THEORY AND RESEARCH

The purpose of science concerns the expansion of knowledge, the discovery of truth and to make
predictions. Theory building is the means by which the basic researchers hope to achieve this
purpose.
A scientist poses questions like: What produces inflation? Does student-teacher interaction
influence students' performance? In both these questions there is the element of prediction i.e.
that if we do such and such, then so and so will happen. In fact we are looking for explanation
for the issue that has been raised in these questions. Underlying the explanation is the whole
process through which the phenomenon emerges, and we would like to understand the process to
reach prediction.
Prediction and understanding are the two purposes of theory. Accomplishing the first goal allows
the theorist to predict the behavior or characteristics of one phenomenon from the knowledge of
another phenomenon's characteristics. A business researcher may theorize that older investors
tend to be more interested in investment income than younger investors. This theory, once
verified, should allow researchers to predict the importance of expected dividend yield on the
basis of investors' age. The researcher would also like to understand the process. In most of the
situations prediction and understanding the process go hand in hand i.e. to predict the
phenomenon, we must have an explanation of why variables behave as they do. Theories provide
these explanations.
Theory
As such theory is a systematic and general attempt to explain something like: Why do people
commit crimes? How do the media affect us? Why do some people believe in God? Why do
people get married? Why do kids play truant from school? How is our identity shaped by
culture? Each of these questions contains a reference to some observed phenomenon. A
suggested explanation for the observed phenomenon is theory. More formally, a theory is a
coherent set of general propositions, used as principles of explanations of the apparent
relationship of certain observed phenomena. A key element in this definition is the term
proposition.
Concepts
Theory development is essentially a process of describing phenomena at increasingly higher
levels of abstraction. A concept (or construct) is a generalized idea about a class of objects,
attributes, occurrences, or processes that has been given a name. Such names are created or
developed or constructed for the identification of the phenomenon, be it physical or non-
physical. All these may be considered as empirical realities e.g. leadership, productivity, morale,
motivation, inflation, happiness, banana.
Theory and Research
Basic to modern science is an intricate relation between theory and research. The popular
understanding of this relationship obscures more than it illuminates. Popular opinion generally
conceives of these as direct opposites: theory is confused with speculation, and thus theory
remains speculation until it is proved. When this proof is made, theory becomes fact. Facts are
thought to be definite, certain, without question, and their meaning to be self evident.
When we look at what scientists actually do when engaged in research, it becomes clear (1) that
theory and fact are not diametrically opposed, but inextricably intertwined; (2) that theory is not
speculation; and (3) that scientists are very much concerned with both theory and fact (research).
Hence research produces facts and from facts we can generate theories. Theories are soft mental
images whereas research covers the empirical world of hard, settled, and observable things. In
this way theory and fact (research) contribute to each other.
Role of Theory
1. Theory as orientation.
A major function of a theoretical system is that it narrows the range of facts to be studied. Any
phenomenon or object may be studied in many different ways. A football, for example, can be
investigated within an economic framework, as we ascertain the patterns of demand and supply
relating to this play object. It may also be the object of chemical research, for it is made of
organic chemicals.
It has a mass and may be studied as physical object undergoing different stresses and attaining
certain velocities under various conditions. It may also be seen as the center of many
sociologically interesting activities play, communication, group organization, etc.
Each science and each specialization within a broader field abstracts from reality, keeping its
attention upon a few aspects of given phenomena rather than on all aspects. The broad
orientation of each field then focuses upon limited range of things while ignoring or making
assumptions about others.
2. Theory as a conceptualization and classification.
Every science is organized by a structure of concepts, which refer to major processes and objects
to be studied. It is the relationship between these concepts which are stated in "the facts of
science." Such terms make up the vocabulary that the scientist uses. If knowledge is to be
organized, there must be some system imposed upon the facts which are observable. As a
consequence, a major task in any science is the development of development of classification, a
structure of concepts, and an increasingly precise set of definitions for these terms.
