Introduction

INTRODUCTION

Archery is considered as a static sport that requires strength and endurance of the

upper body, especially the arms, waist and shoulder. The archer's skill is defined by the

ability to shoot an arrow at the target within a certain range of time with maximum

precision (Ertan et al., 2003). There are various level of competitions such as regional,

inter-university, national and international (the Olympic Games and World

Championships) for this sport (FITA, 2008). These usually last on average of five to

seven hours with 30 minute break every 2:00 to 3:00 competition. The most used

methods are: 1) Indoor: competition held indoors at distances between 18 and 30 meters,

originating in countries with harsh winters, where the practice was suspended for long

periods; and 2) Outdoor: the most traditional and main form of international competition

held with shots at long distances, between 30 and 90 meters (Gunshot, 2008) with target

sizes being 40 or 60 centimeters for indoors and either 80 or 122 centimeters for

outdoors.

Targets have five colors with each color being divided into two to provide 10

scoring zones. The innermost ring is given a value of 10 points, down to the outermost

ring with a value of 1 point. Target rounds involve shooting a set number of arrows over

one or several distances. Indoor events involve shooting a total of either 30 or 60 arrows;

with outdoor events shooting 72, 90, 120 or 144; arrows are shot

(http:/topendsports.com)

In archery, as in many other sports, the proximity of the competition is cause for

anxiety, which, depending on the competitive level, may impose a great stress, this

intervening factor in the athlete precision degree and therefore decisive performance

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Introduction

(Oppermann, 2008). The accumulation and interaction of stressors during periods of

training and intervals can help to explain how the changes occur in athletic

performance (Midgley et al., 2003) in fact, stress must be expressed in different ways in

each individual. The anthropometric profile of an athlete, plays an important role in

determining his or her potential for success within a sport (Claessens et al., 1994; Landers

et al, 2000; Slater et al., 2005), Hand anthropometry has been studied by Harman (1981),

Radwin and Oh (1991), Different et al., (1981), Greiner (1991), Atkins (1992) and Oh

and Radwin (1993). In fact it was reported earlier that anthropometric dimensions and

morphological characteristics play an important role in determining the success of an

athlete (Reco-Sanz, 1998; Wilmore and Costill, 1999; Keogh, 1999). Not much literature

is available towards static balance, anthropometric characteristics and performance tests

in archery, especially in Indian context. Thus, to fulfil the lacunae of knowledge, the

present study was undertaken.

BALANCE:

Balance is the ability to maintain the body's position over its base of support,

whether that base is stationary or moving. Controlling postural sway during stable

conditions is called static balance (Spirduso, 1995).

Balance as a component of motor function is ensured through the connection

among sight, deep sensory organs and motor system. Balance can be changed according

to the musculoskeletal system, age, visual and vestibular stimulation and the unity of

these components.

Balance and other physical features play an important role in displaying sport skill

successfully. Balance is defined as a sensomotoric ability which tries to protect it while

standing and in motion. As for the sense of balance, it is the ability to balance the body

and to maintain the balance (Akgun et al, 1990).

Balance is the base for all the movements and is affected by various factors. This

ability is useful for solving motor problems emerging in such conditions in which there

tight side fields and balance can easily be lost due to the change in gravity center of

the body (Makris et al, 1993).

The delay which is seen in the activities that require the ability of balance such as
standing on one foot is considered to be arising from the late occurrence of the reaction of

head coordination and body position and the reaction against leaning back. Vestibular,

throat deep senses and asymmetric touching stimulation are deemed to have a role in the

reaction peculiar to posture (Lepore et al., 1998).

Perception of visual stimulation and any disorder in the mechanism involving the

supply of balance result in lack of coordination in the movements. Vestibular system is a

special system which ensures balance with the help of visual stimulations depending

upon the position of the head. Balancing occurs by means of muscular tonus and

neuromuscular reflection under the control of this system (Kalyoncu, 1997).

