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The document outlines the course FST 2201: Introduction to Food Science and Technology at Kano University, detailing its core curriculum, grading scheme, and essential definitions related to food science. It covers the evolution of food processing and preservation, the scope of food science including food chemistry, microbiology, packaging, engineering, and safety. The course aims to provide students with knowledge and skills necessary for the development and distribution of safe and nutritious food.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
6 views48 pages

FST 2201 Updated-1

The document outlines the course FST 2201: Introduction to Food Science and Technology at Kano University, detailing its core curriculum, grading scheme, and essential definitions related to food science. It covers the evolution of food processing and preservation, the scope of food science including food chemistry, microbiology, packaging, engineering, and safety. The course aims to provide students with knowledge and skills necessary for the development and distribution of safe and nutritious food.

Uploaded by

zabbaahmad2003
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DEPARTMENT OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE AND AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY


KANO UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, WUDIL

FST 2201:
INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

LECTURE NOTE

2018/2019 SESSION

0
Course Particulars

Course Code: FST 2201

Course Title: Introduction to Food Science and Technology

No. of Units: 2

Course Duration: Two hours of theory per week for 12 weeks.

Status: Core

Course Outline

Definition of food, Definition of Food Science and Technology, Development in Food


Science and Technology, Scope of Food Science and Technology, Review on global food
situation with emphasis to Nigeria, The role of Food Science and Technology in enhancing
national food supply, Classification of foods, Food composition, Basic principle of food
processing and preservation

Course Materials

1. Food Science and Technology; Edited by Geoffrey Campbell-Platt


2. Dictionary of Food Science and Technology; Compiled and edited by the
International Food Information Service
3. Feeding the World Today and Tomorrow: The Importance of Food Science and
Technology; An IFT Scientific Review
4. Principles of Food Chemistry 3rd Edition by John M. deMan,
5. Food Chemistry 3rd Edition; Edited by Owen R. Fennema
6. Introduction to Food Engineering 4th Edition by Singh R. P. and Dennis R.
7. Introduction to Food Science and Technology by Akpapunam M. A. and Igbabul B
8. Principles of Food Science and Technology Lectures’ Note by Fashakin, J. B.
National Open University of Nigeria.
9. Introduction to Food Science and Technology by George F. Stewart and Maynard A.
Amerine. Academic Press, New York and London 1973
10. Ghanendra G. & Bhaskar M. A. (2014). Challenges and prospects of food science and
technology education: Nepal’s perspective. Food Science & Nutrition, 2(6):623–627
11. European Commission Joint Research Centre. (2019, April 2). The number of people
affected by food crises remains at alarming levels. ScienceDaily. Retrieved June 21,
2019 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/04/190402113217.htm

Grading Scheme

Attendance, Assignment and Test 40%

Final Examination 60%

1
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Adulterant (adulteration) foreign material in especially substances which are objectionable,


hazardous to health, or which indicate that unsanitary handling or manufacturing practices
have been employed

Aerobic (anaerobic) an aerobic environment is one which contains oxygen; an anaerobic one
is without oxygen

Antimicrobial a compound which inhibits the growth of a microbe

Antioxidant a compound which delays the development of oxidative fat rancidity

Auto-oxidation the process of attack on fats by atmospheric oxygen which accelerates very
rapidly after an induction period

Blanching a hot water or steam treatment of food for the purpose of inactivating the
naturally present enzymes

Browning Reaction, a reaction in foods, usually deteriorative, involving amino (e.g., from
amino acids or proteins) and carbonyl (e.g., from glucose) groups; this reaction often leads to
a brown discoloration and sometimes to off flavours and changes in texture

Deterioration a non-biological, physical, or chemical change in food which adversely affects


quality

Enzyme a compound of biological origin which accelerates a specific chemical reaction (e.g.,
pepsin, which accelerates the hydrolysis of protein by hydrochloric acid)

Fermentation the biological conversion of a natural material into food or beverage (e.g.,
conversion of grape must to wine)

Food Additive a chemical intentionally added to food to improve some quality attribute (e.g.,
saccharin to increase the sweetness of a dietary food)

Intoxication the adverse physiological effects on an organism of consuming a toxic material

Maturation (aging) the process of developing quality in a product by aging under certain
conditions

Nutritional Inhibitor a natural component of food which adversely affects the utilization of
a nutrient

Palatability sensory attributes of food (e.g., aroma, flavour, texture, etc.) which affect their
acceptability

2
Pasteurization a heat treatment of food intended to destroy all organisms dangerous to health
or a heat treatment which destroys all or almost all organisms that cause food spoilage or that
interfere with a desirable fermentation.

Pesticide Residues small amounts of pesticides remaining in foodstuffs as a result of pest


control operations

Preservation Process of maintaining a food in its original or existing state by treatment that
will prevent its spoilage or deterioration

Processing Treatment of a raw material, such as a food, usually by applying a series of


actions or steps, to produce a specific end product

pH a measure of the acidity/alkalinity of a substance (technically pH is the log10 of the


reciprocal of the H ion concentration)

Quality Control a system for assuring that commercial products meet certain standards of
identity, fill of container, and quality

Rancidity an oxidative deterioration in food fat whereby a typical off odour and/or flavour is
produced

Sensory (sensory properties) pertaining to an impact of a food on the senses (e.g., vision,
odour, taste, tactile senses)

Shelf Life the amount of time (days, weeks, or months) that a food remains palatable

Spoilage a process whereby food is rendered unacceptable through microbial action

Staling a physical-chemical process in cereal products, especially bread, whereby a


characteristic "dry" texture develops

Sterilization a process, usually by heating, that destroys all microbes in a food

Water Activity a measure of water availability in food for microbial growth (technically it is
the ratio of the moisture-vapour-pressure of a food to the moisture-vapour-pressure of pure
water)

3
1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Food Science and Food Technology

Food is any substance, whether processed, semi-processed or raw, which is intended for
human consumption, and includes drink and any other substance which has been used in the
manufacture, preparation or treatment of food, which when consume meet physiological
needs for growth, maintain all body processes and supply energy to maintain body
temperature and activities.

Food Science is the study of the characteristics of foods, including chemical properties,
biochemical properties, physical properties, physicochemical properties and biological
properties, and effects of these on the quality of products. Also covers application of this
information to development of new products and efficient food processing techniques.

It is a broad discipline concerned with all the technical aspects of food, beginning with
harvesting or slaughtering and ending with cooking and consumption. Food Scientists have to
use the knowledge of biology, physical sciences and engineering to study the composition of
foods, changes that occur at various stages from harvest through different processes and
storage, causes of their spoilage and the principles underlying food processing. Food
scientists deal with physicochemical aspects of food, thus helping us to understand the nature
and properties of food.

Food Technology Application of a diversity of scientific and practical disciplines, including


chemistry, biology, physics and engineering, to the development of food products and to their
worldwide distribution.

Study of Food Technology gives in-depth knowledge of science and technology, and
develops skills for selection, storage, preservation, processing, packaging, distribution of
safe, nutritious, wholesome, desirable as well as affordable, convenient foods. Another
significant aspect of food technology is to save and utilize all the food produced.

Food Science and Technology ensures the delivery of a safe, nutritious, and abundant food
globally. It helps us to advance the food system, minimize risks, and maximize benefits. It
can address specific issues throughout the food system. Many raw food materials and
ingredients are transformed into consumable and safe foods that are available year round.

4
Developments in food science and technology have enhanced food safety and have kept the
quality consistent; provided reduction in nutrient deficiency-related diseases; reduced food
waste; decreased home food-preparation time; lower household food costs; products
specifically formulated to meet the nutritional needs of specific subpopulations; and efficient
global food distribution

1.2 Evolution of Food Processing and Food Preservation

Pre-Neolithic

Primitive forms of man gathered food as early as 1,000,000 years ago. Harvesting wild fruits
and vegetables and catching small animals, insects, and fish were primitive man's method of
feeding himself. Peking man (possibly 250,000 years ago) used fire for cooking and hunted a
variety of animals, including man himself. During the Palaeolithic (early stone age) period
man not only roasted food but developed pounding and drying as methods of food
processing.

During Mesolithic (middle stone age) period hunting was man's dominant occupation. So
desperate was he for food that even large animals were hunted. The disappearance of some
species appears to have been due to such over hunting. Hunting is a dangerous method of
providing food regularly. The supply of animals varied and periods of starvation resulted.
Migration to other areas was often necessary to assure satisfactory hunting. Because of their
migratory nature, hunting of many species was highly seasonal. The all-meat diet was
uninteresting and the meat was difficult to keep.

