UNIT 20 WRITING PROPOSAL /

SYNOPSIS
Structure
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Objectives
20.3 Purpose of Writing a Research Proposal
20.3.1 Research ProposalfSynopsis

20.4 Format of a Research Proposalfa Synopsis

20.5 ,Let Us Sum Up
20.6 Unit-end Activities
20.7 Suggested Readings
20.8 Answers to Check Your Progress

20.1 INTRODUCTION
\

During the process of research, a researcher is expected to write various types of

documents. After the identification of a research problem, the first task before the
researcher is to write out a proposal, or a synopsis, or a plan for research which
includes a statement of the problem, research objectives and hypotheses, procedure
and design of the study, the sample to be selected, the tools to be developed for the
collection of data, and the quantitative or qualitative techniques to be used for the
analysis and interpretation of data.
Many universities/institutions require a proposal from the researcher before the
registration, the same to be submitted to the research committee for approval. After
completion of research work, a researcher is expected to submit, in brief hisfher
work in the form of an abstract. It will be a brief account of the work to be carried
out by a researcher. It is not a detailed report of the research work. When the
entire reportfthesis is ready, along with the report, the researcher is also expected
to write an abstract highlighting the major objectives along with major findings.
During the entire phase of research, the researcher may come out with some part
of the report in the form of a paper or an article, which may be sent for publication.
Thus, during the process of research, the researcher is expected to write research
proposal/synopsis. This unit will focus on the purpose ofwriting proposalfsynopsis
along with their format.

20.2 OBJECTIVES
After completion of this unit, you should be able to:
state the purpose of writing research proposal/synopsis;
state the format of a research proposal J synopsis; and
formulate a research proposal 1 synopsis for a selected research problem.
Research Reports
and Applications 20.3 PURPOSE OF WRITING A RESEARCH
PROPOSAL
In this section, we will be talking about the purpose of writing a research proposal1
synopsis.

20.3.1 Research ProposaVSynopsis

After selecting and formulating the research problem, the researcher is required to
prepare a research proposal or synopsis for presentation before some committee in
the university or fbnding agency. At the stage of writing the proposal, the entire
projectlresearch work shapes into concrete form. In the proposal, the researcher
demonstrates that he is familiar with what he is doing. Here inspiration and insight 1
of researcher are translated into a step-by-step plan for discovering new facts. i
i
Following are a few purposes of a research proposal:
A proposal is like the blueprint which the architect designs before construction
of a house. It conveys the plan of entire research work ,indicating how the
entire research work will be carried out.
A proposal serves to communicate the researcher's research plans to those
who provide consultation or disburse funds. In many institutions, the research
proposal is presented before a committee. Here a number of experts participate
and provide important suggestions to help the researcher. A fbnding agency
also provides funds, based on the strength of the proposal. Thus, the nature of
academic assistance and financial support will depend directly on clarity and
thoroughness of the proposal.
A research proposal serves as a plan of action. It conveys to the researcher
and others as to how the study will be conducted. There is an indication of
time schedule and budget estimates in the proposal which guide a researcher
to complete the task in time within the sanctioned budget.
A proposal approved by a committee constitutes a bond of agreement between
the researcher and the guide or the funding agency. The entire proposal becomes
a mirror for both to execute the study in the right perspective.

Thus, a proposal serves mainly three purposes :(i) It communicates the researcher's
plan to all others interested (ii) It serves as a plan of action (iii) It constitutes a
bond of agreement between the researcher and the guide or funding agency.

20.4 FORMAT OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL /

A SYNOPSIS
A Proposal
The preparation of a research proposal or synopsis is an important step in the
process of research. There are various steps in formulating a research proposal.
The steps may differ from one type of study to another. There are, however, certain
specifications that are essential to good research and, therefore, all such specifications
should appear in each proposal. A worthwhile research study is likely to result only
from a carefully planned and well designed proposal. Although it is not necessary
to follow any of them, one should be careful that any list of specifications provides
a useful outline for writing a proposal. There should always be flexibility according
to the nature and type of research.
 The following.categoriesof information should appear in a.research proposal: Writing Proposal/Synopsis

1. Statement of the Title of the Problem

On the first page of the proposal, the statement of the title of the problem is
mentioned along with name of the researcher, name of the guide, and name of
the university or funding agency to which research proposal is to be submitted.
The title of the research proposal should do no more than name of the topic. It
should be so worded such that it suggests the theme of the study. The title
should not be too lengthy or too involved. It should be specific to the area of
the study and should give sufficient information about the nature of the study.
2. Introduction (context and justification)
In this section, the researcher introduces the problem briefly. Further, the
researcher will spell out as to how the problem emerged, its social and
educational context and its importance to the field. Some researchers name
this caption as "Background of the Study." In short, here the entire topic of
the study is introduced in brief. In some proposals, there is a separate caption
'Rationale', while in others the same is included in the introduction. Here the
researcher specifically deals with justification for conducting the proposed study.
In'short, one tries to answer 'WHY' of the study, suppose one selects "problems
of primary education in Gujarat" as a problem of hislher study, the researcher
will discuss about primary education in Gujarat, its status etc. in introduction
along with various problems related to it and the justification for conducting
this study.
3. Statement or definition of the problem
Statement of the problem is not exactly the same as the title of the study. It
has a definite place in the research proposal. Statement of the problem is
i primarily an expansion of the title of the problem. It is the explanation of the
title or theme highlighting the scope and area of the study.
I
r
I 4. A brief review of related literature
i
In this section, one presents what is so far known about the problem under
consideration. The review of literature includes two parts (i) the theoretical
I
background of the problem and (ii) the research work already carried out in
the area. If the area selected is quite new, concepts involved are unknown or
i not explored at length, then researcher should describe it in brief. The latest
1 research trends pertinent to the problem should also be mentioned in this section.
The literature need not be exhaustive, but should contain the most pertinent
related studies. The researcher has to make it clear that his problem has roots
in the existing literature, but needs further research and exploration. It should
demonstrate the group of the researcher of the field and awareness of recent
developments in the area.
It is not necessary to discuss all the related studies in detail. By reviewing
several similar studies, the researcher may describe the most important and
recent ones. The related literature section should conclude with, a discussion
of findings and their implications. He should focus on what has been done so
far in the area along with the research gaps. Here hencanshare the insights he
has gained from the review. Research gaps so identified will help the researcher
in building a strong rationale for the proposed study.
(In many research proposals, there is a caption 'Rationale', which tries to
focus on the 'WHY' of the particular study. Focus will be on "Why this
problem?" "Why these variables?", "Why this sample?" etc. A strong justification
for conducting present study has to be presented in the Rationale.) 7
Research Reports 5. Objectives
and Applications
Without clear formulation of the objectives, the researcher is likely to wander
aimlessly in the field and he hardly achieves any worthwhile goal. Objectives
are the basic foundations of the research, as these guide the entire process of
research. The list of objectives should not be too lengthy and ambiguous. The
objectives should be stated clearly to indicate what the researcher is trying to
investigate.

6. Research Questions/Hypotheses

In unit 12 and 13, you would have studied at length about research questions
and hypotheses. While conducting any research study, the researcher should
aim at answering certain questions which need to be framed clearly and
concisely. Questions that the research study is designed to answer are usually
framed as hypotheses to be tested on the basis of evidence. This step establishes
the problem and the logic underlying the research study. The preposition of a
hypothesis is derived from theoretical constructs, previous researches and logical
analysis. Formulation of the hypotheses helps in two ways: (i) A well-grounded
hypothesis is an indication that a researcher has sufficient knowledge in the
area. (ii) The hypothesis gives direction for the collection and interpretation of
the data. A good hypothesis must be testable, have explanatory power; state
the expected relationship between variables, be consistent with the existing
body of knowledge, and be stated as simply and concisely as possible.

7. Definition of Terms

Every research study involves certain key or technical terms which have some
special connotation in the context of the study. Hence, it is always desirable to
define such terms. There are two types of definitions: (i) constitutive definition
and (ii) operational definitions. A constitutive definition elucidates a term and
perhaps gives some more insight into the phenomena described by the term.
An operational definition is one which ascribes meaning to a concept by
specifying the operations that must be performed in order to measure the
concept. e.g. the word 'achievement' has many meanings but operationally it
can be defined as, "The scores obtained by the students in an achievement test
constructed by the researcher". Apart from operational definitions, one can
define some terms which have a definite meaning. Terms like 'Janshala' 'Lok
Jumbish' etc. (these are terms associated with elementary education projects
undertaken by NGOs in Rajasthan) should be clarified in the study if they are
used in study of elementary education.