Postural control (or balance) can be defined statically as the ability to maintain a

base of support with minimal movement, and dynamically as the ability to perform a task

while maintaining a stable position (Winter et al, 1990). This ability is influenced by a

complexity of factors, that are sensory information, joint range of motion (ROM) and

strength (Grigg, 1994; Nasher et al., 1982; Palmieri et al., 2003; Palmieri et al, 2002), and

it is responsible for the correct execution of complex sport movements, as well as for

protection against injuries. Some literature evidence suggested that a superior balance

among experienced athletes was the result of repetitive training experiences that

influence motor responses (Baiter et al., 2004); others argued that superior balance was

the result of training experience influencing a person's ability to attend to relevant

proprioceptive and visual cues (Ashton-Miller et al., 2001). The research findings

therefore suggested that changes in both sensory and motor systems influenced balance

performance and such changes seem to be more effective if induced in children, during

the appropriate age ranges, by means of specific training (Weineck, 2001). The

assessment and the periodic monitoring of static and dynamic balance in young athletes

can be an important instrument in order to correctly detine and change training programs,

taking into account the sport practiced, the rate of improvement in balance scores over

time and the athlete's age. This would allow maximizing, in each period of the athlete's

body development, the harmonic creation and optimization of a wide setting of

fundamental motor abilities.

According to (Mononen et al., 2007), postural balance was related to the shooting

accuracy both directly and indirectly through rifle stability. As the role of postural

balance appeared to be important in shooting performance, the use of additional balance

training programs to improve a shooter's postural skills should be encouraged. The

experienced shooters were able to stabilize their posture even better during the last

seconds preceding the shot, whereas in naive shooters there were no significant

differences when the successive windows were compared with each other (Era et al.,

1996).

According to Aalto et al, (1990) the shooters had significantly better stability

than untrained control subjects, when tested without supportive clothing. The Romberg

quotient was higher in shooters than in normal controls, indicating that the shooters used

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Introduction

an increased amount of proprioceptive and vestibular cues to stabilize their posture. The

good postural stability of the shooters apparently results from assiduous training aimed to

improve postural stability

Study of fixation stability and saccadic latency in elite shooters and concluded

that for shooters, time did not have an effect on fixation stability, and they had more

stable fixation than controls in the distracters condition. Results indicate a difference

between groups on both the temporal span of attention and selective attention (Francesco

Di- Russo et al., 2003)

1.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

Static balance is one of the most influential factors in archery. The archery sport

demands precise and well-coordinated movements, a good sense of balance and

flexibility of the body and limbs, archery is a sport based on absolute concentration. But

there is very less evidence available about the role of static balance and anthropometry on
the performance of the archers. So the present study is an attempt to provide ample

amount of data on impact of static balance and anthropomctric characteristics on archers.

It would help the coaches, players and physiotherapists in dealing with archers and

designing specific training program.

1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The present study was performed with the following objectives:

To evaluate the static balance tests in the inter-university level archers.

To study the selected anthropometric characteristics in the inter-university level

archers.

. Introduction

To compare the static balance tests and selected anthropometric characteristics in

the inter-university level archers and controls.

To establish correlations with the static balance tests and selected anthropometric

characteristics in the inter-university level archers.

LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

Following were the limitations of the present study:

Age group 18-25 years.

Sample was taken fron inter-university level archery competitions only.

Samples size was 100 archers and 100 controls only.

1.3

1.4 HYPOTHESIS

There would be significant differences in the static balance tests and selected

anthropometric characteristics in the inter-university level archers and controls. There

would be significant correlations between the static balance and selected anthropometric

characteristics in the inter-university level archers.

1.5 NULL HYPOTHESIS

There would be no significant differences in the static balance tests and selected

anthropometric characteristics in the inter-university level archers and controls.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The significance of literature review for seeking guidance, experience,

knowledge, and wisdom for any new study is indispensable. In order to conduct any

scientific study, the review of previous studies done on the topic is a preliminary

requirement, as it avoids duplication of the study, adds up new ideas, and helps in

verification of thecories and making of typothess

Taking into consideration the above facts, extensive effort have been put in to

collect articles, papers, documents, and reports related to this study, even though very

less literature was available on this topic. This chapter presents all reviews that directly or

indirectly bear relationship to the present study.