As pottery making developed, a new food process; boiling, became possible. Smoking also
developed as a method of food preservation and provided a new flavour. Fish were probably
also first dried. The bow and arrow facilitated hunting. Some animals were domesticated,
including dog, sheep, goat and reindeer.

Neolithic (New Stone Age) Period and the Neolithic Revolution

The Neolithic period marks the change from a food gathering and hunting economy to one of
food production. The transition Was gradual, started at various times in different
geographical areas after about 9000 B.C. and was more or less complete in most, but not all,
parts of the world by about 1000 B.C. The cause of the Neolithic Revolution is not known.

5
The change to a warmer climate about this time may have induced man to leave his cave
dwellings and settle in the open. The warmer climate may also have stimulated his interest in
the domestication of plants and animals. In the early Neolithic period beef cattle, buffalo,
yak, and the pig were domesticated. Domesticated animals provided an easily available food
source (including milk); they also supplied fertilizer, while their skins were used as clothing.

The domestication of cereals led to significant changes in man's life style. The earliest
cultivated cereals were emmer and éinkorn wheat, barley, and rice; millet, oats, and
buckwheat followed. Man changed from a predominately carnivorous diet to a more balanced
vegetable and meat diet, from a nomadic life to an interest in the particular area where his
food is produced, from a life of periodic food shortages to one of food surpluses, and finally
to settled village life.

More important, cereals contained carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, and vitamins. They
could also be used for cattle feed, for bedding, for baskets, etc., and production could be
increased as demand increased. The domestication of other plants, particularly root crops and
corn, greatly expended the food supply

Domestication of fruits and plants that were used for their flavour also occurred during the
Neolithic period. The most significant early horticultural plants domesticated were dates, figs,
grapes, and olives, the first three have a high sugar content, particularly when dried, and the
last is as a source of oil. In addition to using onions and garlic for flavouring, a wide variety
of spices were employed: sage, thyme, fennel, wormwood, and others. Neolithic food
preparation was primarily a home industry

Copper, Bronze, and Iron Ages

Food preparation became more and more complex. Baking developed to provide a variety of
types of bread and confectionary. Leavened bread appears for the first time. Lactic acid
fermentation of vegetables (pickling) dates from this period. Filtration, flotation (to separate
olive oil), clarification (of beers and wines), and more complicated pressing were developed
by and for the food industries. Frying as a distinct type of food preparation was developed.
Addition of fat and spices to meat to prepare sausages created a new type of food that could
be stored (especially if smoked).

6
Dried fruits and fish were common. Cooling was practiced (with snow or by evaporation).
Perhaps the outstanding development of this period was the short- and long-range transport of
food. The wheeled cart and the sailing ship led to long-range transportation of food.

Today, our production-to-consumption food system is complex, and our food is largely safe,
tasty, nutritious, abundant, diverse, convenient, and less costly and more readily accessible
than ever before. This vast food system includes agricultural production and harvesting,
holding and storing of raw materials, food manufacturing (formulation, food processing, and
packaging), transportation and distribution, retailing, foodservice, and food preparation in the
home.

The impact of modern food manufacturing methods is evident in today’s food supply. Food
quality can be maintained or even improved, and food safety can be enhanced. Sensitive
nutrients can be preserved, important vitamins and minerals can be added, toxins and
antinutrients (substances such as phytate that limit bioavailability of nutrients) can be
removed, and foods can be designed to optimize health and reduce the risk of disease. Waste
and product loss can be reduced, and distribution around the world can be facilitated to allow
seasonal availability of many foods.

Canning, chemical preservation, refrigeration (including chilling and freezing), and nutrient
conservation and fortification were the significant advances of the 19th and 20th centuries.

Food Science and Technology was brought into teaching and research after the Second World
War because there was obvious loss of land for cultivation and there is an eminent increase in
population for the past 20 years. Food Science and Technology was first introduced in the
University of Strathclyde then Royal College of Science and Technology in Glasgow (Scotland).
The field is now widely spread and accepted in countries over the world.

1.3 Scope of Food Science and Technology

Food Chemistry

Is concern with analytical, biochemical, chemical, physical, nutritional, and toxicological aspects
of foods and food ingredients. Food chemistry is the study of the composition of foods, their
properties and how they interact with each other and the environment and also include Food
Analysis which is subdivided into two main areas, qualitative and quantitative analysis. The

7
former involves the determination of unknown constituents of a substance, and the latter
concerns the determination of the relative amounts of such constituents. The long-term goals of
research in food chemistry are to understand relationships between the structure and functional
properties of food molecules and to improve the nutritional, safety and organoleptic aspects of
food.

Food Microbiology

Food microbiology is the scientific study of microscopic organisms and their effects in food
systems. Microbiology is important to food safety, production, processing, preservation, and
storage. Microscopic organisms commonly encountered in food systems are bacteria and fungi
(comprising yeasts and moulds). In production of foods and food ingredients beneficial microbes
are used in fermentative production, processing, and preservation of many foods and beverages.

Food Packaging

Packaging of food is essential to make sure the food remains wholesome during its journey from
processor to consumer. Packaging contains food, makes it easier to handle, and protects it from
environmental conditions, such as temperature extremes, during transport. It locks out
microorganisms and chemicals that could contaminate the food, and helps prevent physical and
chemical changes and maintain the nutritional qualities of food. The type of food and the
processing method used often influence the choice of packaging. For example, since oxygen
makes fats go rancid, oils are packaged in containers that are impermeable to oxygen. Metal and
glass containers have traditionally been used in canning because these materials can withstand
the high temperatures and changes in pressure that are involved in this process.

Food Engineering

Food engineering applies engineering principles to food and food processing equipment.
Because engineering is a quantitative discipline, the food engineer’s fundamental tool is
mathematics. Chemistry and microbiology are also important disciplines because processes of
concern to food engineers may involve chemical reactions, microbial interactions, or both.
Courses are available in thermal processing and other unit operations, physical and engineering
properties of foods, rheology, and food packaging.

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Dairy Science

Dairy science involves the chemistry, microbiology, and engineering properties of dairy foods.
Long-term goals of the dairy science are to improve the quality and safety of milk and processed
dairy products and to develop improved methods for the manufacture of dairy products.

Food Safety

Encompasses activities and policies those are essential for ensuring that food will not cause
injury or illness upon consumption. It covers study of agro-chemical toxins, environmental
toxins, microbial toxins and naturally occurring toxins.

Food Waste Processing Technology

The increasing importance of pollution control and energy and resource conservation has created
a demand for people trained in food processing waste technology in industry, government, and
research institutions. The primary objective of research in this area is to convert by-products of
food processing operations to usable materials. For example, processes using ultra-filtration
technology have been developed to concentrate cheese whey proteins for use as food ingredients.
Experiments are under way to develop practical methods of converting fruit and vegetable
processing wastes into fuels, chemicals, biological, and food ingredients.

Sensory Science

Sensory science is the sub-field of food science that uses people to describe and evaluate
characteristics, which may include flavours/aroma, tastes, textures, appearance and other food
attributes. Sensory evaluation practices are integral to product developers. Sensory techniques
can be used to optimize developing products and monitor and control quality of the finished
products.

Food Biotechnology

This enables in the determination of new food product through genetically modified foods and
process of case of long term food processing such as fermentation by producing enzymes and
genetically modified micro-organisms. Thus the basic science of physics, chemistry, and biology
involves as well the science of biochemistry and microbiology.

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Food Product Development

This is a branch of Food Science that manages invention of new food products and also
upgrading the existing products in a better way. Professionals in this field are aiming in creating
varieties; improving profit by reducing production cost, ensuring acceptability and boasting raw
materials utilization.

Food Processing and Preservation

Food Processing is a branch of food Science that ensures transformation at the same time
production of foods from their natural forms and also helps in developing a variety of products,
while Food preservation deals with the aspects of prolonging the shelf life of food products or
produce. Processing is an aspect of preservation.

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2.0 GLOBAL FOOD SITUATION WITH EMPHASIS TO NIGERIA

2.1 Global Food Situation

Countries in Africa remained disproportionally affected by food insecurity (Global Report on


Food Crises, 2019). Worst and severe food crises in 2018 were reported in Yemen, the
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Afghanistan, Ethiopia, Syria, Sudan, South Sudan
and northern Nigeria. These eight countries accounted for two thirds of the total number of
people facing acute food insecurity amounting to nearly 72 million people.