8. Methodology

In this section the details about method of research to be used for conducting
the study, viz., historical, description, experimental etc; sampling procedure and
the data collection and analysis are described.

a) Method

In Block-11, in units 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 you have already studied about different

types of studies in educational research. In this section, the researcher will
specify the method of research adopted by him for the proposed study.
The method or type of research will specify the nature of the data and
their treatment. e.g. in historical and philosophical researches, the nature
of data and their treatment is different from other types of researches.
 -
b) Sample , Writing ProposaliSynopsis

i In Unit 12, you have already studied about various sampling techniques.
I
1
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Here the researcher will describe the population from which he will draw
i
the sample and the procedure followed in drawing the sample. This section
should describe the unit of sample, its size and structure. Justification should
also be given for the choice of sample.
c) Tools and Techniques of Data Collection
In unit 13, you have already studied in detail about tools and techniques of
data collection. It is important to note that research tool (also called
instrument) is for the measurement of variables. In this section, the
researcher will describe the various tools which are to be u3ed for collection
of data. If the researcher is constructing the tool himself, 'the procedure to
be followed for development of tools should be described in brief. In case
of standardized tools, information regarding their validity, reliability, norms
etc. should be mentioned.
d) Method of Data Analysis
Here the researcher should indicate in brief the procedure to be followed
for analysis of the data. The details of the qualitative and quantitative
(statistical) techniques should be described in the research proposal. It is
not sufficient to menxion only the name of the technique', but it must be
clarified for what purpose a particular technique will be used. The selection
of tl~etechnique and its use should be justified in terms of objectives of the
study. In case of historical research, it is necessary to throw light on the
methods of internal and external criticism that are to be addressed to in
the analysis of historical data. In document studies, mode of content analysis
should be explained in the research proposal.
8. Time Schedule
The proposals submitted to universities do not require a time schedule because
the duration for Ph.D. degree course is fixed. Of course, it varies from
university to university and further extension may be given on request. But in
case of a proposal of a research project submitted to a funding agency, mention
of a time schedule is a must as such a project is time bound . Time schedule is
reported keeping following points in view.
Time required for review of literature
Time required for preparation of tools
Time required for data collection, field visits etc.
Time required for data analysis and report writing.
9. BudgetEinancial Estimates
The proposal submitted for M.Pbi1. or Ph.D. degrees do not require this section.
The proposal submitted to the funding agency needs details regarding financial
estimates. It may include expected expenditure keeping following heads in view:-
* Remuneration for project team, i.e. Principal Investigator and other numbers
of team.
Remuneration for secretarial staff like clerk, typist, accountant, peons etc.
Remuneration for appointing project fellow, field investigators etc. 9
Research Reports Expenditure towards books, journals, tools etc.
and Applications
Expenditure towards stationery, printing, xeroxing etc.
Expenditure for data entry, tabulation and data analysis.
Expenditure for preparing final report.
Expenditure for travel etc. for monitoring purpose.
10. References
It is essential that researcher should report all the authors (books, titles etc.) in the
text of proposal at the end, in the reference section. Books and journals consulted
should also be mentioned in this section.
!
I
Cbeck Your Progress
Notes: a) Space is given below for writing your answer.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
1. State two purposes of writing a research proposal1 a synopsis.
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2. What are the main components of a research proposal?
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i

Let us take an example and try to follow all the steps that we have discussed
earlier.
Title of the Problem
A Study of the Impact of Advance Organizer Model (AOM) on Student Learning
in Economics at Senior Secondary Level.
Introduction and Statement of the Problem
The following points need to be briefly elaborated
Concept of teaching.
How to organize teaching in classroom settings.
10 Various methods of organizing teaching.
 Need for alternative ways of organizing teaching. Writing ProposallSynopsis

Models of Teaching as effective ways of organizing classroom teaching.

Concept of Models of Teaching.
Families of Models of Teaching.
Advance Organizer Model (AOM) of Teaching.
Effect of AOM on Student Learning in Economics at Senior Secondary Level.
Review of Related Literature
What do previous researches tell about the impact of models of teaching on
student learning?
What do previous researches say about the impact of Advance organizer Model
on student learning in relation to:
- Different subject areas
- Difference in sex
- Difference in intelligence Levels
- Difference in socio-economic background
What are the research gaps?
How does review of research literature help in building up a rationale for the
proposed study?
Definition of Terms
Advance Organizer Model: Advance Organizer Model is a plan or pattern of
teaching, designed by Joyce and Weil (1980), based on the theory of meaning
verbal learning of David P. Ausubel.
Student Learning: It refers to academic achievement obtained by students in
teacher made achievement test.
Senior Secondary School: It refers to two year of schooling after tenth standard.
Delimitations
The Study will be delimited to:
- One senior secondary school in Delhi.
- The students of 1 Ith standard.
- Subject of Economics.
Objectives
Main Objective:
To study the impact of Advance Organizer Model on student learning in Eco-
nomics at Senior Secondary level.

I Minor (Sub) Objectives:

I
To study the impact of Advance Organizer Model on student learning in terms
of difference in sex.
11
Research Reports To study the impact of Advance Organizer Model on student learning in terms
and Applications of difference in intelligence levels.
To study the impact of Advance Organizer Model on student learning in terms
of difference in socio-economic background.
Hypotheses '

There will be no significant difference in the mean achievement between ex-

perimental group taught through AOM and control group taught through con-
ventional method of teaching.
There will be no significant difference in the mean achievement between ex-
perimental group and control group in terms of difference in sex.
There will be no significant difference in the mean achievement between ex-
perimental group and control group in terms of difference in intelligence level.
There will be no significant difference in the mean achievement between ex-
perimental group and control group in tenns of difference in socio-economic
background.
Methodology of the Study
Research Method
For the present study, posttest only experimental-control design will be adopted.
Sample
-. -
Two sections of 1 I th standard of a Public School in Delhi will constitute the sample
for the study.
Tools of Data Collection ---
- Both unit tests and comprehensive achievement test will be developed by
the researcher.
- Standardized test on intelligence and socio-economic scale will be used.
Procedure of Data Collection
Before the experimentation is carried out, both experimental and control groups will
be equated in terms of previous academic achievement, sex, intelligence levels and
socio-economic background. The experimental group will be taught through Advance
Organizer Model (AOM) of Teaching and the control group will be taught through
conventional method of teaching. Eight units from the subject #Economics will be
taught to the students spreading over six months. After completion of each Unit;
Unit test will be administered to both the groups. At the end of the experimentation,
a comprehensive test will be administered to both the groups. Data will be collected
from students on unit and comprehensive tests.
Data Analysis
Data collected fcom students through administration of intelligence test, socio-
economic scale, unit tests, comprehensive test will be analysed with the help of
statistical measures like mean, standard deviation and 't' test.
Educational Implications of the Study
The study will have significant implications for improving classroom teaching-learning
activities. Application of Advance Organizer Model in teaching of economic^ at
senior secondary school will enhance student learning.
12
 Writing Proposal/Synopsis
20.5 LET US SUM UP
In this Unit, we focused on how to develop a research proposal. A research proposal
or a synopsis is prepared by a researcher to be presented before the University or
the hnding agency prior to the actual research is started. It is just like the blueprint
which directs the entire research work. A proposal comprises the title of the problem,
introduction or rationale of the study, statement of the problem, review of related
literature, objectives of the study, research questions or hypotheses, definition of
terms, delimitations, methodology, method of data analysis and interpretation and
references. If the proposal is submitted to a funding agency, one needs to mention
time schedule and the budget estimate. An example of a proposal was also provided.

20.6 UNIT-END ACTIVITIES

1. Collect at least five research proposals 1 synopses submitted to any universities
as part of M A (Education) or Ph.D programmes. Analyse these proposals and
find out whether they contain the necessary components of a research proposal.

2. Suppose you are planning to submit a research proposal to the Distance

Education Council (DEC) or the Educational Research and Innovation
Committee(ER1C) of NCERT for research grant. How would you develop
such a proposal?