3. Theory in summarizing role.
A further task which theory performs is to summarize concisely what is already known about the
object of study. These summaries may be divided into two simple categories: (1) empirical
generalizations, and (2) systems of relationships between propositions.
Although the scientist may think of his field as a complex structure of relationships, most of his
daily work is concerned with prior task: the simple addition of data, expressed in empirical
generalizations.
The demographer may tabulate births and deaths during a given period in order to ascertain the
crude rate of reproduction. These facts are useful and are summarized in simple or complex
theoretical relationships. As body of summarizing statements develops, it is possible to see
relationships between thee statements
Theorizing on a still larger scale, some may attempt to integrate the major empirical
generalizations of an era. From time to time in any science, there will be changes in this
It is through systems of propositions that many of our common statements must be interpreted.
Facts are seen within a framework rather than in an isolated fashion.
4. Theory predicts facts.
If theory summarizes facts and states a general uniformity beyond the immediate observation, it
also becomes a prediction of facts. This prediction has several facets. The most obvious is the
extrapolation from the known to the unknown. For example, we may observe that in every
known case the introduction of Western technology has led to a sharp drop in the death rate and a
relatively minor drop in the birth rate of a given nation, at least during the initial stages. Thus we
predict that if Western technology is introduced into a native culture, we shall find this process
again taking place.
Correspondingly we predict that in a region where Western technology has already been
introduced, we shall find that this process has occurred.
5. Theory points gaps in knowledge.
Since theory summarizes the known facts and predicts facts which have not been observed, it
must also point to areas which have not yet been explored.
Theory also points to gaps of a more basic kind. While these gaps are being filled, changes in the
conceptual scheme usually occur. An example from criminology may be taken. Although a
substantial body of knowledge had been built up concerning criminal behavior and it causes. A
body of theory dealing with causation was oriented almost exclusively to the crimes committed
by the lower classes.
Role of Facts (Research)
Theory and fact are in constant interaction. Developments in one may lead to developments in
the other. Theory, implicit or explicit, is basic to knowledge and even perception. Theory is not
merely a passive element. It plays an active role in the uncovering of facts. We should expect
that "fact" has an equally significant part to play in the development of theory. Science actually
depends upon a continuous stimulation of fact by theory and of theory by fact.
1. Facts initiate theory.
Many of the human interest stories in the history of science describe how a striking fact,
sometimes stumbled upon, led to important theories. This is what the public thinks of as a
"discovery." Examples may be taken from many sciences: accidental finding that the penicillium
fungus inhibits bacterial growth; many errors in reading, speaking, or seeing are not accidental
but have deep and systematic causes. Many of these stories take an added drama in the retelling,
but they express a fundamental fact in the growth of science, that an apparently simple
observation may lead to significant theory.
2. Facts lead to the rejection and reformulation of existing theory.
Facts do not completely determine theory, since many possible theories can be developed to take
account of a specific set of observation. Nevertheless, facts are the more stubborn of the two.
Any theory must adjust to facts and is rejected or reformulated if they cannot be fitted into its
structure.
Since research is continuing activity, rejection and reformulation are likely to be going on
simultaneously. Observations are gradually accumulated which seem to cast doubt upon existing
theory. While new tests are being planned, new formulations of theory are developed which
might fit these new facts.
3. Facts redefine and clarify theory.
Usually thee scientist has investigated his/her problem for a long time prior to actual field or
laboratory test and is not surprised by his/her results. It is rare that he/she finds a fact that simply
does not fit prior theory
New facts that fit the theory will always redefine the theory, for they state in detail what the
theory states in very general terms. They clarify that theory, for they throw further light upon its
concepts.
Theory and Research: the Dynamic Duo
Theory and research are interrelated; the dichotomy between theory and research is an artificial.
The value of theory and its necessity for conducting good research should be clear. Researchers
who proceed without theory rarely conduct top-quality research and frequently find themselves
in confusion.
Researchers weave together knowledge from different studies into more abstract theory.
Likewise, who proceed without linking theory to research or anchoring it to empirical reality are
in jeopardy of floating off into incomprehensible speculation and conjecture