Over 100 million people annually faced periods of acute hunger in the last three years. The
figure of 113 million people represents a slight improvement over the number for 2017
presented in last year's report, in which an estimated 124 million people in 51 countries faced
acute hunger. The modest decrease is largely attributed to changes in climate shocks.

Acute and chronic malnutrition in children persists. High levels of acute and chronic
malnutrition in children living in emergency conditions remained of grave concern. The
immediate drivers of undernutrition include poor dietary intake and disease. Mothers and
caregivers often face challenges in providing children with the nutrients they need at critical
growth periods in food crises.

Conflict and insecurity remained the key driver of food crises in 2018. Some 74 million
people, over the half of those facing acute hunger were located in 21 countries affected by
conflict or insecurity. Yemen, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Afghanistan, Ethiopia,
Syria, Sudan, South Sudan and northern Nigeria are expected to remain among the world's
most severe food crises in 2019.

Climate disasters – mainly drought – were also major triggers of food crises in 23 countries,
with over 39 million food-insecure people in need of urgent assistance. Two thirds of these
countries were in Africa, where almost 32 million people faced acute food insecurity.

2.2 Nigerian Food Situation

In spite of the oil, agriculture remains the base of the Nigerian economy, providing the main
source of livelihood for most Nigerians. The sector faces many challenges, notably an
outdated land tenure system that constrains access to land (1.8 ha/farming household), a very
low level of irrigation development (less than 1 percent of cropped land under irrigation),

11
limited adoption of research findings and technologies, high cost of farm inputs, poor access
to credit, inefficient fertilizer procurement and distribution, inadequate storage facilities and
poor access to markets have all combined to keep agricultural productivity low (average of
1.2 metric tons of cereals/ha) with high postharvest losses and waste.

Even though agriculture still remains the largest sector of the Nigerian economy and employs
two-thirds of the entire labour force, the production hurdles have significantly silent the
performance of the sector. It is estimated that Nigeria has lost USD 10 billion in annual
export opportunity from groundnut, palm oil, cocoa and cotton alone due to continuous
decline in the production of those commodities. Food (crop) production increases have not
kept pace with population growth, resulting in rising food imports and declining levels of
national food self-sufficiency. The main factors undermining production include reliance on
rain fed agriculture, smallholder land holding, and low productivity due to poor planting
material, low fertilizer application, and a weak agricultural extension system amongst others.

Nigeria is the continent’s leading consumer of rice, one of the largest producers of rice in
Africa and simultaneously one of the largest rice importers in the world. As well as an
important food security crop, it is an essential cash crop for it is mainly small-scale producers
who commonly sell 80 per cent of total production and consume only 20 per cent.

Moreover, Nigeria is the largest producer of cassava in the world, with about 50 million
metric tons annually. Nigeria accounts for cassava production of up to 20 per cent of the
world, about 34 per cent of Africa’s and about 46 per cent of West Africa’s. The national
average yield of cassava is estimated at about 13.63 MT per ha, as against potential yield of
up to 40 metric tons per ha.

2.3 Solutions to Global Food Situation

No significant improvement in food security can be expected globally until peace is achieved
and livelihoods restored. Food security, nutrition and livelihoods-based interventions will be
vital to save lives, build resilience and contribute to sustaining peace.

Increasing agriculture productivity through intensive farming methods such as irrigation, GM


foods, fertilisers and pesticides is fundamental to rising global food production and to be able
to meet actual food needs. The FAO has called upon governments to pay urgent attention to
the needs of agriculture and to increase investment in agricultural practices. For instance, as a

12
response to the 2007-2008 food-price peak, the World Bank and many developed countries
have increased investments in developing countries’ farming by 50%.

However, intensive agriculture can have a negative health and environmental impact,
especially if over- or misused. The improper use of fertilisers and other agrochemical inputs
can have undesired ecological consequences, such as the pollution of the environment with
plant nutrients and agrochemical residues, the waste of limited freshwater resources and soil
erosion, causing yields to fall in the long run and endangering food security.

The need for increased yields and more efficient food production is apparent in the case of
genetically modified (GM) foods. GM foods have the potential to solve many of the world’s
hunger and malnutrition problems, and can also help protect and preserve the environment
through increasing yields.

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3.0 ROLES OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN ENHANCING
NATIONAL FOOD SUPPLY

Biotechnology for instance has potential to improve food quality and nutritive value, and
lower raw materials costs in an environmentally sustainable way.
Nanotechnology holds tremendous promise for many applications; it could enhance food
safety, for example, through better bacterial detection and control methods. A growing body
of evidence shows that food and diet are important factors in chronic diseases such as
diabetes and obesity. Individuals must make more healthful choices pertaining to diet and
exercise, and the food industry should use “innovative pipelines and resources to produce
foods and beverages that are more nutrient-rich and also less energy dense to assist the
consumer in the quest for a healthful diet. “With Science and Technology solutions available
to address specific issues throughout the food system, the populace would be fed in a
sustainable way, while safeguarding their health.

In summary, food science and technology played a great role towards enhancing the national
food supply by

• Improving food processing and preservation techniques


• Improving existing food products.
• Developing new and synthetic foods (Those manufactured in the labs)
• Developing varieties, safe and convenient products.
• Improving the nutritional value of food and minimising nutrient loss at an economical
price.
• It also helps in bridging the gap between seasonal gluts and shortages (through
helping in the long term storage stability of products).
• It also helped in improving diets of vulnerable groups such as diabetics and
malnutrition and formulation of diets to such groups.
• However, the food scientist and technologist are responsible in seeing that the crops
harvested eggs laid and milk produced fish caught animals and birds caught reaches
the consumer in a most acceptable, nutritious, safe and wholesome condition at an
affordable price.

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4.0 CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD

Due to the different interest groups in the food business it is difficult to arrive at a common
classification that will satisfy each group. According to food classification depend upon who
I conducting the exercise. Five classifications commonly used in food trade are:

4.1 Classification of Foods Based on Composition

Food can be classified according to chemical composition of the food. The food chemist
recognizes carbohydrate food, food from fats and oils, proteineous foods, vitamins and
minerals rich foods.

Table 1: Classification of Foods Based on Composition

Class Examples
Carbohydrates Cassava, cocoyam, maize, sorghum, millet, rice, wheat, yam, potato
Fats and Oils Butter, margarine, cotton seed oil, groundnut oil, palm oil
Proteins Beef, chevon/kid, mutton, eggs, poultry, pork and legumes
Vitamins Fish liver oil, leafy vegetables, liver, meat, oranges and yeast
Minerals Common salt, dried beans

4.2 Classification of Foods Based on their Function

The dieticians and nutritionists classify foods according to their functions. Various foods
perform different functions in the body, for example, some provide energy and some
promotes growth and repair worn out body tissues while others regulate body processes. The
dieticians/nutritionists thus recognize three classes of foods

15
Table 2: Classification of Foods Based on their Function

Functions Nutrients Examples


Energy Carbohydrates Bread, garri, sugar, yam,
honey, jam, plantain

Fats
Butter, margarine, groundnut
oil, palm oil

Egg, fish, meat, legumes


Proteins

Growth proteins and Mineral elements Egg, fish, meat, legumes,


fruits, vegetable
Repair
proteins Egg, fish, meat, legumes

Control of body processes Mineral elements Fruits, common salt,


vegetables

Vitamins Fruits, vegetables, yeast

Water Beverages, drinking water

4.3 Classification of Food Based on their Origin

For convenience and sometimes for purposes of better identification foods are classified
based on their sources or origin. Thus there are foods of plant origin and foods of animal
origin. Sometimes fish and other related groups are classified as sea foods

16
Table 3: Classification of Food Based on their Origin

Class Food group Examples


Food of plant origin Cereals Barley, sorghum, maize,
millet, rice, wheat

Legumes Beans, peas, groundnut

Fruits Banana, guava, mango,


oranges

Vegetables Green peas, okra, spinach,


tomatoes, plantain

Oils and fats Groundnut oil, palm oil,


margarine

Roots and tubers Yam, cassava, cocoyam,


potatoes, onion, carrot

Food of animal origin Meat Beef, pork, mutton, chevon,


poultry, bush meat

Animal products Milk, eggs, butter, lard,


cheese

Sea food Fish, oysters, periwinkle,


prawns

4.4 Classification of Food Based of pH (Acidity or Basicity) Value

The food processors, particularly those involved in food canning, classified food into four
groups based on the pH (acidity and basicity) values. This classification will guide the food
processor in determining the amount of heat treatment needed to preserve the food products.