3. Develop a research proposal on a research problem of your choice.

20.7 SUGGESTED READINGS

Ary, D, Jacobs L.C., and Razavieh, A. (1 972): Introduction To Research in
Education. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc.

1 Cryer, Pat. (1999): The Research Student S Guide, To Success. New Delhi : Viva
Books Private Limited.

Gi baldi, J., and Achtert, W.S. ( 1984): Handbook for Writers of Research Papers.
New Delhi : Wiley Eastern Limited.

Glatthorn, A.A. ( 1998): Writing the Winning Dissertations, A Step-by-step Guide.

California; Corwin Press Inc.

Locke, L.F., Spirduso, W.W. and Silverman, S.J. (1987): Proposals that Work: A
I
Guide for Planning Dissertations and Grant Proposals. New Delhi : Sage
Publications.
1
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NCTE (1999): A Handbook on Educational Research. New Delhi: NCTE.

20.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Purpose of a research proposal :

i) It communicates the researcher's plan to all those interested in knowing

1 the course of action in the research work.

I ii) It serves as a plan of action.

Research Reports 2. The main components of a research proposal are:
and Applications
Title of the problem
Introduction / Rationale of the study
Statement of the Problem
Review of related literature
Objectives of the study
Research questions 1 hypotheses
Definitions of terms
Delimitations
Methodology
Method of data analysis and interpretation
References
I UNIT 21 METHODS OF LITERATURE
SEARCH1REVIEW

2 1.1 Introduction
21.2 Objectives
21.3 Need and Purpose of Literature Search
21.4 Types of Literature Search
21.4.1 Print
2 1.42 Audio-Video
2 1.43 Web-based Documents
2 1.5 Steps Involved in Literature Search
21.6 Methods of Literature Search
21.6.1 Search Engine
21.62 Abstracting and Indexing Services
21.6.3 Bibliography
21.7 Methods of Review and their Implications
21.8 Let Us Sum Up
21.9 Unitend Activities
21.1 0 Point for Discussion
21.1 1 Suggested Readings
21.12 Answers to Check Your Progress

21.1 INTRODUCTION
A crucial stage at the beginning of any research activity - whether undertaken to
do one's own doctoral work, masters dissertation, action research, institutional
research, or even any sponsored survey - is examining what kinds of studies have
already been conducted in both one's own country and overseas, and what are
their findings. This unit will facilitate you in focusing your research questions with
clarity, developing hypotheses for your study, developing research designs, and
subsequently drawing policy implications for the research results that you obtain
towards the end of your research activity. You have seen in the preceding units
how research questions are identified and research problems are focused. In this
unit, we shall discuss in detail what role review of related literature plays in your
own research, how this is done, and what are its implications for your present and
further research in the same area of research investigation.

21.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
e state the need for and purpose of survey of related literature in research;
e describe the types of literature search;
e compare various methods of literature search with appropriate illustrations;
Research Reports describe the role different agencies play in facilitating such a search and in
and Applications providing direct services of literature search; and
reflect on the contribution of literature review to the piece of research that you
have selected to do.

21.3 NEED AND PURPOSE OF LITERATURE SEARCH I

You will find in many of the books on research methods in education and social
sciences a sequential chapterisation in which the chapter on 'review of related
literature' appears after chapters on the meaning and scope of research, and
identification of the research problem. While sequentially this may be true, you will
realise that for even selecting and focusing a research problem for further
investigation you need to undertake a study of some of the related published research
in the area of your investigation. You are now going for an intensive review to
sharpen the focus of your-study, develop hypotheses, if any, and develop your
research design accordingly. Therefore, literature search and survey is a continuous
process in any research investigation. Let's focus on the specific purposes as to
why we search and review literature in our specific areas of research study:

i) First, literature survey facilitates in locating the important independent and

dependent variables of your study. For instance, in a study on the relationship
between family variables and academic achievement of school children, you
need to specifically know what are the different family and allied variables
that exist and which operate to influence academic achievement of children,
and to what extent or in what way. Further, such a review will also reveal the
specific theoretical base for the study, in this example involving the family and
academic variables of children.
ii) Second, such a review will enlighten and facilitate you to locate what research
have already taken place; what variables and their relationships have been
studied; and what remains to be done. The survey will reveal what is called
the 'research gap' or the areas which have not been studied so far - or which
had been studied in other cultures but not your own. You may even like to find
out if the variables that had been studied from one point of view or angle need
to be studied fiom a different angle or perspective. You will also notice from
literature survey that most of the studies indicated further areas of research or
possibility of further research in the same area which will help you select your
search problem and develop the research questions.
iii) Third, a survey of relevant literature tells the application or implications of the
findings and variables involved in the research study for the practices in society.
You will realise that selection of a researchable area originates from the gaps
or difficulties encountered in real practice; and a full review of literature
enlightens you to reflect in what way your research cobtributes to address
practice or the problems encountered in practice. A survey of related literature
fulfils both of these objectives or ascertaining research gaps and research
implications.
iv) Fourth, and most crucial, is the location of the major variables of your study
and their existing relationships. The same phenomenon and its variables may
have been studied by different researchers from many different angles. This
will suggest to you how to refocus your angle or perspective for studying the
same phenomenon, and select, if not the same but similar, variables to further
investigate the-phenomenon under investigation. The variables involved in your
study as identified by you:
16
 must have some theoretical base, Methods of Lnerature
SearchIReview
must be related to your research problem in certain ways, and
must be related to each other within a framework.
A review of related literature facilitates in doing this, otherwise the piece of research
that you will do will have no connection to what had been studied in the past, and
therefore, shall remain isolated, and not form a cohesive whole.
v) Fifth, such a survey will provide you the frame of reference for your study.
Put simply, this needs to be stated at the beginning section of your research
report as to what has been the specific focus of your study, and from w-kre
you derived such a focus.
vi) Sixth, literature survey - both theoretical writings and research papers - will
enlighten you to appreciate the significance of your study, as also tell others
about its significance through your specific mention in your report. This is what
we call 'significance of. the study' in the final research report.
At this stage, it may be a good idea for you to take a pause, and reflect on the
benefits that you may derive if you do a literature survey for your specific research
topic on which you are already working or you are planning to identify to work
further. You may write down those aspects in the space given below. This will help
you to refer to such a list from time to time while conducting your research, and
especially when doing literature survey.

21.4 TYPES OF LITERAITIRE SEARCH

There are a variety and vast sources of related research literature available to you,
and you have to focus on what types of literature you need and from which sources
they can be found. The types of literature available can be in print, audio-visual or
in web form. These are briefly enumerated as follows:

21.4.1 Print
The largest chunk of literature available is in print form. Since print has been present
since the beginning of the process of recorded literature, it is not surprising that
most of the literature today is available in this form. Printed documents containing
research literature may be journals, indexes, series of review of studies (like the
'Survey of Research' series earlier brought out by Centre of Advanced Studies in
Education (CASE), M.S. University, Vadodara and now brought out by the National
Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi), theses and dissertations,
reference books, encyclopaedia, handbooks, and the like. Sometimes, one may require
old documents/writings of ancient times recorded in palm leaves as also handwritten
documents.
Research Reports 21.4.2 Audio-Video
and Applications
Literature can also be contained in the form of audio and video programmes relating
to your area of study, and these need to be listened and viewed to further focus
your study and provide a direction to it. There could be printed lists of audio and
video programmes circulated by concerned agencies, archives of audio and video
programmes, and publications by various publishers. For instance, one of the most
important sources of audio and video programmes of Indian studies (relating to
culture, architect, art, dance, music, etc.) for both Indian and overseas scholars is
the audio-video archives maintained by the American Institute of Indian Studies in
Delhi, with branches scattered all over India and in many universities in the United
States. Audio and video programmes and clips provide primary source of information
in the form of interviews, presentations, real case studies, processes of an event,
contextual happening of a phenomenon, and the like. We may also include still
photographs and documents available in microfiche form in this category too.