Tabrizi et al. (2013) compared the static balance with the dynamic one and their

relationship with the anthropometric characteristics in the athletes of selected sports. 50

healthy athlete students (16 handball players, 9 basketball players, 15 futsal players and

10 volleyball players) who had participated in the sport events of Azad University's

region 1, were involved voluntarily. By the use of caliper, measuring tape and digital

scale, anthropometric characteristics were measured. The static balance was measured by

the stork test and the dynamic balance was evaluated by using the YBT in three

directions. The results of the study showed that the static balance has a significant

difference between the handball and volleyball groups (P= 0.018). Also, the dynamic

balance between the handball and volleyball groups (P 0.010) and basketball and

volleyball groups (P 0.017) showed a significant difference. The results of Pearson's

correlation coefficient showed that the significant difference existed only in the height,

weight, pelvis perimeter, thigh perimeter and shin perimeter variables and the static

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balance of the athletes (Ps0.05). The results of Pearson's correlation coefficient also

showed that the athletes' dynamic balance had significant relationship with only the

weight, pelvis perimeter, thigh perimeter, shin perimeter, body fat and the BMI variables

(Ps0.05). In order to determine effectiveness of predictive anthropometrical variables on

the standard variable of static and dynamic balances, the multiple regression method was

used. The variables were brought in one block, which was not significant statistically. In

general, the results of the present study showed a correlation between the anthropometric

characteristics and the static and dynamic balances parameters.

Júlia-Maria-D' Andréa-Greve et al. (2013) evaluated the relationship between the

anthropometric factors of height, body mass, body mass index and postural balance and

to compare the balance indices between genders in the upright standing position, in

healthy adult subjects under conditions of instability. 40 individuals were subjected to

functional tests of body stability using the Biodex Balance System, and the resulting

indices were correlated with body mass, height, and body mass index, and also compared

between genders. Body mass was the main anthropometric factor that influenced

variations in postural balance, with a high correlation between groups and with all

variables. A linear regression analysis showed that body mass associated with BMI

explained 66% of the overall stability, and body mass explained 59% of the

anteroposterior stability index and 65% of the mediolateral stability index. In the female

ass explained 72% of the overall balance, 66% of the anteroposterior, and

group, body m

76% of the medio-lateral stability index.

movements to maintain postural balance. Height and BMI presented

correlations with balance. Women showed less movement than men on the Biodex

Balance System

Increased body mass required greater

moderate
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Koley and Gupta (2012) evaluated the static balance and its correlation with

selected anthropometric characteristics in 47 Indian elite male shooters aged 20-25 years

A total of ten anthropometric characteristics were measured i.e. height, weight, BMI

biceps and triceps skin folds, upper arm circumference in contraction and relaxation,

percent body fat, percent lean body mass and dominant right handgrip strength. Standing

balance test and stork balance test were also measured. An adequate number of controls

were also taken. One way ANOVA indicated significant differences (px0.020-0.001)

between shooters and their control counterparts in triceps skin fold, dominant right

handgrip strength and standing balance test. Bonferroni post-hoc test indicated significant

differences (ps0.001) between pistol shooters and their control counterparts in triceps

skin fold, between rifle shooters and controls (p20.006) in handgrip strength and between

pistol

strength was found to have significantly positive correlations with height, weight and

upper arm circumference in contraction.

shooters and controls (p0.020) in standing balance test. Dominant right handgrip

Koley et al. (2012) correlated three anthropometric characteristics, four body

composition parameters, two physical and two physiological characteristics on randomly

selected 63 inter-university volleyball players (38 males and 25 females) aged 18-25

years from six Indian universities. An adequate number of controls (n 102, 52 males

and 50 females) were also taken. One way analysis of variance showed significant (p

0.004-0.001) differences in all the variables between volleyball players and controls. In

volleyball players, significantly positive correlations were found between right and left

ere the

handgrip strength and all the variables studied except percent body fat (wh

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Kelly et al. (2011)

studied the influence of dynamic versus static core exercises on

erformance based fitness tests and concluded that both types of traning impr

ecific measures of core stability but did not transfer into the sport-related s

Ricotti (2011) studied the static and dynamic balance in young athletes and

cancluded that to create good adult athletes, it is of primary importance the attention th

yaid to a complete and harmonic development of motor abilities at early ages, above all

o cuncerning the specific age-related ones in each phase of the athlete's body development.

Presently, there was poor attention on such aspects, not only in practical training sessions,

but also concerning the existing literature. Few authors concentrated on the possible

strategies to improve children static and dynamic balance, and on the influence that

different sport activities had postural strategies at early ages.

Ogwumike et at. (2011) studied the balance performance of professional

footballers with long term lower limb musculoskeletal injury and concluded that balance

problems persisted in professional footballers with lower limb musculoskeletal injury.