17
Table 4: Classification of Food Based of pH

Class pH values Examples

High acid foods Below 3.7 Lemon and lime juices,


grapefruits juice, pickles,
tomatoes, and mango.

Acid foods Between 3.7 and 4.5 Guava, tomatoes, mango,


orange, pineapple.

Medium acid foods Between 4.5 and 5.0 Vegetables mixtures, soup,
sauces, meat.

Low acid food 5.0 and above Okra, maize, peas, leafy
vegetables, meat.

4.5 Classification of Foods Based on Keeping Quality

Food have been classified based 0n their shelf stability that is according to whether they can
be stored for long period without showing signs of deterioration and spoilage. Based on this
understanding, food can be classified into stable, semi perishable and perishable food.

Table 5: Classification of Foods Based on Keeping Quality

Class Keeping period Examples


Stable foods Few month to years Cereals, legumes, sugar,
common salt, flour, (moisture
content below 15%)

Semi perishable food Few weeks to months Yam, some fruits, apple,
onion, (moisture contents
below 60-90%).

Perishable foods Few hours to few days Fresh milk, fresh meat, fruits
and vegetable, (moisture
content between 80-95%)

4.6 Miscellaneous Classification

The food literature has continued to be enriched due to selection of food based on some
criteria other than those listed above. Some of the new terminologies include: health, natural,
organic, functional and genetically modified food.

18
4.6.1 Health foods refer to food that contains health giving benefit that other food do not
have. Examples of health food are garlic, oat bran, soy protein, and red wine.

4.6.2 Natural foods are foods that contain no chemical additives such as preservatives,
emulsifiers and antioxidant.

4.6.3 Organic foods are food grown on soils fertilized with manure or compost without the
use of pesticide, herbicide, or chemical fertilizers. Such foods are usually more highly priced
with the belief that they are nutritionally superior to conventionally grown foods.

4.6.4 Functional food are food that either contain a component (not necessarily a nutrient)
that affect one or more targeted functions in the body in a positive way, or have had
potentially harmful component removed. They are said to provide additional benefits beyond
that of meeting basic nutritional need. The potential health benefits of these products are;
promotion of intestinal health, protection against cardiovascular problems and certain
cancers, reduction of cholesterol level, lowering of hypertension and improving immune
response. They can be naturally occurring food, nutrients fortified or ingredient enriched
foods, or contains food ingredients specifically design to be added to food. Some of the
functional component include: dietary fiber fatty acids minerals (iron and calcium), vitamins,
phytochemical, antioxidants, oligosaccharide, glycoside, and processing aids (enzymes) or
microorganisms (lactic acid bacteria).

4.6.5 Genetically Modified (GM) Foods

Scientist has tried to copy or delete genes from an organism and to insert gene into another
the process is known as gene technology, genetic engineering or genetic modification.

A genetically modified organism is any living organism that contains genes not normally
found in it. Genetically modified foods are foods with altered quality characteristics due to
the introduction of some foreign genes into them.

Genetically modified foods are said to have the benefits such as

1. Less used of insecticide to the benefit of farmers, consumers and environment


2. Better quality foods
3. Less time and energy spent by farmers in producing the crops
4. More efficient and sustainable food production among others

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There are, however, some answered questions concerning the used and safety of GM foods.
While the debate continues the research into GM foods has increased and more countries,
(U.S, South Africa and China e.t.c) are producing and using GM foods

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5.0 FOOD COMPOSITION

5.1 Proximate Composition of Food

Proximate composition of foods referred to as the percentage chemical content of food such
chemical contents includes carbohydrates, protein, fats, water (moisture) and ash which
contain mineral salts. The proximate composition of food varies with the above parameters
example for cereal grain, the percentage of carbohydrate is high compared to legumes and
nuts, legumes and animals have higher percentage of protein while nuts have a higher
percentage of fats. While fruits and vegetables have higher mineral content compared to the
rest. Table 1 below shows a typical proximate composition of some foods. Variations may
apply due to variety or breed, geographical location and soil composition.

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Table 6; Proximate Composition of Some Selected Foods

Food CHO (%) Protein (%) Fat (%) Ash (%) H20 (%)

Cereals
Wheat 73.9 10.5 1.9 1.7 12.0
Rice 78.9 6.7 0.7 0.7 13.0
Maize 72.9 9.5 4.3 1.3 12.0

Earth vegetables
Potatoes (Irish) 18.9 2.0 0.1 1.0 78.0
Sweet potatoes 27.3 1.3 0.4 1.0 70.0

Vegetables
Carrots 9.1 1.1 0.2 1.0 88.6
Lettuce 2.8 1.3 0.2 0.9 94.8

Fruits
Banana 24.0 1.3 0.4 0.8 73.5
Orange 11.3 0.9 0.2 0.5 87.1
Melon 6.0 0.6 0.2 0.4 92.8

Meat
Lean muscle 2.0 20 2.0 2.0 74.0
Beef nil 17.5 22.0 0.9 60.0
Poultry
Chicken nil 20.2 12.6 1.0 66.0
Turkey nil 20.1 20.2 1.0 58.3

Fish
Dried fish nil 60.9 21.0 15.0 4.0

Source; Food and Agriculture Organisation of U.N Rome

5.1.1 Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates occur in plant and animal tissues as well as in microorganisms in many


different forms and levels. In animal organisms, the main sugar is glucose and the storage
carbohydrate is glycogen; in milk, the main sugar is almost exclusively the disaccharide
lactose. In plant organisms, a wide variety of monosaccharaides and oligosaccharides occur,
and the storage carbohydrate is starch. The structural polysaccharide of plants is cellulose.
The gums are a varied group of polysaccharides obtained from plants, seaweeds, and
microorganisms. Because of their useful physical properties, the gums have found
widespread applications food processing.

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Fig 1; Structures of Monosaccharaides

Structures of Carbohydrate

The basic unit of a carbohydrate is a monosaccharide, 2 monosaccharides bound together are


called a disaccharide; 3 are called a trisaccharide, 2–10 monosaccharides in a chain are
termed an oligosaccharide, and 10 or more are termed a polysaccharide. The simplest food-
related carbohydrates, monosaccharides, are glucose, mannose, galactose and fructose.

The food carbohydrates sucrose, lactose and maltose are disaccharides (two monosaccharides
joined by an O-glycosydic bond) and are three of the principal disaccharides used in the food
industry. Used as a sweetening agent and fermentation carbon source.

Fig 2; Structures of Disaccharides

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Sucrose

Sucrose exists naturally in high amounts only in cane and beet, is composed of one glucose
and one fructose and is a non-reducing sugar since it contains no free aldehyde. The enzymes
responsible for catalysing the hydrolysis of sucrose to glucose and fructose are sucrases and
invertases, which catalyse the hydrolysis of the sucrose glycosidic bond.

Lactose

The disaccharide lactose is made up of galactose and glucose, and is often referred to as milk
sugar. Lactose is hydrolysed by lactase, an enzyme of the β-galactosidase enzyme class,
produced by various mammals, bacteria and fungi. By adulthood, some humans produce
insufficient amounts of lactase, thereby restricting the consumption of dairy product in
significant quantities. In deficient persons, a failure to hydrolyse lactose in the upper intestine
results in this simple sugar passing into the large intestine, which in turn results in an influx
of water as well as fermentation by lower gut bacteria, leading to bloating, cramping and
diarrhoea. Lactose levels in dairy products can be reduced by treatment with lactase or by
lactic acid bacteria fermentation.

Maltose

Maltose is composed of two glucose units and is derived from starch by treatment with β-
amylase, thereby increasing the sweetness of the reaction mixture. The term malt (beer
making) refers to the product where β-amylase, produced during the germination, has acted
on the starch of barley or other grains when steeped in water.

Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides, or glycans, are made up of glycosyl units in a linear or branched structure.


The three major food-related glycans are amylose, amylopectin and cellulose, which are all
chains of D-glucose, but are structurally distinct based on the types of glycosidic linkages
that join the glucose units and the amount of branching in their respective structures. Both
amylose and amylopectin are components of starch, the energy storage molecules of plants,
and cellulose is the structural carbohydrate that provides structural rigidity to plants. Starch is
a critical nutritional component of many foods, especially flour-based foods, tubers, cereal
grains; corn and rice.

