand texts. A “text” has a broader meaning in this
context. It could mean a piece of writing such as a book, a transcribed
conversation or interview, social media content, billboard advertising, music
videos, etc. All kinds of information can be gleaned from a text – from its literal
meaning to the subtext, symbolism, assumptions, and values it reveals. The
method you use to analyze the text will vary according to the type of text and the
purpose of your analysis. Usually working within a particular framework,(e.g
postcolonial theory, conceptual metaphor theory) the researcher seek to connect
elements of their texts with the research problem. A textual analysis in literary
studies could look at connections between different texts, or seek to analyze a
text in a new and unexpected way. Examples of topics for textual analysis in
literary studies-

 Contemporary Perspectives on Gen der and Sexuality: A Study of …

 A Structural Analysis of …a poem

Some methods of textual analysis include:

1. Content Analysis: This is a qualitative data analysis method that

systematically analyses texts to identify patterns or specific features.
Content analysis is a prevalent qualitative data analysis method as it is
relatively easy to do and can be done by anyone with a good understanding
of the data. Researchers use content analysis to find out about the
purposes, messages, and effects of communication content.

Example: Topic- Identity Construction in Social Media: An Analysis of Facebook

Profiles

Research Question 1 – how do users construct their identities on Facebook?

2. Thematic Analysis: identifies patterns and themes in data. It is helpful when

studying qualitative such as interview transcripts, social media profiles, or
survey responses. The most common approach to conducting thematic
analysis follows a six-step process -
 Familiarization- Get a thorough overview of all the data you
collected. This might involve transcribing audio or reading through
the text and taking initial notes to get familiar with it.
 Coding: The next step is to code the data. Coding means highlighting
sections of our text (usually phrases or sentences) and coming up
with shorthand labels or “codes” to describe their content.
 Generate Themes: Next, you look over the codes you have created,
identify patterns among them, and start coming up with themes.
 Review the Themes: make sure the themes are useful and accurate
representations of the data.
 Define and Name Themes: defining themes involves formulating
exactly what you mean by each theme and figuring out how it helps
 us understand the data. Naming themes involves coming up with a
succinct and easily understandable name for each theme.
 Writing: finally, you write up your analysis of the data.

Example- Conceptual Metaphor Analysis of Insecurity in Selected Editorials of

Nigerian Newspapers

Research question 1 – what are the conceptual metaphors employed by the

editorials in representing insecurity activities in Nigeria?

Themes: fear is safety

Fear is an entity death is a journey

Nigeria freedom is war

One Nigeria is religion

3. Discourse Analysis: This is a research method for studying written or spoken

language in relation to its social context. It aims to understand how
language is used in real life situations and how meaning is created in
different social contexts. It can be used to analyze written or spoken
language as well as non-verbal aspects of communication such as tone and
gesture. By analyzing these types of discourse, researchers aim to gain an
understanding of social groups and how they communicate.
4. Narrative Analysis: Researchers use narrative analysis to understand how
research participants construct stories and narrative from their own
personal experience. Narratives can be derived from journals, letters,
conversations, autobiographies, transcripts of in-depth interviews, focus
groups, or other types of narrative qualitative research and then used in
narrative research.
5. Grounded Theory Analysis:

Quantitative Data
Quantitative data is data that can be counted or measured in numerical values (i.e
that can be quantified).This is analyzing numerical data to locate patterns and
trends. Quantitative research uses numbers and statistics to systematically
measure variables and test hypothesis. For example, category-based variable like
gender, ethnicity, or native language could be all converted into numbers without
losing meaning. This contrasts against qualitative data analysis where the focus is
on words, phrases and expressions that can’t be reduced to numbers.
Quantitative data is used when a researcher needs to quantify a problem, answer
questions like “what”, “how many”, and “how often”. Example of quantitative
data analysis -

Variables Mean Median Mode

Age
Male
Female
No of updates
Informal
speech

5.0 Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1 Summary
A research summary is a piece of writing that summarizes your research.
Its primary goal is to offer the reader a detailed overview of the study with
the key findings. Summary requires you to synthesize a complex research
paper into an informative, self-explanatory snapshot. In writing a research
summary, you need to identify the significant points in the research and
condense it in a more straight forward form. Summary focuses on your
topic, methodology and findings.
Research Summary Guide
1. Why was this research done?
2. Who was surveyed?
 3. What was the methodology?
4. What were the key findings?
5.2 Conclusion
This section focuses on discussing the essential features and the
significant outcomes of your research. Your conclusion should be written
in such a way that it relates to the aim of your research paper. A
conclusion is a synthesis of critical elements and not just description of
points. For most research works, one to three paragraphs is enough for
conclusion, so, you have to be concise. the following steps can help in
writing your conclusion-
 Restate the research topic.
 Reiterate the objective of the study.
 Make a summary of the main points.
 Mention the relevance or outcomes.
 Wrap up your thoughts.
5.3 Recommendation
Recommendations are suggestions or advice provided to researchers to
guide their study on a specific topic. They are used to call for actions or
solutions to the problems you have investigated in your research. Strive to
highlight ways other researchers can reproduce or replicate your results to
draw further conclusions and suggest different directions that future
research can take. In writing your recommendations, avoid undermining
your own work but rather, offer suggestions on how future studies can
build upon it.

Abstract

An abstract is a 150-250 word paragraph that provides readers with a quick

overview of your essay or research and its organization. A well-written abstract
serves multiple purposes:

 It lets readers get the gist or essence of your research in order to decide
whether to read the full paper.
  It prepares readers to follow the detailed information, analyses, and
arguments in your full paper.
 It helps readers remember key points from your paper.
 Finally, search engines and bibliographic databases use abstracts, as well as
the title, to identify key terms for indexing your published paper. So, what
you include in your abstract and your title are crucial for helping other
researchers find your paper or article.

Abstracts generally contain four main elements:

1. Statement of the problem – What practical or theoretical problem does the

research respond to or what research question(s) did you aim to study?
2. Methodology – State the research methods used to answer your questions.
3. Results – Summarize the main research results.
4. Conclusion – what are the implications of your research?

Your abstract should be intelligible on its own because it enables a reader to

decide whether to read the entire work. You usually do not cite references in
abstracts. Also abstract is not divided into paragraphs but is a one-paragraph
writing.

Documentation Style

A documentation style is a standard approach to the citation of sources that the

author of a paper has consulted, abstracted, or quoted from. It prescribes
methods for citing references within the text, providing a list of works cited at the
end of the research paper. Citing sources gives credit where it is due which is a
founding principle of academic inquiry. It also helps in avoiding plagiarism (i.e,
copying of another person’s ideas, text or other creative work, and presenting it
as one’s own, especially without permission), which is an academic sin.
Documentation also allows your readers to locate sources you have consulted.

Different academic disciplines use different documentation styles. MLA which

stands for Modern Languages Association is often used in the humanities; APA
(American Psychological Association) on the other hand is mostly used in the
behavioural or social sciences. Other documentation styles include –
Chicago/Turabian style, American Political Association Style, etc.

What to Document

1. Direct quotations
2. Paraphrases and summaries
3. Information and ideas that are not common knowledge
4. Any borrowed material that might appear to be yours if there were no
citation