Panjan et al. (2010) reviewed the of methods for evaluation of human body

balance and concluded that Clinical aid simple field test was today mainly used to assess

balance on Deny population and very rarely on athletes. These were not proper for

athletes, because in most cases they score maximum number of points (some more

difficult test can be exception here). Clinical test were widely used in risk for falls

evaluation mainly on elderly population. As the sport science research devoted a great

attention to the studies of elderly population and their related health and prevention

issues, the majority of basic metric characteristics were assessed on this particular

as for some

population. Nevertheless, evaluation of some basic metric char

acteristics w

10
tests irrelevant (when all subjects score the maximum number of points) as reported by

Sarabon and Omejec (2007). Therefore, scientists have to be aware of this problem. In

laboratory tests of static balance, only one technique stood out, i.e. measurement of COP

sway on a force place. Some other techniques (eg, magnetic recording devices) can be

used to measure COP sway: however, they measure only the sway of body part to which

they were attached. Many methods and parameters for the analysis of the COP sway were

proposed. Some of them were quite simple and some of them required more knowledge

about signal processing and time series analysis. At this point, no method or parameter

was the best in the interpretation of balance, because that was depended on a problem that

needed to be explained. In general, the reliabilities of those parameters for the specific

population were seldom higher than 0.90. This might indicate that only one parameter

could not model balance well enough. Thus, combinations of parameters may explain

(model) the behavior of balance more completely. Application of methods of machine

learning or data mining tools could be useful in further research work of the human body

balance.

Dynamic body balance is more complicated to evaluate than static body balance.

Thus, test require more equipment (also more advanced one) and also methods are more

complex than the one used in static balance analysis. Among dynamic balance test, there

are some very simple (e.g. SBAT and FRT), mainly used for clinical practice. On

other hand, very advanced equipment (e.g. EquiTest and Balance System SD) is also usod

in some clinical cases and more often in a research work. As mentioned previourby,

regarding the analysis of the COP sway, also for the analysis of dynamic body balazce

could be more effectively and comprehensively analyzed with application of method

machine learning or data mining tools.

Chaouachi et al. (2009) studied the anthropometric, physiological, and

performance characteristics of an elite international handball team. Twenty-one elite

handball players were tested and categorized according to their playing positions

goalkeepers, backs, pivots, and wings). Testing consisted of anthropometric

physiological measures of height, body mass, percentage body fat and VOzmax
performance measures of speed (5, 10, and 30 m), strength (bench press and squat)

unilateral and bilateral horizontal jumping ability, and a 5-jump horizontal test.

Significant differences were found between player's positions for some anthropometric

characteristics (height and percentage body fat) but not for the physiological or

performance characteristics. In conclusion, performance abilities between positions in

elite team- handball players appear to be very similar. The only differences observed

between the positions were in the height of backs and wings (6%), and in the percentage

body fat of goalkeepers and backs (62%). Height and body mass were not significantly

related to standing throw velocity. There were significant differences in the physical

characteristics among playing positions in the present study. The backs were significantly

taller than the wings (690), and the goalkeepers had a significantly greater percentage of

body fat than the backs (62%).

Nande et al. (2009) studies the anthropometric profile of female and male players

engaged in different sports disciplines. Irrespective of sex and sport disciplines, all

players were found to be shorter than their respective standard heights. Less than 50 %

groups of male players were found meeting the desirable body weight standards. Positive

correlations were derived between height and weight for majority of sport groups of

female and male players. Body weight was found to be directly proportional to shoulder

width with positive correlation. Body mass index revealed stronger correlation with

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weight than height. With the exception of volleyball players, male players involved in

other sports disciplines showed positive correlations between BMI and body weight (r

0.5 to 0.96), correlation was significant for weight lifters (0.01<p 0.05)

Barut et al. (2008) performed a cross-sectional study to compare hand-

anthropometric measurements and grip strength among volleyball, handball and

basketball sport groups. There were statistically significant differences in right and left
hand width, right and left third finger length, right and left handgrip strength values in

females. These significant differences were caused by handball players. Volleyball

players had the greatest grip strength among the males. The handball players had the

greatest grip strength when the whole study group was considered and handgrip strength

of female handball players was found to be significantly higher than the other females

Bressel et al. (2007) studied the Comparison of static and dynamic balance in

female collegiate soccer, basketball and gymnastics athletes and concluded that gymnasts

and soccer players did not differ in terms of static and dynamic balance. In contrast,

basketball players displayed inferior static balance compared with gymnasts and inferior

dynamic balance compared with soccer players.