21.4.3 Web-based Documents

With the advent of information technology, especially the Internet, it is easy, to
search for related literature through the web or on the web. You may either take
the help of many search engines like 'www.google.com' or 'www.yahoo.com' or
'www.hotrnail.com' for searching your area. You may like to search through the
URLs of different sites directly where lots of literature are available. You may also
feed keywords on the web search which will provide you enormous literature directly
or indirectly, and further sources and sites of related literature. This is possible
provided you have access to Internet and also provided that the Internet connection
moves fast. In most of the metros and small cities (and in most of the educational
institutions) today you will find Internet kiosks which could be used at a nominal
fees. The difficulties involved in a web search include that:

i) you are provided with so much solicited and unsolicited literature that it is very
difficult for you to go through all, and select the best of the literature that you
want;

i most of the scholarly literature are copyright protected, and therefore, may not
be available on the web, and if available, one has to pay for getting access to
them. Further, we do not have standardised procedure for international
payments, though within the country it does not pose any problem;

iii) most of the literature available through web search may be 'somehow' related
to your study, and may not be directly useful. This is because you search the
web through typing a few most representative keywords, and the web provides
you literature not only on the combination of all your keywords, but also for
each key word separately which you do not at all want or intend to receive.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Space is given below for writing your answer.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
1. Point out the major purpose of literature search.
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 Methods o f Literature
2. Name two important sources of literature, available in print form, which SearchlReview
are widely used nationally and internationally.
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3. What are the technological sources of literature search?
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21.5 STEPS INVOLVED IN LITERATURE SEARCH

As a researcher you are always at liberty to determine the way you would like to
proceed. Sometimes, the literature available in a particular area of research is so
vast that it is worth to follow set procedures to get best result out of your search
for related literature.
Though there is no hard and fast rule for this, the diagramiflow chart provided by
William Wiersma (1986), as given below, may be useful to you to think of what you
need to do.

Identify keywords and

Identify CL-
UIG -3urces
3, of
phrases relevant to your
related literature
study

Identify titles of
potentially relevant
reports

Locate copies of the

reports to be reviewed

Delete non-relevant
reports

Separate out reports that Prepare abstracts or

are relevant and arrange summaries of the reports
in order of categories or

Prepare a complete
bibliography

Fig. 21.1: Activities in the review of literature.

Source: W. Wiersma, 1986.
19
Research Reports You may notice that while the process noted in Figure 21 .I is self-explanatory, it is
and Applications delimited to printed documents. But, a little variation of this is also equally applicable
to non-print and web documents. Given below is a brief description of the steps
that may be followed to search and review literature. You may like to adjust the
road map of your research of literature as per your requirement.
i) Choosing the area
You need to focus specifically which area you are to search, and which micro
variables are involved in this area to be searched. The first thing to do is locate
your area of interest and describe some of the variables associated with it. One
way to locate graphically is to list areas of study like teaching-learning, instructional
design, assessment and evaluation, etc. in the left column in a piece of paper, and
list elementary, secondary, higher education, non-fonnal education, distance education,
etc. on the top row - this will provide a matrix that will help you focus what areal
sub-area interests you, and what other variables could be associated with the area
that you focus (see Figre 21.2).

Areas Elementary Secondary Higher Non- Distance Any

education education education formal education Other
education
Teaching-
Learning
Assessment
& Evaluation

Instructional
Design
Any other
Any other
Any other

Fig. 21.2: Matrix to locate area of study.

For instance, 'assessment and evaluation' in the left hand column and 'distance
education' in the top row may provide you an area like 'assessment and evaluation
in distance education' as the major focus of your study. Further elaboration may
include which aspects of evaluation (whether student assessment through assignments
or term-end examination or projects, or even programme evaluation, and so on) you
would like to take up and for which programme of study. This will facilitate to
locate the area of study and the variables associated with it.

ii) Searching relevant titles of literature

The next step will be to search for titles of studies which best represent your
focused area of study and the related variables. Documents that you may like to
look for include published articles, unpublished articles and reports, and masters1
doctoral dissertations. For searching articles and reports (published, and sometimes
unpublished), one must consult the ERIC services or search. Published articles are
identified by EJ numbering which indicates that these are included in 'Current
Index to Journals in Education'. The unpublished reports are identified as ED.
'The other technique of search could be through other indexes and abstracts that
ERIC records: PsychoZogical Abstracts, Educational Index, Educational
Technology Abstracts, and so on. The dissertations can be searched through
20 contacting DATRIX with some related keywords; which, in turn, sends directly the
 full literature to the researchers. A minimum number of keywords need to be M et
provided to reduce possibility of getting unrelated or less-related literature and the
1 cost of payment associated with it. This is also equally applicable to web search of
relevant literature. Further, handbooks, yearbooks, series and encyclopaedia can be
b
searched from the reference section in any library, and these reference books/
materials are kept generally at separate (i.e. designated) spaces in libraries.
iii) Locating documents
The 'search for relevant titles leads to locating important and primary documents.
I
I The searches, especially the ERIC search, that you go through will provide you in
most of the cases only the main or short titles of the documents related to your
area of study. Rarely short annotations are provided. Therefore, what is important
before you order for the full document for which you have to pay (or to spend time
to search within related documents in the library to obtain copy of the full length
paper) is to locate the most appropriate title and the keywords associated with it. In
most of the journal articles that you locate, the abstract given at the beginning of
the article will clearly tell you if the article is fully related to your study and if you
need to Xerox it for carrying with you for further study and reference.

21.6 METHODS OF LITERATURE SEARCH

There are various methods through which you can access/search relevant literature.
We discuss below some important ones which you must try to go through to be
sure that you have not left out any study which would have informed you of the
areas that have already been explored and the design of those studies.

21.6.1 Search Engine

Traditionally, computers had been used to search for related literature provided
through some networks. The libraries must have access to them, store in their

I computer database, and provide through computer networking within that library.
Databases are available iq the computers of libraries which also contain data on
related literature concerning educational research. Most of the researchers frequently
! use the ERIC database which were earlier (and even today) available to PCs in
\ the libraries, and now available directly through web searcMnternet. Computer
search provides for literature which are available at the shortest period (thereby
i reducing the time spent in searching the library documents), and which provides for
very comprehensive data for you to choose from. The keywords can be combined
! with the help of descriptors like 'and' and 'or'. Earlier computer searches were
t , facilitated by library staff, but now one can by oneself access computer databases
which are user-friendly. If you have access to a library which has computer networks
and access to international databases, you can even access relevant literature by
sitting in front of the PC in your home through the university search engine. This
will not only provide you access to all the databases for which the university had
paid to the concerned agencies, but also provide some facilitative and common
search engines and links to further access literature on your own through these
gateways and for which you have to pay to the concerned agencies. The benefit
that you derive is that you can from your home or workplace access without wastage
of time.

21.6.2 Abstracting and Indexing Services

The various abstracting and indexing services provided by national and international
agencies are extremely useful to locate relevant literature. While indexing services
provide only the index or listing of the titles of articles, reports, etc., the abstracting
Research Reports services provide annotated bibliography (i.e. further annotation to the listed title,
and Applications which includes objectives, sample and tools, research design, and the main findings
in brief). The major abstracting journals include: Sociological Abstracts,
Psychological Abstracts, Child Development Abstracts, Educational Technology
Abstracts, Higher Education Abstracts, Educational Administration Abstracts,
and the like. In the very recent past, a host of abstracting services in micro areas
of educational research have been developed and made available to researchers all
over the world.
Besides abstracting of articles and reports, there are various dissertation abstracting
services available. You must access and consult the most important dissertation
abstracts like: Dissertation Abstracts International (Ann Arbor, USA), and the
dissertation abstracts of Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR, New
Delhi), and the Survey of Research brought out by NCERT, New Delhi. The
Association of Indian Universities (AIU) brings out a weekly chronicle/journal
'University News', the alternative issues of which include listing of doctoral
dissertations in Humanities, Social sciences, and Education that have been recently
awarded in various Indian universities.,
Indexing services provide only the index (i.e. key title or keyword) to the literature
that you are searching for. They may not include any annotation or abstract of
papers. The most important services include Current Index to Journals in
Education (CIJE) (Phoenix, USA), Contents Pages in Education (Carfax, UK)
which gives contents lists of most of the journals from all over the world, Social
Sciences Citation Index (Philadelphia, USA) and Education Index. The
Dissertation Abstracts International also provides for indexes to dissertation titles,
and xerox's Comprehensive Dissertation Indexes provides access to DATRIX.
21.6.3 Bibliography
Bibliographies are also another important sources of information on both titles
(bibliographies)and abstracts of papers and other works (annotated bibliographies).
Bibliographies of Doctoral Dissertations series brought out by the Association
of Indian Universities, and which had been from time to time borrowed by the
INFLIBNET (besides adding to it from their own sources), is an extremely useful
source, besides AIU's weekly University News which, as noted above, lists in a
separate section the doctoral dissertations recently awarded by Indian universities
and institutes of higher learning.
You may also do your own bibliographic entries of whatever literature you collect
for your research study. Your piece-wise bibliographic card may look like the following
(this is just one example of how this can be done, and you may think of doing
differently as per your convenience)

Panda, S. 'Development and tryout of an online constructivist model of continuing

professional development of special educators'. Fulbright postdoctoral research
report, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, 2003.