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Starch

Starch can be both linear (amylose) and branched (amylopectin). Amylose glucose units are
joined only by α-1,4-linkages and it usually contains 200–3000 units. Amylopectin also
contains α-1,4-linkages, but additionally it has branch points at α-1,6 linkages that occur
approximately every 20–30 α-linkages. The branched molecules of amylopectin produce
bulkier structures than amylose. Most starches contain approximately 25% amylose, although
amylose contents as high as 85% are possible. Starches containing only amylopectin are
termed waxy starches.

Cellulose

The most abundant structural polysaccharide is cellulose. Indeed, there is so much cellulose
in the cell walls of plants that it is the most abundant of all biological molecules. Therefore,
cellulose forms a major part of dietary fibre. Dietary fibre is not digested by enzymes in the
small intestine and is hence utilized by colonic micro-flora via fermentation processes. So-
called hemicelluloses, including xylans, which are major constituents of cereal bran, are
another major component of dietary fibre.

Gums

Gums are distinct form of polysaccharides that form gel. They are basically used in foods
because of this property. A notable gum that is commonly employed in foods is xanthan gum,
which is secreted by Xanthomonas campestris and has a backbone of α(1→4)-linked
glucopyranose with trisaccharide branch points every five residues. Another important one is
Gum Arabic which also has very wide applications in food.

Pectin

Pectin is heteroglycans and have complex structures that are based on a polygalacturonan
backbone. Pectin is mainly applied in foods for their gelling properties, especially in jams and
preserves. Gels consist of a three-dimensional polymeric network of chains that entrap water.
Pectin gels are stabilized by junction zones, which are crystalline regions where smooth
regions align themselves and interact. The hairy regions of pectin disrupt these junction
zones, preventing extensive aggregation that could lead to precipitation as occurs during
amylose retrogradation.

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Glycogen

The polysaccharide that animals use for the short term storage of food energy in the liver and
muscles is known as glycogen. Glycogen is similar in structure to amylopectin, but has much
higher molecular weight and a higher degree of branching. Branching aids the rapid release
of glucose since the enzymes that release glucose attack on the non-reducing ends, cleaving
one glucose molecule at a time. More branching equates to more non-reducing ends meaning
more rapid release of energy. The metabolism of glycogen continues post-mortem, which
means that by the time meat reaches the consumer it has lost all of its

glycogen.

Fig 3; Structures of Polysaccharides

Food Sources of Carbohydrates

The principal sources of carbohydrates are plant foods: cereal grains, vegetables, fruits, and
sugars. The only substantial animal source of carbohydrates is milk.

Cereal grains and their products are dietary staples in nearly every part of the world.
Example; Rice is the basic food in Latin America, Africa, Asia, and many sections of the
United States. Wheat and the various breads, pastas, and breakfast cereals made from it are
basic to American and European diets. Rye and oats are commonly used in breads and cereals
in the United States and Europe. Cereals also contain vitamins, minerals, and some proteins.

During processing, some of these nutrients are lost. To compensate for this loss, food
producers commonly add the B vitamins— thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin—plus the mineral
iron to the final product. The product is then called enriched. When a nutrient that has never
been part of a grain is added, the grain is said to be fortified. An example of fortification is
the addition of folic acid to cereal grains to prevent neural tube defects

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Vegetables such as potatoes, beets, peas, lima beans, and corn provide substantial amounts of
carbohydrates (in the form of starch). Green leafy vegetables provide dietary fiber. All of
them also provide vitamins and minerals.

Fruits provide fruit sugar, fiber, vitamins, and minerals.

Sugars such as table sugar, syrup, and honey and sugar-rich foods such as desserts and candy
provide carbohydrates in the form of sugar with few other nutrients except for fats. Therefore,
the foods in which they predominate are commonly called low-nutrient-dense foods.

Functions of Carbohydrates

Providing energy is the major function of carbohydrates. Each gram of carbohydrate


provides 4 calories. The body needs to maintain a constant supply of energy. Therefore, it
stores approximately half a day’s supply of carbohydrate in the liver and muscles for use as
needed. In this form, it is called glycogen.

Protein-sparing action is also an important function of carbohydrates. When enough


carbohydrates (at least 50–100 g/day) are ingested to supply a person’s energy needs, they
spare proteins for their primary function of building and repairing body tissues.

Normal fat metabolism requires an adequate supply of carbohydrates. If there are not enough
carbohydrates to fulfil the energy requirement, an abnormally large amount of fat is
metabolized to help meet it. During such an emergency need for energy, fat oxidization in the
cells is not complete and substances called ketones are produced. Ketones are acids that
accumulate in the blood and urine, upsetting the acid-base balance. Such a condition is called
ketoacidosis. It can result from IDDM (insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus), also known as
type 1 diabetes, from starvation, or from extreme low-carbohydrate diets. It can lead to coma
and even death. When sufficient carbohydrates are eaten, the body is protected against
ketones. This is sometimes called the anti-ketogenic effect of carbohydrates.

Providing fibre in the diet is another important function of carbohydrates. Dietary fiber is
found in grains, vegetables, and fruits. Fibre creates a soft, bulky stool that moves quickly
through the large intestine.

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5.1.2 Proteins

Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. They can also be
referred to as polypeptides. Proteins are key constituents of food, contributing towards
organoleptic properties (particularly texture) and nutritive value. Proteins participate in tissue
building and are therefore abundant in muscle and plant tissues. Amino acids – the building
blocks of proteins

Amino acid structure

The general structure of an amino acid is depicted below and consists of an amino group
(NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH), a hydrogen atom and a distinctive R group all bonded to a
single carbon atom, called the α-carbon. The R group is called the side chain and determines
the identity of the amino acid.

Fig 4; Primary Structure of Amino Acid

Amino acids in solution at neutral pH are predominantly zwitterions. The ionization state
varies with pH: at acidic pH, the carboxyl group is un-ionized and the amino group is
ionized; at alkaline pH, the carboxyl group is ionized and the amino group is un-ionized.
There are 20 different amino acids that are commonly found in proteins. The R group is
different in each case. Base on essentiality amino acids are classified in essential and
nonessential amino acids.

Essential amino acids; is an amino acid that cannot be synthesized by human body therefore
they are supplemented through our diet. They include typtophan, valine, threonine,
isoleucine, leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, methionine, arginine and histidine.

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Non-essential amino acid; are amino acids that can be synthesized by the body and therefore
it’s not necessary for the body to attain from an external source since its capable of producing
them. They include; histidine, arginine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, tyrosine, asparagine,
serine, cysteine, proline and glutamine, alanine.

Peptide bonds

The peptide bond is the covalent bond between amino acids that links them to form peptides
and polypeptide. A peptide bond is formed between the α-carboxyl group and the α-amino
group of two amino acids by a condensation (or dehydration synthesis) reaction with the loss
of water. Peptides are compounds formed by linking small numbers of amino acids (up to
50). A polypeptide is a chain of 50–100 amino acid residues. A protein is a polypeptide chain
of 100+ amino acid residues and has a positively charged nitrogen-containing amino group at
one end (N-terminus) and a negatively charged carboxyl group at its other end (C-terminus)

Fig 5; Peptide Bond

Classification of protein

1. Simple; this are proteins that yields only the amino acids on hydrolysis eg, albumins,
globulins, glutelins, albumiods histones and protamines
2. Conjugated; these are amino acids that are derived from the cross-linkage between
simple amino acids and some non- protein source material in the body examples are
nucleoprotein, glycoproteins, phosphoprotein ,heamoglobins, metaloprotein and
lecithoproteins

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3. Derived; these are proteins that are formed from the derivation of simple and
conjugate protein as a result of chemical or physical reaction. Eg are denatured
proteins and peptides.

Structures of Protein

Primary structure

It is the simplest of all structure which consist of linear sequence of amino acids in the
sequential chain of polypeptide which are covalently bonded these bonds are also referred to
as peptide bond. The end terminals are the carboxyl end (-COO-) and amino end (-COONH2).

Secondary structure

This is a more complex form of proteins they include the α-helix andβ- strand. The peptides
are held by hydrogen bonds.

Tertiary structure

This refers to as the 3 dimensional structure of a single double or triple bonded protein
molecule. The α- helix andβ- strand are folded into a compact globular structures with
nonspecific hydrophobic.

Quaternary structure

This is a three dimensional structure of a multi sub unit protein and how they fit together. The
quatenery structure is stabilised by non-covalent interaction and disulphide bonds.