Mononen et al. (2007) studied the relationships between postural balance, rifle

stability and shooting accuracy among novice rifle shooters and concluded that postural

balance is related to the shooting accuracy both directly and indirectly through rifle

stability. As the role of postural balance appeared to be important in shooting

performance, the use of additional balance training programs to improve a shooter's

postural stkills should be encouraged.

Russo, et al. (2005) studied the effect of practice on brain activity: an

investigation in top-level rifle shooters and concluded that differences between groups

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were found in the amplitude and latency of these components for right finger flexion (but

not for left finger flexion). BP and NS' latencies were longer for shooters than controls;

amplitudes were smaller. In contrast, no difference was found between groups for MP

and RAP amplitude or latency. Source analysis, based on a realistic model of the brain,

showed with high reliability (971% of variance explained) that the BP (time window:-

1500 400 ms), NS' (-400 50 ms), MP (0 +100 ms) and RAP (+100+200 ms) components

were generated in the supplementary motor area, primary motor area, primary motor area,
and somatosensory area respectively. No difference was found between groups regarding

the localization of generators of all components.

Goh et al. (2004) examined the relationships between percent body fat (PBF) and

various risk factors for cardiovascular disease and insulin resistance as well as how good

BMI and other anthropometric measures are as indices of obesity. They concluded that

the BMI cut off points of obesity for men and women are different. These BMI cutoff

points were most precise among all the other anthropometric indices studied.

Hoim et al. (2004) studied the effect of neuromuscular training on proprioception,

balance, muscle strength and lower limb function in female team handball players and

concluded that the ACL injury prevention training program improved dynamic balance in

an elite team handball players

Francesco-Di-Russo et al. (2003) studied the fixation stability and saccadic

latency in elite shooters and concluded that for shooters, time did not have an effect on

fixation stability, and they had more stable fixation than controls in the distracters

condition. Results indicate a difference between groups on both the temporal span of

ked to saccade,as

attention and selective attention. In the saccadic task, subjects were as

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fast as possible, towards a peripherally displayed target. Two conditions were used:

simple reaction to target onset and discrimination between targets and distracters.

Shooters had faster saccadic latency to targets than controls in both conditions. Finally, to

evaluate the effect of exercise on saccadic latency, we trained one control subject to

saccade to a target displayed at a constant spatial position. At the end of the training,

saccadic lateney reached a value comparable to that recorded in shooters. Learning was

largely retinotopic, not showing transfer to untrained spatial positions.

Chatterjee et al. (2002) evaluated and interprcted relationship of body mass index,
percentage of body fat, skinfolds and girth measurements in boys of 10-16 years. Skin

fold measurements were taken in the triceps, subscapular, supraspinal, chest, mid-thigh,

abdominal and calf areas, whereas BMI and %fat were determined using established

formulae. In this sample population, the mean values for arm girth and triceps skin fold

thickness were lower than those observed in affluent Indian boys. The increase in arm

and calf girth, as well as in height, was directly related to age. BMI was significantly

correlated with the sum of the girths in all ages, while the % body fat and sum of

skinfolds were significantly related to BMI only at the ages of 13 and 16 years.

irrespective of age, % body fat values correlated with both girths and skinfolds, which

suggested that both girths and skinfolds are good predictors of fatness.

Gregory S et al. (2000) studied on predicting shooting scores from physical

performance data and coneluded that significant correlations were found between

handgun marksmanship and dominant grip strength, combined grip strength, forearm

girth and second ray length, significance was only found when the genders were analyzed

together.

15

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Keogh (1999) studied anthropometric and fitness testing scores to discriminate

between players that were selected or not selected in an elite Under 18 Australian Rules

Football side. Results showed that the selected players were significantly (P<O.05) taller

and had greater upper body strength than non-selected players. This suggested that

physical conditioning and anthropometric measurements did play an important part in

determining selection in elite junior Australian Rules football teams.

Fuster et al. (1998) studied anthropometry and strength relationship of male-

females between 21 and 29 years. The results of nine anthropometric measurements and

four strength tests were evaluated. Males and females were analyzed separately in order

to determine whether the relationship of body typology to physical performance varies

according to gender regarding strength, maximum gender differences were observed for

pulling strength (females: 53% of male values), followed by hand grip (59%) and vertical

Jump (66%), in general, correlations among variables were significant (anthropometric,

strength, and anthropometric/strength).