Bibliographic entries are usually made on each small size card through one's own
hand writing, though researchers these days make entries in their own computer.
Besides the entry as shown in the box above, you need to follow some consistency
in the headdmain points that you need to record for each entry; some important
ones are listed below:
Etle of the paper, project, dissertation, and the like.
The problem or research problem that the research study addresses, and
22 hypotheses if any.
 Sample of the study, its size and procedure of sampling. Methods of Literature
Search/Review
Procedures or design of the study.
Results and conclusions of the study reviewed.
Each entry may be contained in one single A4 size page with single space typing.
The entry must be recorded in a manner and with such precision that one may not
look back to the main f i l l length of the article or research report (unless required)
to review literature on the one hand and support one's own research findings while
writing the section 'Discussion and Implications' at the end of the research report
on the other hand.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Space is given below for writing your answer.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end'of the unit.
4. How does a researcher choose the area of his research?
.............................................................................................................
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5. What is an annotated bibliography?
.............................................................................................................
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6 . What does a bibliography card contain?
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I 21.7 METHODS OF REVIEW AND THEIR

IMPLICATIONS
Some of the methods or processes of review have already been noted in the
preceding sections of this unit. What is crucial for a researcher is to examine, while
reviewing related literature, how critical and relevant the review is to the concerned
research problem on which one wants to do firther research. One aspect which
has to be kept in mind is that there is considerable variation in the quality of research
undertaken and reported by previous researchers, and that every one may not have
followed a set pattern of reporting their research. Even referred journals, which 23
Research Reports review and publish research articles also vary. in their style (or even headings) of
and Applications presenting the papers. This is more so when one accesses literature through web
searches. Therefore, one needs to be critical in one's selection, review and reporting.
One of the frameworks presented by Wiersma (1986) for critical review-of each
related literature, given below, should be useful to researchers to consider (see
Figure 2 1.3):

1. Statement of the research problem

2. Identification of hypotheses
3. Description of the variables
4. The context of the research problem
5. Description of the individuals (subjects) involved
6. Procedures for conducting the research

7. (Rationale for) adequacy of the procedures

8. Appropriateness of the procedures
9. Analysis procedures
10. Appropriateness of the analysis procedures
11. Overall research design

12. Consistency of results with analysis procedures

13. Description of the results

14. Statement of conclusions
15. Consistency of conclusions with results

16. Relationship of the conclusions to the context of the problem

Fig. 21.3: Check list for the elements of a research report.

Source: Wiersma, 1986.
When each article or related literature is reviewed on the basis of the above points,
one will judge for oneself how best the above elements are covered in the article.
Adequacy of that can be judged from the four options provided in the top row of
Figure 2 1.3 above.

21.8 LET US SUM UP

As you would have noticed, an important step in conducting your research is to
search and review literature related to your study. The literatuk may include research
24 articles, unpublished research reports, masters and doctoral dissertations, and audio
 Methds of Literature
and video materials. We have seen that review has two main purposes: i) selection SearchlReview
of the research problem or research area, and ii) focusing the variables to be
investigated and developing the research design. The review also facilitates writing
the last part of the research report, i.e. 'discussion of results and implications'.
Various types and methods of literature search and survey have been discussed, as
also how the review can be utilised best in conducting your own research.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Space is given below for writing your answer.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
7. What are the implications of selecting any method of review?
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21.9 UNIT-END ACTIVITIES

i) Based on the research area that you have determined or thought of, jot
down the kinds and sources of literature that should be reviewed for further
focusing and strengthening your own research area; and justiQ how,
whatever you outlined, are the best areas and ways to do literature survey.

i i Based on your research topic, the objectives of your study, and the lists of

in conducting your research and writing your research report.

21.10 POINT FOR DISCUSSION

1. You may like to discuss with your peers and the counsellor how different or

of research like historical, philosophical, experimental, and the like?

2 1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Best, J.W. and James V. Kahn (1 992); Research in Education. New Delhi: Prentice
Hall of India.
Koul, L. (1997); Methodology of Educational Research. New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. (Third Revised Edition).
Research Reports Tuckrnan, B.W. (1988); Conducting Educational Resemh. San Diego: Harcourt
and Applications
Brace Jovanovich Publishers.
Wiersma, W. (1986); Research Methods in &cation: An Introduction. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon Inc.

21.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. a) To locate important independent and dependent variables of the research.
b) To find out the research gap.
c) To study the implications of the findings variables involved in the re-h
study.

d) To provide a frame of reference for the research study.

e) To appropriate the significance of the research study.
2. a) Survey of Research published by National Council of Educational Research
and Training.
b) Dissertation Abstracts International
3. a) Audio-video programmes containing interviews, presentations, real case
studies, process of an event, contextual happening of a phenomenon, etc.
b) Web-based documents available with the help of search engines like
www.hotmail.com or www.yahoo. corn or www.google.corn
4. The first thing a researcher does, while choosing the area of his research, is to
identify his area of interest and define the different variables that would form
the part of his research study. With the help of a matrix which has two major
dimensions, namely, area of study and variables to be studied, the researcher
can locate his research study.
5. Annotated bibliography contains the title of the research paper, project
dissertation, the research problem, sample of the study, procedures or design
of the study and results and conclusion of the study.
6. A bibliography card contains the following:
a) Title of the paper, project, dissertation, and the like
b) The research problems
c) Sample of the study
d) Design of the study

e) Results and conclusions of the study.

7. It is very important to select a method of reviewing literature. It is because
one finds different patterns of research reporting. One has, therefore, to be
critical in one's selection of method of reyiew and reporting as per the
requirement of the research work undertaken by him.

26
UNIT 22 RESEARCH REPORT: VARIOUS
COMPONENTS AND
STRUCTURE

22.1 Introduction
22.2 Objectives
22.3 Significance of a Research Report
223.1 What is a Research Report?
2232 Why to Prepare a Research Report?
22.4 Types of Research Reports
22.4.1 Research Articles
22.42 Abstracts
22.43 Thesis and Dissertation
224.4 Project Reports
22.5 Format of a Research Report
225.1 The Beginning
22.52 The Main Body
22.53 The End
22.6 Let Us Sum Up \

22.7 Unit-end Activity

22.8 Points for Discussions
22.9 Suggested Readings
22.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

22.1 INTRODUCTION
Writing a research report is a valuable experience for a researcher. It is an essential
part of the research process. Most research reports are either in the form of research
aiticles or abstracts or thesis and dissertations or project reports. These reports are
the vehicle for researchers to communicate the results of an investigation to others
across space and time. The research journal articles, master's degree dissertations
doctoral thesis and project reports, all have the common objective -to disseminate
research results and findings, ideas and information. There are, of course, other
ways of communicating research results, may be through oral presentation in a
seminar or conference or on-line journals in a website. Reporting research findings
and results are of paramount importance in all areas of research. Because, it is
hardly worth doing research if it is not disseminated. The purpose of writing a
research report is to communicate the ideas and information with other people.
InBlock 1,2,3, and 4 of this course, we have focused upon the concept of educational
research, variety of methods of research and the analysis and interpretation of
data, and findings. But these would be of no use if the research findings are not
communicated properly.
So, communication of research results should take place through research reports
with a number of different audiences in mind: fellow researchers, peers, practitioners,
teachers, curriculum planners and developers and the general public. 27
Research Reports In this unit, we will discuss the meaning of the research report, how to prepare a
and Applications research report and its various components. Besides this, the significance of a
research report and different typestforms of research report will also be discussed.
You will gain a deeper understanding about the format of a research article, an
abstract, a thesis and dissertation and a project report. It is hoped that these formats
would help you in writing articles for research journals and to prepare a complete
report after conducting a research worwproject.

After going through this unit, you should be able to:

discuss the significance of a research report;
define a research report;
differentiate between different types of research reports; and
describe the style and format of a research report and the kind of information
required in each part of a report.