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Fig 6; Structures of Protein

Sources of protein

Proteins are found in both animal and plant foods. The animal food sources provide the
highest quality of complete proteins. They include meats, fish, poultry, eggs, milk, and
cheese. Despite the high biologic value of proteins from animal food sources, they also
provide saturated fats and cholesterol. Consequently, complete proteins should be carefully
selected from low-fat animal foods such as fish, lean meats, and low-fat dairy products.
Whole eggs should be limited to two or three a week if hyperlipidemia is a problem.

Proteins found in plant foods are incomplete proteins and are of a lower biologic quality than
those found in animal foods. Even so, plant foods are important sources of protein. Examples
of plant foods containing protein are corn, grains, nuts, sunflower seeds, sesame seeds, and
legumes such as soybeans, navy beans, pinto beans, split peas, chickpeas, and peanuts.

Functions of Protein

Proteins build and repair body tissue, play major roles in regulating various body functions,
and provide energy if there is insufficient carbohydrate and fat in the diet. The functions can
be specified as follows;

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• Repair and maintenance of body tissue
• Energy
• Synthesize Hormones
• Synthesize Enzymes
• Transportation and storage of molecules
• Antibiotics

5.1.3 Lipids

Lipids are a group of molecules that contribute to the structure of living cells and are also
used in the body for the purpose of energy storage. Dietary lipids have important roles for
provision of energy and as carriers of fat-soluble vitamins. Generally speaking, all lipids are
soluble in non-polar organic solvents and have low solubility in water. Dietary lipids are
commonly referred to as oils and fats. Edible oils are liquid at room temperature, whereas fats
are solid or semi -solid at room temperature. The lipids found in oils and fats are chemically
very diverse, but are predominantly long-chain fatty acid esters. Other lipid types
encountered in foods are also either fatty acids or derivatives of fatty acids, and include
triglycerides, phospholipids, sterols and tocopherols.

Lipids can be broadly classified into three main groups:

Simple lipids yield two classes of product when hydrolysed, e.g. glycerides (acylglycerols)
which are hydrolysed to give glycerol and a fatty acid

Complex lipids yield three or more classes of product when hydrolysed, e.g. phospholipids,
which are hydrolysed to give alcohols, fatty acids and phosphoric acid.

Derived lipids are non-hydrolysable and do not fit into either of the above classes, e.g. sterol,
tocopherol and vitamin A.

Fatty acids

A fatty acid is a carboxylic acid having a long un-branched aliphatic tail or chain, and can be
described chemically as an aliphatic monocarboxylic acid. The aliphatic chain can be either
saturated (no double bonds between carbons) or unsaturated (one or more double bonds
between carbons). Saturated fatty acids have the general chemical structure
CH3(CH2)n−2CO2H, and commonly contain an even number of carbon atoms from n = 4 to
n=20. In unsaturated fatty acids the double bonds can adopt either a cis- or trans. Unsaturated
acids can contain on (monounsaturated) or several (polyunsaturated) double bonds.

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Triglycerides

While fatty acids are the most common structural component of lipids, oils and fats are
largely composed of mixtures of triglycerides. Triglycerides are also known as
triacylglycerols and are esters of three fatty acids with glycerol. The three fatty acid residues
may or may not be the same, i.e. they can be simple or mixed triglycerides. Natural oils and
fats will therefore contain a characteristic profile of different fatty acids dependent on their
source. For example, fish oils are rich in long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) with
up to six double bonds, while many vegetable oils are rich in oleic and linoleic acids.
Vegetable oils are important in the diet since the body is unable to synthesize linoleic acid,
which is an important precursor of prostaglandins, a class of hormones that are involved in
inflammation and smooth muscle contraction.

Fig 7; Triglyceride Formation

Food Sources of Lipid

Fats are present in both animal and plant foods. The animal foods that provide the richest
sources of fats are meats, especially fatty meats such as bacon, sausage, and luncheon meats;
whole, low-fat, and reduced-fat milk; cream; butter; cheeses made with cream; egg yolks
(egg white contains no fat; it is almost entirely protein and water); and fatty fish such as tuna
and salmon.

The plant foods containing the richest sources of fats are cooking oils made from olives
sunflower, safflower, or sesame seeds or from corn, peanuts, or soybeans, margarine (which
is made from vegetable oils), nuts, avocados, coconut, and cocoa butter.

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Functions of Lipid

In addition to providing energy, fats are essential for the functioning and structure of body
tissues. Fats are a necessary part of cell membranes (cell walls). They contain essential fatty
acids and act as carriers for fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. The fat stored in body tissues
provides energy when one cannot eat, as may occur during some illness and after abdominal
surgery. Adipose (fatty) tissue protects organs and bones from injury by serving as protective
padding and support. Body fat also serves as insulation from cold. In addition, fats provide a
feeling of satiety (satisfaction) after meals. This is due partly to the flavour fats give other
foods and partly to their slow rate of digestion, which delays hunger.

5.1.4 Vitamins

Vitamins are organic (carbon-containing) compounds that are essential in small amounts for
body processes. Vitamins themselves do not provide energy. They enable the body to use the
energy provided by carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The name vitamin implies their
importance. Vita in Latin, means life. They do not, however, represent a panacea (universal
remedy) for physical or mental illness or a way to alleviate the stressors in life. They should
not be overused—more is not necessarily better. In fact, mega doses can be toxic (poisonous).
Vitamins are found in minute amounts in foods. The specific amounts and types of vitamins
in foods vary.

Vitamins cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by our bodies and therefore must be
obtain from the diet, their absence results in the development of deficiency diseases, some
with fatal consequences. Vitamins are impossible to classify in structural terms since they
are widely disparate in structure and are defined only by their biological and chemical
activity. Each vitamin constitutes a group of vitamer compounds, which shows their
biological activity of a particular vitamin. The only broad chemical classification of vitamins
is by solubility; it is classified into two groups.

Classification of Vitamins

Vitamins are commonly grouped according to solubility. A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble, and
B complex and C are water-soluble (Table 7-3. In addition, vitamin D is sometimes
classified as a hormone, and the B-complex group may be classified as catalysts or
coenzymes. When a vitamin has different chemical forms but serves the same purpose in the

34
body, these forms are sometimes called vitamers. Vitamin E is an example. Sometimes a
precursor, or provitamin, is found in foods. This is a substance from which the body can
synthesize (manufacture) a specific vitamin. Carotenoids are examples of precursors of
vitamin A and are referred to as provitamin A.

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

The fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K are chemically similar. They are not lost easily in
cooking but are lost when mineral oil is ingested. Mineral oil is not absorbed by humans.
Consequently, it may be used in salad dressings to avoid the calories of vegetable oils. It is
sometimes used as a laxative by the elderly. Its use should be discouraged because it picks up
and carries with it fat-soluble vitamins that are then lost to the body. After absorption, fat-
soluble vitamins are transported through the blood by lipoproteins because they are not
soluble in water. Excess amounts can be stored in the liver. Therefore, deficiencies of fat-
soluble vitamins are slower to appear than are those caused by a lack of water-soluble
vitamins. Because of the body’s ability to store them, mega doses of fat-soluble vitamins
should be avoided, as they can reach toxic levels.

Water-Soluble Vitamins

Water-soluble vitamins include B complex and C. These vitamins dissolve in water and are
easily destroyed by air, light, and cooking. They are not stored in the body to the extent that
fat-soluble vitamins are stored.

Table 7-3 in appendix I summarized the food sources, functions, deficiency and toxicity of
various vitamins.

4.1.5 Minerals

A mineral is an inorganic (non-carbon-containing) element that is necessary for the body to


build tissues, regulate body fluids, or assist in various body functions. Minerals are found in
all body tissues. Any abnormal concentration of minerals in the blood can help diagnose
different disorders. Minerals cannot provide energy by themselves, but in their role as body
regulators, they contribute to the production of energy within the body.

Minerals are found in water and in natural (unprocessed) foods, together with proteins,
carbohydrates, fats, and vitamins. Minerals in the soil are absorbed by growing plants.

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Humans obtain minerals by eating plants grown in mineral-rich soil or by eating animals that
have eaten such plants. The specific mineral content of food is determined by burning the
food and then chemically analysing the remaining ash.

Highly processed or refined foods such as sugar and white flour contain almost no minerals.
Iron, together with the vitamins thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and folate, are commonly added
to white flour and cereals, which are then labelled enriched foods.