Mazariegos et al. (1996) compared the body fat estimates using anthropometry

and bioelectric impedance analysis with the distinct prediction equation in elderly

persons. Mean percent body fat estimates for the overall population obtained from

anthropometry and BIA prediction formula ranged from 22.50%. Highly significant

intermethod correlations were seen but difference in fat estimation among the prediction

formula was noted and magnitude of the difference was the BIA formula dependent.

Era et al. (199) studied the postural stability and skilled performance - a study on

top-level and naive rifle shooters and concluded that the male top-level shooters could

stabilize their posture significantly better than female top-level or male national level

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shooters, who were, in turn, much more stable than naive shooters. The experienced

shooters were able to stabilize their posture even better during the last seconds preceding

the shot, whereas in naive shooters there were no significant differences when the

successive windows were compared with each other. When a comparison was made

between the best and worst 20 shots of each subject, a significant difference in balance

parameters was only observed among the naive shooters, who showed more pronounced

movement of the COF in the less successful trials. Among the highly trained top-level

shooters a miss in whole-body posture stabilization apparently seldom is a reason for a

poor result.

Tsuji et al. (1995) studied the relationship between grip strength and radial bone

mineral density in young athletes. In that study, radial BMD and grip strength were

measured in 10 male college wrestlers, 16 female college basketball players, and 12

female college tennis players. Radial BMD was measured in the distal and middle radius

by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA), Isometric grip strength was assessed with

a hand held dynamometer. A significant positive correlation was found between radial

BMD and grip strength in the dominant forearm, and between radial BMD and body

weight. Grip strength in the dominant forearm was significantly greater than in the non

dominant forearm. They concluded that grip strength was one of the determinant factors

of radial BMD in the dominant forearm of young college athletes.

Aghazadeh (1993) evaluates the effects of anthropometric variables weight,

. It was

height, frame size, and fat-free cross-sectional area (FFCSA) on grip strength

found that the sex and weight were the two variables which accounted for maximum

variation in grip strength among these variables along with height which see

m to

hppnto a lesser extent.

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Konig and Bhatia (1993) studied the relationship between the body fat and the

anthropometric variables in the young males of Switzerland. It was concluded that for

assessing body fat, model based upon fat mass (FM), absolute values were preferred over

model for prediction of percent fat (relative value)

Bale et al. (1991) studied young elite female basketball players for their

anthropometric, body composition and performance variables. The anthropometric

measures, vertical jump, anaerobic power, right and left grip strength and laterality were

also measured. Centers had the largest measures of physique and body composition

followed by the forwards and then the guards. These differences were significant,

particularly between the centers and the guards. The centers were much taller, had longer

limb lengths, hip widths and were more muscular.

Aalto et al. (1990) studied the postural stability in shooters and concluded that the

shooters had significantly better stability than untrained control subjects, when tested

without supportive clothing. The competition clothing reduced the sway velocity further

both in visual and non-visual conditions. The Romberg quotient was higher in shooters

than in normal controls, indicating that the shooters used to an increased amount of

proprioceptive and vestibular cues to stabilize their posture. The good postural stability of

the shooters apparently resulted from assiduous training aimed to improve postural

stability

Faria et al. (1989) reported the relationship of the anthropometric and physicai

characteristics of male junior gymnasts to performance. To evaluate the structurab

characteristics concomitant to excellence in gymnastics performance, body composition

anthropometric measurements, power, strength, and flexibility were determined in ju

18

Olympie Gymnastics competiton, Phsysical paranmeter mesasurements were performed on

65 male class I and class 2 all- around gymnasts. The mean percent body fat, 7.1 +-

1.6%, compared favourably with European gymnasts (7.07 +1-1.7%). Top class 2

gymnasts were significantly leaner (6.1 +/-0.8% fat) than class l (6.9-+/- 1.5% fat) and

class 2 (8.8 +/-3.2% fat). Grip strength was low for all groups.

Giliam (1985) studied the identification of anthropometric and physiological

characteristics relative to participation in college basketball Three anthropometric

characteristics were found as significantly contributing to participation. Basketball

players were 10.53 em taller and heavier in terms of lean body weight (9.39 kg.) than the

non-participants. No differences were found between total body weight, percent body fat,

and fat weight of the two groups. General muscular endurance of the players was 35%

greater than the non-players. No significant difference in predicted maximum oxygen

consumption was found between the basketball players (46.4 ml/kg.min.) and the non-

participants (42.7 ml/kg.min.).