22.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF A RESEARCH REPORT

The role of a research report is to disseminate the findings and results of a research
with the readerslaudiences. It is a record that reflects the investigation process or
what the researcher did. In a report each important term pertaining to research
problem is defined, limiting factors are recognized, procedures are described,
references are carehlly documented, results are objectively recorded, and conclusions
are presented with scholarly spirit. It is a written document prepared by a researcher
for sharing ideas, information and experiences with others.
Travers (1978, p. 410) states "Even though the author imagine Heaven as a place
where one can do research without having to write a report, the requirements of
this world are that research has to be described in writing".
This quotation emphasizes that writing a research report is essential to communicate
the research ideas.

22.3.1 What is a Research Report?

Research articles and reports had their origins in letters written by professional
researchers to the earliest scientific societies in the I P century. These were the
means of communication designed for readers familiar with the research process.
Readers were concerned with all of the methodological details and theoretical
implications of the research work. They also wanted detail description to try to
replicate the experiments themselves. These research reports were viewed as a
contribution to the general body of knowledge.
Source: (http:/doj.shef.ac.UWResearch Methods - Lecture % 20. Eleven.doc)
A research report is the culmination of the research process. It is a comprehensive
presentation of a researcher's activities and the results of the study. A research
report could be an individual project report such as a master's degree dissertation
or a thesis for doctoral degree. For example, an individual research report on "Effect
of class size on teaching practice and pupils' behaviour and attainment". A report
could be a product of collaborative/group research work report. For example, a
report of UNICEF assisted project entitled "Nutrition and Health Education and
28 Environmental Sanitation: An Impact Study".
In other words, a research report is an end product of a project work. It contains Research Report: Var~ous
the description of events, ~ r t i n e nfacts
t discovered during investigation, conclusion Components and Structure
and recommendation. The diagrammatic representations of the sequence of events
(Box 1) of a research process presented here emphasizes that the beginning is i.e.
selecting a problem and preparing a research proposal and the end product is writing
a 'report'.
The above discussion emphasizes that:
A research report is a tangible product or output especially a written/printed or
published document for communicating specific data and ideas to an audience.
It contains information which are observed or investigated with a specific
purpo=.
It is a record for future use by other researchers.
A scholarly outlet to disseminate ideas and information.

Research Process

a@
Research Repart

~ c t i v r t y1
Jot down a few points tibout the meaning of a research report.
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29
Research Reports 22.3.2 Why to Prepare a Research Report?
and Applications
The purpose of the research report is to convey the readers the problem investigated,
the methods used to solve the problem, the results of the investigation and the
conclusions inferred from the results. Research reports are used to obtain scholarly
findings about professional practices, which are used as a basis for making
improvement in educational activities of institutions. The research report serves as
a source of inhrmation which could be utilized for replication of research in different
contexts. The information presented in a research report contributes to the body of
knowledge. A report of an academic research project is usually a requirement of a
post graduate course or of an advanced degree. For example, when master's degree
or doctoral studies are carried on under the supervision of a guide or advisor or
faculty, the student's thesis will make a contribution to the body of knowledge,
The research reports are prepared for the following purposes:
Dissemination of research outcomedfindings
Used as reference material or for review of related literature to get guidance
and to record and utilize the findings for fbrther work
Utilisation of the research recommendations for decision making
Replication of research methods in different contexts
A medium to share research experiences and results of research
In other words these research reports are vehicles through' which we share our
research experiences, results and recommendation for future use. Besides, we max,
be researching for a university degree, in which case we write dissertations or
theses. These reports are submitted for assessment or for partial fulfillment of a
degree. Sometimes, we may carry out a research project funded by a funding
agency. So, a project report is prepared. Different report serve different purposes.
A report that is appropriate for one purpose might be inappropriate for another. The
following section deals with some of the basic considerations about types of research
reports.
Before proceeding to the next subsection, stop a while and complete this activity.

Activity 2
State the reasons for writing a research report.
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,

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,
A

22.4 ' TYPES OF RESEARCH REPORTS

Researchers,disseminate their research findings through research articles prepared
for print and on-linejournals, conference papers, theses and dissertation, and project
reports. Research reports are usually written for a special group of audience such
30 as one's fellow researchers or peer groups, practitioners, policy makers, curriculum
planners and developers, teachers or the general public. Therefore research reports
are prepared keeping in view different purposes and different audiences (see Box
2) and also of different length for different audiences. For example, a research
study on learning environments in schools their impact on academic. This could be
disseminated via an academic journal article focusing on the theory emerging from
the raemch, anotherjournal article concentratingon the pupils' perspectives including
case study material. A student of a post graduate programme with a title "A study
of learning environments for primary schools teachers trained through distance
education in Eastern Ethiopia" could prepare a thesis consisting of quantitative and
qualitative data, a discussion on methodology and conclusions. A concise summary
or an abstract of an article or a report could be prepared by a researcher so that
the audiencelreader can leam the rationale behind the study methodology, pertinent
results and important recommendation.
Box 2: Disseminating research findings for different audiences

'Qpes of reports Audiences

1. World Wide Web Teachers/PmfessionaIs, Policy

(On-line + Print) makers, Curriculum developers

Teachers/Professionals, Policy
2. World Wide Web makers, Curriculum developers
(on-line + Print)
-

3. Thesisldissertation
(full report) Fellow researchers, Peers,
Educationists

4.

w Project Reports
Funding agency Policy Makers
The public, and governments

There are debates and discussions pertaining to different format and style of writing
a research article, an abstract, a thesis and dissertation and a project report. Before
drafting a research report, you must ask yourself who will read it. It is useful to
think about a variety of reports that results from a research.
This section discusses different varieties or types of reports. They are:
Research articles
Abstracts
Theses and dissertations
I.

Project reports

22.4.1 Research Articles

The purpose 6f research articles is to inform the readers of what you investigated,
why and how you conduct the investigation, the results and conclusions.
These articles are usually reports of empirical studies, review articles or theoretical
Research Reports Reports of empirical studies
and Applications
These are the reports of original research. They consist of distinct sections that
reflect the stages in the research process and appears in the sequence of four
stages (APA, 1983 pg. 21). They are:

$ Introduction: development of the problem under investigation and statement

of the purpose of the investigation,
n Method: description of the method used to conduct the investigation.
iiii Results: report of the results that were found, and
iv) Discussion: interpretation and discussion of the implications of the results.
Review articles
Review articles are critical evaluations of research material that has already been
published. The author of a review article considers the progress of current research
'
toward clarifying a problem by organizing, integrating and evaluating previous
published material (APA, 1983). A review article appears in the sequence of the
following stages.
Defines and clarifies the problem;
Summarises previous investigations in order to inform the reader about the
current research;
o Identifies relations, contradictions, gaps and inconsistencies in the literature;
and
0 Suggests the steps in solving the problem.

Note: The components of review articles unlike the sections of reports of

empirical studies, are arranged by relationship rather than by chronology.

Theoretical articles
The author presents empirical information incorporating the theoretical issues of a
problem. Here the author finds out the development of theory in order to expand
and refine theoretical constructs (APA, 1983). The sections of the theoretical articles
are usually arranged by relationship rather than by chronology. The sections or the
stages of writing this type of report is like review articles.
Sometimes, you may find brief research reports, comments and replies, discussions
of different types of methods (qualitative/ethonographicstudies), case histories and
monographs published in journal articles. These are also reported according to the
guide1ines discussed for journal articles.