Most minerals in food occur as salts, which are soluble in water. Therefore, the minerals
leave the food and remain in the cooking water. Foods should be cooked in as little water as
possible or, preferably, steamed, and any cooking liquid should be saved to be used in soups,
gravies, and white sauces. Using this liquid improves the flavour as well as the nutrient
content of foods to which it is added.

Classification of minerals

Minerals are divided into two groups. They are the major minerals, so named because each is
required in amounts greater than 100 mg a day, and the trace minerals, which are needed in
amounts smaller than 100 mg a day.

Examples of major minerals are; calcium, chloride, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium and
sodium.

Examples of trace minerals are; cobalt, copper, fluorine, iodine, iron, manganese,
molybdenum, nickel, selenium, sulphur and zinc etc.

Sources of minerals

Some important food sources of certain minerals are: dairy products and green leafy
vegetables for calcium; nuts, soy beans and cocoa for magnesium; table salt, olives, milk and
spinach for sodium; legumes, potato skin, tomatoes and bananas for potassium; table salt for
chloride; meat, eggs and legumes for sulphur; red meat, green leafy vegetables, fish, eggs,
dried fruits, beans and whole grains for iron.

Toxicity of minerals

Because it is known that minerals are essential to good health, some would-be nutritionists
will make claims that “more is better.” Ironically, more can be hazardous to one’s health

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when it comes to minerals. In a healthy individual eating a balanced diet, there will be some
normal mineral loss through perspiration and saliva, and amounts in excess of body needs
will be excreted in urine and faeces. However, when concentrated forms of minerals are taken
on a regular basis, over a period of time, they become more than the body can handle, and
toxicity develops. An excessive amount of one mineral can sometimes cause a deficiency of
another mineral. In addition, excessive amounts of minerals can cause hair loss and changes
in the blood, hormones, bones, muscles, blood vessels, and nearly all tissues. Concentrated
forms of minerals should be used only on the advice of a physician.

Table 8-1 in appendix II summarize food sources, functions, deficiency symptoms and
toxicity of various minerals

5.1.6 Water

Water is an essential constituent of many foods. It may occur as an intracellular or


extracellular component in vegetable and animal products, as a dispersing medium or solvent
in a variety of products, as the dispersed phase in some emulsified products such as butter
and margarine, and as a minor constituent in other foods (salt and sugar). Because of the
importance of water as a food constituent, an understanding of its properties and behaviour is
necessary. The presence of water influences the chemical and microbiological deterioration
of foods.

Also, removal (drying) or freezing of water is essential to some methods of food preservation.
Water exists in Food materials in three forms viz:

• Free water
• Bound water
• Adsorbed water

Although humans can live about 30 to 45 days without food, it is possible to live only 10 to
14 days without water. Water is a component of all body cells and constitutes from 50% to
60% of the body weight of normal adults. The percentage is higher in males than females
because men usually have more muscle tissue than women. The water content of muscle
tissue is higher than that of fat tissue. The percentage of water content is highest in newborns
(75%) and decreases with age.

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Sources of Water

The best source of water is drinking water, and Table 9-2 in appendix III lists the Dietary
Reference Intake for Water. Beverages of all types are the second-best source. A considerable
amount is also found in foods, especially fruits, vegetables, soups, milk, and gelatin desserts.
In addition, energy metabolism produces water. When carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are
metabolized, their end products includecarbon dioxide and water.

5.2 Other Food Components

In addition to proximate composition mentioned above, food contains other component in


very minute amounts which plays important in one way or the other. Other components found
in food include enzymes, phytochemical and anti-nutrients.

5.2.1 Enzymes

Enzymes are also organic chemical which are part of proteins, they serve as an organic
catalyst, and all cells cannot function without enzymes. Some enzymes are in form of amino
acids while other enzymes contain additional components, such as carbohydrate, phosphate,
as cofactor groups. Enzymes have all the chemical and physical characteristics of proteins
and they comprise a small part of our daily protein intake in our foods. However, unlike other
groups of proteins, they are highly specific in their functions and they catalysed thousands of
chemical reactions required by living organisms.

Enzymes are found in all living systems and make life possible, whether the organisms are
adapted to growing near 0°C, at 37°C (humans), or near 100°C (in microorganisms found in
some hot springs). Enzymes accelerate reactions by factors of 10 3 to 1011 times that of non-
enzyme-catalysed reactions. In addition, they are highly selective for a limited number of
substrates, since the substrate(s) must bind stereo-specifically and correctly into the active
site before any catalysis occurs. Enzymes also control the direction of reactions, leading to
stereospecific product(s) that can be very valuable by-products for foods, nutrition, and
health.

Examples of enzymes present in food include renin/chymosin which is present in goat


stomach it helps in catalysing the breakdown of milk, amylases which help in the breakdown
of carbohydrates pectinase which helps in the breakdown of pectin in fruits also we have the

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protease which helps in the breakdown of protein and the lipase which helps in the
breakdown of fats

5.2.2 Phytonutrient/ phytochemicals

The term phyto originates from Greek word meaning plant. Phytonutrients are certain organic
components of plants; these components are non- nutritive chemical rather they have
protective or disease prevention properties. They are non-essential nutrients meaning that
they are not required by the human body to sustain life. Plants produce these chemicals to
protect themselves, but researches demonstrate that they can also protect humans against
diseases. There are more than 1000 known types of phytochemicals.

Some of the major classes of phytonutrients include:

➢ carotenoids
➢ flavonoids (polyphenols) including isoflavones (phytoestrogens), flavonones,
flavonals etc
➢ inositol phosphates (phytates)
➢ lignans
➢ isothiocyanate and indole
➢ phenols and cyclic compounds
➢ saponins
➢ sulphides and thiols
➢ terpenes.

Actions of phytonutrients to the body it includes:

There are many phytonutrients and each works differently. These are some possible actions

➢ Antioxidants: most phytochemicals have antioxidant activity and protect our cells
against oxidative damage and reduces the risk of developing certain types of cancer.
Phytochemicals with antioxidants includes ally sulphides found in (onion, garlic,
leeks), carotenoids (fruits and carrots) flavonoids (fruits and vegetables) polyphenols
(tea and grapes)
➢ Hormonal action: isoflavones found in soy and imitates human oestrogens and helps
to reduce menopausal symptoms and osteoporosis.

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➢ Stimulation of enzymes: indoles which are found in cabbage stimulates enzymes that
make the oestrogen less effective and could reduce the risk of breast cancer other
phytochemicals that interfere with enzymes are protease inhibitors (soy and beans),
terpens (citrus fruits and cherries).
➢ Interference with DNA replication: saponins found in beans interfere with the
replication of cells DNA, thereby preventing the multiplication of cancer cells.
Capsaicin found in hot peppers protects DNA from carcinogens.
➢ Antibacterial effect: the phytochemical allicin from garlic has antibacterial effect.
➢ Physical actions; some phytochemicals bind physically to cell walls herby
preventing the adhesion of pathogens to human cell wall proanthocyanidins are
responsible for the anti-adhesion properties of cranberry. Cranberry consumption will
reduce the risk of urinary tract infection and also improve dental health.

Most foods contain phytochemicals in them except some refined foods such as alcohols and
sugar. Some foods such as whole grains, vegetables, fruits, herbs and beans contain a lot of
phytonutrients. It is recommended to take 5-9 servings of fruits and vegetables of fruits and
vegetables.

Parts of food chemicals also contains

5.2.3 Anti-nutrients;

Anti-nutrients are chemical compound found in food that reduce body ability to absorb
nutrients from diets, they are found naturally in foods we eat. Fortunately, anti-nutrients will
rarely have major impacts on your health status unless you consume a large number of them.

Types of anti-nutrients includes

Phytates: phytates don’t allow plants to store phosphorus and are mostly found in grain
particularly wheat bran and legumes even though it has antioxidant activity but they block the
absorption of minerals and niacin (B-group vitamin)

Lectins: is also found in high quantity in whole grain, beans, lentils, peanuts and nightshade
vegetables and are present in some degrees in all plants since they serve as natural pesticides
and they disrupt carbohydrates and protein digestion. Also, it was believed to cause
inflammation of the bowels

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Oxalates: it is also found in vegetables (green leafy vegetables) it blocks the absorption of
calcium and iron there by forming complexes known as calcium oxalates and are being
secreted to the urinary track leading to painful diagnosis

6.0 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION

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6.1 Food Processing

Food Processing is the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into
finished and semi-finished products. Food processing requires good quality raw materials
from either plant and/or animal source to be converted into attractive, marketable and often
long shelf-life food products.