Lohman et al. (1984) found that the accuracy and precision of skinfold

measurement are affected by the type of caliper, the training and experience of the
technicians and proper identification of skin fold site

Pollock and Jackson (1984) and Sloan and Shaprio (1972) compared the high

quality instruments such as Harpenden, Holatain and Lange skinfold calipers and found

that these provided a constant pressure (10g/mm2) throughout the range of measurement

(2 to 60mm). The Harpenden caliper had a better scale precision (0.2mm) than the Lange

caliper (1 mm)

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De et al. (1982) found the physical efficiency tests on Indian male inter-

university kabaddi players. The participants of inter-university kabaddi competition

showed higher values of height, weight, and surface area than average Indian population.

indicating better attainment of growth in them. Further, the values of respiratory

efficiency tests like, FEV1, MEFR and PEFR were also observed to be more in these

layers, probably due to training effects. The grip strength values were high in

cornparison to those of Indian football goalkeepers and hockey players.

De et al (1979) reported some physical efficiency tests on Bengali football

s, simple anthropometric measurements and physical efficiency tests were

goalkeepe

conducted on 21 football goalkeepers from West Bengal, India. The age of subjects

varied between 18 24 years (average 21.1 years). The height, body weight and surface

area were noted to be higher in the subjects of their present study than those reported for

average healthy Indian population, but lower than values from top Indian athletes

reported. The values of grip strength observed in that study could not be compared

because of unavailability of Indian norms.

Watson and O'Donovan (1977) studied the Factors relating to the strength of 53

post pubertal adolescent males. A strength index, composed of left and right handgrip and

back strengths, was related to anthropometric measurements and their derivatives

Strength was found to be positively related to all anthropometric measurements with the

exception of skinfold thickness, when body weight was held constant, strength was

positively related to arm circumference, bicondylar diameters of the humerus and femur

thigh volume, and b-acromial diameter, and negatively

Strength was not related to the level of habitual activity.

related to percentage of fat

Katch and McArde (1975) studied on 53 men and 69 women subjects for body

density, %body fat, lean body weight and residual volume. They concluded that the

general applicability of specific prediction formulas should not be assumed without

independent validation on different sampling of subjects.

Piscopo (1962) established norms and compared skinfold and other measurements

of 647 Italians, Jewish and Negro pre-adolescent boys. He concluded with thigh girth

approximately doubled upper arm girth measurements in all three groups, high

correlation's were found between skinfold and weight but low correlations were found

between skinfold and height.

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DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 DESIGN

A study design on cross-sectional research, in which subjects of different age

roups are included to provide a general description of body composition in relation to

physical strength in terms of static balance.

Selection of subject

The study was conducted on 200 subjects aged 18 - 25 years. Subjects gave their

informed consent and volunteered to participate in this study. They were divided into two

groups 100 archery players (50 male and 50 female) and 100 normal individuals (50 male

and 50 female).

Height, weight, BMI, upper arm circumference in contraction and relaxation,

skinfold viz, biceps, triceps, percent body fat, percent lean body mass, handgrip strength,

sit and reach test, standing balance test and stork balance test were taken on each subject

using standard techniques.

Data collection

Archers were collected from Guru Nanak Dev University campus, Amritsar

. An

adequate number of normal individuals were collected from the population of Amritsar

matching age, sex, socio-economic status, except the playing habit.

3.2 METHODOLOGY

Method

Demographic information was taken from each subject. Age was estimated with

reference from their respected identity card and documents registers.

The

study

was approved by the Institutional ethical committee. Subjects were

informed of the purpose of the trial and their signed informed consent was taken.

All the anthropometric measurement was taken on each subject by following

standard technique given by Wernier and Lourie (1969).

a. Equipment details

i. Weighing Machine

ii. Anthropometric Rod

ii. Steel Tape

iv. Harpenden Skin fold caliper

v. Hand Grip dynamometer

vi. Stopwatch

b. Side of testing

All the measurements were done from the dominant side as dominant side may

show development (IWGK, 1973). It is easier to work on the right side with right hand

(Singh and Bhasin, 1989).

c. Somatometric technique (Wernier and Lourie, 1969)

I. Measurement were taken with minimum clothes and shoe off.

II. Mark the land mark on erect subject, standing on the level floor against the wall.

II. Shoulders level, arm hanging down and palm touching the thigh.

IV. Subjects should not change position while taking the measurement.

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v.

The circumference was taken at the level where the respective muscle was most

developed.

KINANTHROPOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS

Criterta for selection of kinanthropometric variables

I. The integumentry variable should have a value in ethnic classification.

II. The landmark should be easy to locate under field condition.

III.

The landmark should be stable.

Sixteen kinanthropometric measurements as standardize by International

Biological Programme/Human adaptability {IBP/HA, (1969) were taken as follows

strictly according to the technique recommended by Martin and Sailer (1956), Tanner

(1964), de Garry et a., (1974), Ross et al., (1978) and Carter (1980) (International

Working group on Kinanthropometry) (IWGK).

1. Height

Instrument used: Anthropometric Rod

Procedure: It is the erect body length, vertical distance from vertex to floor. Vertex is

the highest point on the head when head is in horizontal plane. Height is measured in

centimeters (cm).

2. Body Weight
Instrument used: weighing machine.

Procedure: Measurement is taken with minimum clothes, when the bowel is empty. The

reading is taken from the reading scale on the machine in kg.

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3. BMI

By using formula

Weight/Height

Where,

Weight in kg

Height in meters

4. Handgrip Strength

Instrument used: Handgrip Dynamometer

Procedure: The subject stands erect and holds the dynamometer in the dominant hand

with arm hanging by the side. The grip test is repeated three times and the best reading is

taken into consideration

5. Upper arm circumference (Mid arm circumference in relaxation)

Instruments used: Steel tap.

Procedure: Mid arm circumference is the maximum circumference of the upper arm of

the dominant side in the relaxed position.

6. Upper arm circumference (Mid arm circumference in contraction)

Instruments used: Steel tape.

Procedure: Mid arm circumference of the upper arm during an isometric contraction of

muscle biceps brachii at 90° of elbow flexion.

7. Biceps skin fold

Instruments used: Herpenden skin fold caliper.

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Procedure: It is measured on the mid upper arm over the biceps muscle. The subject is

asked to stand erect hanging the arms freely by the side. On the right arm, skin and

subcutaneous fold over the biceps muscle is picked up to 1cm longitudinal fold and the

jaws of the caliper are applied on the fold. Results are recorded from the circular reading

scale of the skin fold caliper in millimeter.

8. Triceps skin fold

Instrument used: Herpenden skin fold caliper.

Procedure: It is measured on the mid upper arm over the triceps muscle. The subject is

asked to stand erect hanging the arms freely by the side. On the right arm, skin and

subcutaneous fold over the biceps muscle is picked up to 1 cm longitudinal fold and the

jaws of the caliper are applied on the fold. Results are recorded from the circular reading

scale of the skin fold caliper in millimeter.

000 Body Fat

By using formula:

% Body Fat 1.37 x BMI-3.47

10, %Lean Body Mass

By using formula:

% I ean Body Mass = 100-% Body fat

11. Standing balance test

Procedure: The person stands on one leg for as long as possible. Give the subject a

minute to practice their balancing before starting the test. The timing stops when the

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elevated foot touches the ground or the person hops or otherwise loses their
position. The best of three attempts is recorded. Repeat the test on the other leg.

Scoring: Time the total length of time person can stay in the balance position.

balance

12. Stork balance test

Procedure: Remove the shoes and place the hands on the hips, then position the non-

supporting foot against the inside knee of the supporting leg. The subject is given one

ute to practice the balance. The subject raises the heel to balance on the ball of the

foot. The stopwatch is started as the heel is raised from the floor. The stopwatch is

stopped if any of the follow occurs:

min

The hand(s) come off the hips.

The supporting foot swivels or moves (hops) in any direction.

The non-supporting foot loses contact with the knee.

The heel of the supporting foot touches the floor.

>

Scoring: The total time in seconds is recorded. The score is the best of three attempts.

The adjacent table lists general ratings for this test.

Rating

Excellent

Good

Average

Fair

Poor

Score (seconds)

>50

40-50

25-39

10-24

<10
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STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

The various statistical formulae, which have been used for the analysis of present

data, are presented as follows:

1. Arithmetic Mean (s):

Arithmetic mean gives the average value of the whole range of data given by

adding together all the items and dividing this total by the number of items, and is given

by the following formula.

Where

X Arithmetic Mean

N= Total Number of Individuals

EX- Sum of all variables

2. Standard Deviation (S. D.)

It gives the degree of dispersion or deviation of the recorded data from the mean.

It is given by the formula:

Where

X- X

N Total Number of variables

S.D. Standard Deviations

Deviation of variables from the mean

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