Note: You should refer to the specific journal to which you intend to submit
the research articles for publication. Most journals provide guidelines
pertaining to the length, headings, and format of an article such as title
page, abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, references and
appendix. (We have discussed in detail about these components in the.
next section)

Various writing style for preparing research articles for different journals are
described in manuals by Campbell, Ballou and Slade (1982), Turabian (1973) and
Modem Language Association (MLA) of America (Gibaldi and Achtext, 1988) and
32 manual of American Psychological Association (1 983).
 22.4.2 Abstracts Research Rtport: Various
Components amd Structure
An abstract is a comprehensive summary of the contents of the article or a thesis1
dissertation submitted for evaluation. It allows the audience or readers to go through
the contents of a journal article or a research report quickly.
These abstracts serve as one of the most useful reference guides to the researcher
and keep himher abreast of the work being done in hislher own field and also in
the related fields (Koul, 1986 p. 94).
These abstracts are published in journals and educational periodicals. For example,

i) Psychological Abstracts (1927 - Onwards)

i ) Education Abstracts (1 949 - Onwards)
iui) Sociology of Education Abstracts (1965 - Onwards)
iv) Dissertation Abstracts International (1 952 - Onwards)
In other words, an abstract is a summarized form of a research report (within one
or two paragraphs of about 150-200 words). It includes the problem hypothesis or
research questions, procedures, principal results and conclusions of a research work.
When to write an abstract?
A researcher writes an abstract
when hisher dissertation for a higher degree is accepted as a part of dissertation
and thesis. For example, preparing an abstract of a doctoral (Ph.D) thesis.
while submitting an article for publication in a journal.
when a research report is presented to an audience.
An abstract communicates the scope of a research article. It also presents the
summarized version of a topic to be discussed by the readersfaudience. It facilitates
academic discussion pertaining to a specific research problem. It helps the
researchers to identify the issues while going through the abstract relevant to their
research from the published articles.

Activity
Suppose you are preparing an abstract of your research worklreport. Considering
the following questions prepare an abstract of your project work
What information should be presented in an abstract to understand the
r important aspects of a research work?
What are the main points from each section of a research report which
* have to be selected?
How to summarise the important aspects of a research repomt in one or
two paragraphs?
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....................................................................................................................
Research Reports
and Applications

In other words, a good abstract summarises the key information from every major
section in the body of the report. It provides the key issues and conclusions from
the report precisely. The characteristics of a good abstract are:
Accurate
Self contained
Concise and specific
Coherent and readable

points to remember
You should remember that an abstract is a concise summary rather than a
detail description of a research report.

An abstract should have the following main sections.

i

i) Introduction - purpose of the study, research problem and hypotheses/research

questions
ii) Main Body - brief description of the methodology
i i i Results - specific data considered for analysis
iv) Conclusion - important conclusion or recommendation of the research study.
22.4.3 Thesis and Dissertation
A Thesis or a dissertation is a record of research activities. It is usually produced in
partial fulfillment of the requirements of a course/programme or for an advanced
 degree. It involves presenting a research problem with an argument or point of Restarch Report: Various
view. The methods or procedures adopted are substantiated with reasoned argument Components m d Structure
and evidence. This is written to share the issues and concerns related to a specific
research problem with fellow researchers supported by discussions besides presenting
the outwmedfindings. This record is submitted to an institutionJexaminingcommittee
for awarding degrees to the student. The reading audiences are committee members,
fellow researchers, peer group, teachers. These reports in the form of theses and
dissertations are usually preserved by the universities that award the authors their
doctoral and masters degrees. Sometimes these research studies are published in
whole or in part in various educational periodicals or journals. Because the reports
of many research studies are never published, a check of the annual list of theses
and dissertations issued by various agencies is necessary for a thorough coverage
of the research literature (Koul, 1986 p. 96). The following discussion describes the
sections of a typical thesis or a dissertation.
Differences between a thesis or a dissertation and a research journal
The major difference between a thesis or dissertation and a research article is the
length of the document and the contents covered. For example, researchers who
publish articles are limited by the established publishing criteria or particular journal.
Suppose a research article of six or eight pages, as prescribed by a specificjournal,
cannot include all the information contained in a 150-200pages thesis or dissertation.
The author of a thesis or a dissertation produces a "final" manuscript; but the
author of a journal article produces a "copy" manuscript. The requirements of a
thesis and a dissertation are not necessarily identical to the requirements of
manuscripts submitted for publication of a journal (APA, 1983 p. 189). The
manuscripts of research articles are read by editors, reviewers and compositors for
publication. They must conform to the format and other policies of the -journal to
1 which they are submitted.
The theses and dissertations reach their audiences in the exact form in which they
are prepared. They have been prepared for a research-productive career. These
theses and dissertations are submitted to the institutions/examiningcommittee as a
t part of a course/prograrnme. Therefore, they must satisfy the specific requirements
! prepared by an institution. Sometimes, the requirements/style mentioned by standard
i
i manuals may be or may not be considered. Universities/institutions/schools who
I have launched a course/programme should provide written guidelines and a format
which explain all modification to APA style. The thesis or dissertation in its original
I form is not acceptable to journals but the condensed versions of doctoral dissertations
I may appear as journal articles.

22.4.4 Project Reports

In the light of the varied types and purposes of projects, the format of a project
report will depend upon the level at and audience for which the research is done.
For example, the academic research project for a degree and projects funded by
funding agencies like UNICEF, World Bank or UNESCO differ in their formats.
I
Public and private educational funding agencies sponsor research projects either to,'
an individual or to a team or group of researchers through an institution. These
agencies require researchers applying for financial help to carry out a project, to
submit a research proposal at the outset and a project report at the end/or after
completion of a project wifhin a specified time.-The final report (a large scale or a
small scale) of a research project hnded by an agency is a written document that
the researcher sends to the funding agency. It may take the form (greatly reduced
in content and length) of an article in a professional journal. The organization of khe ,
content and structure of a project report and academic theses might look alike. 35
R u u r c b Reports These research reports may vary in length. While preparing a project report one
and Appliutioas should bear in mind the audience for the report. For example, scientific or general
report is prepared as per the theme and audience of a project work.
Possible formats for a project report are as follows:
Example 1
Executive Summary - a synopsis of the research focusing on its practical
implications
Aims and objectives - as specified by the funder or researcher.
Context - a discussion of the organization and its work and the reasons for
undertaking the project work
Results -an account or description of what the research project discovered.
Recommendations - a list of actions to be implemented.
Example 2
Titlepage
List of contents
Tables and figures
Project objectives
Methods, procedures used for collection of data
Budget
Findings
Conclusions and recommendations
Acknowledgements
Appendices
-- - - - - - - - -

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Space is given below for writing your answer.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
1. Write the characteristics of a good abstract.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
2. Explain the major differences between a research journal and a dissertation.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
36
.......................................................................................................................
 Research Report: Various
22.5 FORMAT OF A RESEARCH REPORT Components and Structure

A research report is a record of the research activities and the results of the study.
Like the records of history, it permits the readerlaudience to reconstruct what
happened without distortion. The research report includes a beginning, followed by
a description of the research undertaken, and ending with ideas for future studies.
There are several stylelstyle manuals available for presentation of a research report.
These manuals provide guidance to the researcher as to the specific rules on style
and format to be followed while writing a research report. Some universities1
institutions or department of education provide guidelines about the format to which
their theses, dissertations or research papers must conform. But all formats are
somewhat similar to the following outline (Koul. 1986 pg 344) which comprises
three main sections:

i) the preliminary section,

ii) the body of the report or text, and

iii) the reference section.

Each main section consists of several sub-sections. Let us go through the general
format of the research report as described by Koul (1 986).

Preliminary Section
1. Title page
2. Preface, including acknowledgements (if necessary)
3. Table of contents

4. List of tables

5. List of figures, maps or illustrations (if any)

Body of the Report or Text

a) Introduction
I. Statement of the problem

2. Analysis of previous research

3. Relation of present problem to theoretical position of the previous

research

4. Significance of the problem

5. Delimitations of the study

6. Assumptions underlying hypotheses

7. Statement of hypotheses
8. Definition of important terms
6) Design of the Slu&
1. Procedures employed
2. Sources of data 37
Research Reports 3. Data gathering instruments
md Applications
4. Sampling and methods of gathering data

c) Analysis and Interpretation of the Data

1. Text
2. Tables (if any, are usually included into the text)
3. Figures (if any, are usually included into the.text)
d) Summary and Concl11swns
1. Brief statement of problem and procedures
2. Principal findings and conclusions with their practical implications
(if any)
3. Suggestions for hrther research

Reference Section
I . Bibliography
2. Appendix
3. Index (if any)

Source: Koul, L. (1 986): Methodology of Educational Research, P. 344 & 345.

Let us discuss each section of a research report.
Sections of a Research Report
The number of sections in a final report and the order in which they appear above
almost never vary. Almost all research reports contain the same components. These
sections could be presented in three major headings. They are;

The beginning,

The main body, and

The end

22.5.1 The Beginning

The beginning or the preliminary section begins with a cover page (and the second
cover page).' The title page consists of the title of the study, the author's name,
institutional affiliation and degree for which the report is submitted, date of submission
of the report. Besides a title page this section includes acknowledgements page,
table of contents, list of tables, list of figures, and an abstract.