Food Processing encompasses all the steps, activities or exercises that food goes through
from the time it is harvested to the time it reaches consumers’ table. Some processing
methods convert raw materials into a different form or change the nature of the product, as in
the manufacture of sugar from sugar beets, oil from corn or soybeans, or biscuit from wheat.
Processing may also involve an extremely complex set of techniques and ingredients to create
ready-to-eat convenience foods, its transforms raw food materials through various unit
operations such as; cleaning, sorting, separation, size reduction, mixing, heating, cooling and
packaging. These operations convert dirty and low valuable raw materials into high quality,
safe and nutritious products. Each of these unit operations has a specific, identifiable and
predictable effect on a food. Unit operations are grouped together to form a process. The
combination and sequence of operations determines the nature of the final product.

RAW FOOD PROCESSING FINISHED PRODUCT

Food processing extends shelf life while introducing variety and an enhanced sensory eating
experience. The techniques involved gives room for perishable products to be more stable
and also improves the palatability of food.

The aims food processing and preservation is;

1. To extend the period during which a food remains wholesome (the shelf life) by
preservation techniques which inhibit microbiological or biochemical changes and
thus allow time for distribution, sales and home storage.
2. To increase variety in the diet by providing a range of attractive flavours, colours,
aromas and textures in food (collectively known as eating quality, sensory
characteristics or organoleptic quality); a related aim is to change the form of the
food to allow further processing (for example the milling of grains to flour).
3. To provide the nutrients required for health (termed nutritional quality of a food).

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Examples of food processing are;

1. Conversion of wheat into flour, pasta or semolina.


2. Cutting and dressing of slaughtered animal.
3. Extraction and bottling of fruit.
4. Drying of fruits and Vegetables.
5. Production of bread from wheat.
6. Production of polished rice from paddy.
7. Size reduction in vegetables.
8. Conversion of fresh tomato into paste, ketchup or juice.
9. Production of yoghurt from soy bean
10. Production of sugar crystal from sugarcane or sugar beet.

Classification of Processed Food

Processed foods can be classified on the basis of extent and type of processing as follows:

1. Minimally processed foods

These are processed as little as possible in order to retain the quality of fresh foods.
Generally, the processes used are cleaning, trimming, shelling, cutting, slicing and storage at
low i.e., refrigeration temperatures.

2. Preserved foods

The methods of preservation used do not change the character of the product substantially
e.g., frozen peas and frozen vegetables, dehydrated peas, dehydrated vegetables, canned fruits
and vegetables.

3. Manufactured foods

In such products, the original characteristics of the raw products are lost and some basic
methods of preservation are used, often using various ingredients such as salt, sugar, oil or
even chemical preservatives. Examples are pickles, jams, marmalades, bread, cake etc.

4. Formulated foods

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These are products prepared by mixing and processing of individual ingredients to result in
relatively shelf stable food products such as, biscuits, candies and sweet.

5. Food derivatives

In industry, components of foods may be obtained from the raw product through purification,
e.g., sugar from sugarcane or oil from oil seeds. In some cases, the derivative or the
component may be processed further, e.g., conversion of oil to fat (through hydrogenation).

6. Functional foods

These are foods that can have a beneficial effect on human health, e.g., probiotics, lycopene.

7. Medical foods

These are used in dietary management of diseases, for example, low sodium salt for
hypertensive patients and lactose–free milk for persons with lactose intolerance.

6.3 Food spoilage and food deterioration

Food spoilage refers to thus adverse in quality, which are brought about by the action of
predominantly biological factors. Food technologists on the other hand regard food
deterioration as adverse changes in the quality of food introduce by chemical, physical and
biochemical reactions.

The concept of food preservation arose because of man’s need to reduce the incidence of
spoilage/deterioration in his food. Once the spoilage agents have been identified and their
characteristics understood, it is easy to apply this knowledge to prevent deterioration and
spoilage. From the time food is harvested, gathered, caught or slaughtered, it undergoes
progressive deterioration. Depending upon the food this deterioration may be so rapid as to
render the food virtually useless or inedible in matter of hours.

The example, the ripening process is a series of complex chemical and biochemical reactions
within the fruit tissues. These changes become obvious when such reactions can be
recognized by ultimate change in colour, odour and softening tissues.

In summary all biological systems have certain in-built mechanisms, which are associated
with bringing about changes that lead to the growth, maturation, death and disintegration of
the organism followed by decomposition by microorganisms, it can be seen that deterioration

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and spoilage of foods can be originated from chemical reactions within the food system
(autolysis) and from activities of microorganisms.

6.4 Agents of food spoilage

1. Biological Agents: this includes micro and macro organisms. Examples of spoilage
microorganisms include bacteria, yeast and mould. Examples of spoilage macro
organisms include insects, rodents, birds and other pest
2. Chemical Agents: this includes oxygen in the air and chemical reactions involving
oils, proteins and carbohydrates in the foods.
3. Physical Agents: this includes mechanical injuries, bruises and wounds during
harvesting, transportation and processing. Other physical agents include drying out
e.g. in Kola nuts, which is undesirable.

6.5 The major causes of food deterioration

1. Growth and activities of microorganisms, principally bacteria, yeast and moulds.


Microorganisms are ubiquitous and can break down complex organic components of
the food into simpler ones. Microorganisms have different needs for water and
nutrients to facilitate their growth and multiplication. Each microorganism has
optimum requirements for moisture, temperature, oxygen and pH.
2. Activities of the natural food enzymes; enzymes occur naturally in some raw
materials and can affect the processing of foods in many ways. The effect of naturally
occurring enzymes is often undesirable, for example, the browning of fruits and
vegetables by polyphenol oxidases of the germ, or softening of cucumber pickles by
pectic enzymes. These enzymes may be inactivated by blanching, eliminated by
separation during milling or inhibited by addition of natural inhibitors.
3. Insects, parasites and rodents; a large quantity of food is lost due to attacks by pests
such as insects, rodents and birds. These pests consume the foodstuff and also
contaminate a much larger quantity with their excreta. They also cause damage to
packaging, they can also transmit diseases.
Examples of insects that infest tropical foods are moths, grains borers, weevil and
beetles. Among the rodents, rats and mice are the most important.
Use of insecticides, rodenticides and construction of pest proof warehouses are
essential in order to prevent or curtail food loses through pests.
4. Physical factors; Other factors that causes food deterioration are

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i. Rain; particularly in cereals and legumes during harvesting, threshing and
shelling operations.
ii. Heat and cold; beyond their effective use in preservation can cause
deterioration of food if it is not properly applied to foods. Many chemical and
enzyme reactions are doubled when the temperature is increase by 10 0C.
Excessive heat can accelerate food deterioration by denaturing proteins,
destroying vitamins and drying out of food surface. Uncontrolled freezing can
cause cracks on the skin of fruits and vegetables.
iii. Light; light is another physical factor that can cause food deterioration. For
example, vitamins such as Vitamins A, C and B group and some food
pigments are adversely affected by light of appropriated wavelength.
Ultraviolet radiation from sunlight or artificial light sources is equally
destructive to foods that are a light sensitive.

6.2 Food Preservation

Food preservation is the act of extending the shelf life of a food item and normal storage,
distribution and marketing conditions. Food is preserved in order to retard, control or halt
both microbial and chemical spoilage and to ensure that food reaches the consumer safely and
wholesomely.

Many food processing operations are designed to extend the shelf life of the food products.
The concepts associated with food processing are reducing/eliminating microbial activity and
other factors that influence food spoilage. The principle microorganisms that cause food
spoilage are bacteria, yeasts and moulds. Just recollect that you studied in biology how they
grow typically very rapidly under friendly conditions. Factors influencing microbial growth
are nutrient availability, moisture, pH, oxygen levels and the presence or absence of
inhibiting substances e.g. antibiotics. The activity of enzymes inherently present in foods also
depends on pH and temperature. Oxidative enzymes in fresh fruits and vegetables continue to
use oxygen to metabolise, reducing the shelf life of fruits and vegetables.

Most food processing operations results in preservation of the product it ranges from home
meal preparation to large scale food product development.

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Food processing involves energy transfer while preservation in addition requires affecting
packaging and/or use of chemicals. The basic concepts in food processing methods to prevent
food spoilage are:

1. Application of heat,
2. Removal of water,
3. Lowering of temperature during storage,
4. Reduction of pH,
5. Controlling the availability of oxygen.

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