Cover Page
A cover page reflects the nature of your study. It should be brief and to the point.
The title should be written either in bold letters or upper-lower case and be placed
in the central portion of the top of the cover page. We have reproduced the cover
page of a research report in Box. The title should be precise and descriptive. Now-
a-days most of the titles are used by the search engines for locating reference
materials
 Box 3: An example of a Cover Page

Learning Environment
For Primary Teachers l h i n e d Through Distance Education
in Eastern Ethiopia

BY
Shimeles Assefa, (M-Sc.)
Enrollment Number 029114729
Alemaya University
Faculty of Education
Alemaya, Ethiopia
Project Work Submitted to the
Indira Gandhi National Open University
In partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the
Master of Arts (Distance Education)
June, 2005

Table of Contents
A table of contents is essential for any report. It indicates the logical arrangements
of the sections and sub-sections in a report. The title of the chapters are written in
capitals and the sections within chapters are written in small letters. A sample table
of content is given below.

Box 4: Sample of Table Contents

Table of Contents
Page
Acknowledgment I

Abstract n
Table 1 40
Table 2 45
Table 3 47
Figure 1 63
I Chapter 1
P Introduction 1

1.O Introduction 1
w
1.1 Background of the Study 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem 4

1.3 Basic Research Questions 5
I .4 Objectives of the Study 6

1.5 Significance of the Study 6

1.6 Definitions of Terms Used in the Study 8 39

Research Reports
and Applications Chapter 2
Review of Related Lierature 11

2.0 Introduction 11

2.1 The Institutional Support for Distance Learners 12

2.2 Distance Learning Networks 20

1.3 Collaborative Distance Learning Environments 29

1.4 Web-based Distance Learning Environments 35

Chapter 3
Design of the Study 43

3.0 Introduction 43

3.1 Description of the Research Design 49

3 -2 Population and Sample 54

Chapter 4
Results and Discussion 62

4.0 Introduction 62

4.1 Gender Differences in Perceptions of Distance Learners about 65

the Home Environment : Z Test Results
1
4.2 Observations of the Conditions of the Study Centers and 69
Student Support Services i
1
Chapter 5
Conclusions and Recommendations
,
5.1 Summary and Conclusions 74 1

5.2 Recommendations 76

Appendix A: Adapted Distance and Open Learning 78 1

1
Environment Scale

Appendix B: Interview Schedule for Head of Distance Education Unit 86

Appendix C: Interview Schedule for Coordinators of 88 h

Study Centres

References 90

List of Tables
The table of contents page is followed by the page consisting a list of tables which
have appeared in the main body of the report. The list contains the exact title of
each table, table number and the page number on which each table has appeared.
The example of list of table is presented in figure 22.1.
 Research Report: Various
Components and Structure
Tables Pages
1. Schools, population and sample on eighth grade 47
11. Two sets of experimental data with sums,
means and squares 52

111. Calculation of V1 of data of table - I1 55

Fig. 22.1: List of Tables and pages in a research report.

List of Figures
The page containing 'list of figures' presented inside a research report comes
immediately after the 'list of tables'. The difference between the two is that the
figure headings (Fig. 22.2) are not typed in capitals where is the headings of a table
are typed in capitals in the text of a report.

Figures Pages
1. Electrical equipment utilized in the filming procedures 49
2. Equipment used for calculation of kinetic data 55

Fig. 22.2: List of figures and pages in a research report in science education.

Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements are used to indicate the basis of a study, support, review of
prior draft of the manuscript and assistance in conducting the research and preparing
or typing a manuscript. Figure 22.3 illustrates a sample page of acknowledgments.

Acknowledgement
I would like to express my thanks to UNESCOIIICBA staff for providing
assistance both during the course work and the project work of the MADE
Programme.
I would also like to thank Mr. Walelign Admassu for his invaluable suggestions
during the progress of the project. My thanks also goes to Mr. Tegegne Sishaw
for installing SPSS 1 1.0 sohare in my computer and for providing other relevant
materials. I want to thank Mr. Adem Kedir for assisting in the interpretation of
statistical results.
Finally, 1 am indebted to Mrs. Genet Admasu for doing the hard work of typing
the manuscript.

Fig. 22.3: A sample of an Acknowledgement Page.

Abstract
The abstract, on page 2 of the research report, describes the study in 100-150
words. Included in this a comprehensive summary of the study, the procedures
used, findings and the conclusions of the study. It increases the readership.of the
article or a research study because it provides a review of the complete study.
41
Research Reports
and Applications Abstract
This study describes distance and open learning environment by exploring what
the distance learners feel about their learning environment and by finding out
how the environment variables influenced the SGPA of distance learners. The
study was conducted among primary teachers trained through distance education
in eastern Ethiopia. The findings revealed that there are no gender differences
in perception of distance learners about: psycho-social distance learning
environment, the institutional support they receive, the home environment, and
study centre environment. All of the students felt that the distance learning
environment in Eastern Ethiopia, namely, Harar and Dire Dawa areas is below
average and it is not an enabling environment in its present status for distance
learning. The Z-test was used to test gender differences in perceptions of the
distance learning environment. Interview schedules and observation
(unstructured) were used to explore the conditions of study centres and student
support services. The path and/or regression analysis of the relationship of
environmental variables (psycho-social environment, institutional support, home
environment, and study centre environment) to the SGPA of distance learners
has shown that the environmental-macro variables share no direct effects on
the SGPA of distance learners. The environmental variables first affect the
study habit of individual learners through micro-variables such as self-motivation,
self-regulation, and commitment of time to study. The study has shown that
these intervening variables have a more direct effect than the environmental
variables on SGPA of distance learners. Therefore, it was found out that the
environmental variables does affect the SGPA of distance learners only indirectly
(see figure 1 in the text). Having a quality environment by itself does not ensure
academic success, but it plays a catalystic role in enhancing the academic
performance of students. in general, the findings have suggested a need to
upgrade the quality of distance learning environment in eastern Ethiopia.
Keywords: Learning Environment, Environmental Variables, Self-
motivation, Self-regulation, Time-commitment, SGPA,
Perceptions.

22.5.2 The Main Body

The main body or the text of the thesis usually consists of four chapters. They are
(i) introduction, (ii) design of tlie study, (iii) analysis and interpretation of data and
(iv) summary and conclusion. But in a few cases (as shown in table of contents on
page 39-40 of this unit) you will find five chapters.
Let us discuss these chapters with their functions. (For chapterisation please refer
to unit 23)
4
Chapter 1 Introduction
The introduction gives a broad and general overview of the subject. It introduces
the research topic with a proper background and motivate the reader's to read a
report thoroughly. This chapter includes:
Statement of the problem :A clear and dqfinitive statement of what was studied.
Purpose of the study : A brief statement of why the study was done; a reason
for the research or potential uses for or contribution to be made by the results.
Need for the study (significance of the study, justification for the study):
An elaboration of the purpose of undertaking the study and establishing the
importance of the problem.
 Scope of the study : The scope of the study as identified by the researcher Research Report: Various
including information on what subjects and variables were studied; what data Components and Structure
gathering instruments were used; and the details about the methods and the time
and duration of the study.

Limitations : An indication of the inherent weaknesses in the study; factors that

could not be controlled adequately and could have affected the results. For example,
a researcher for completing a course on project work may not be able to interview
J hundreds of people.
Statement of objectives : The objective(s) of the study stated precisely.
!
Hypotheses : Prediction of the eventual outcomes of the study.

Definition of terms :A list of important terms used during the investigation and
reporting.

In most cases the above sub-sections of introduction chapter are common, though
practices vary. Some research reports follow the 'house rules'/guidelines provided
by the institution while writing this chapter.
In some cases the review of related literature is also presented in the first chapter
and is placed immediately after providing the theoretical background to the problem.
In experimental research it becomes essential to review related studies to formulate
the hypotheses.

In lieu of stating hypothesis, sometimes authors may provide a list of research

questions that the study proposes to answer. Regardless of the specific format and
organization, after reading an introduction section the reader should have a clear
understanding of what is being studied and why it is being Studied.
Chapter 2 Review of Related Literature

It is a well organized chapter that shows how the present study is different from
other studies. Through a review, a theoretical basis and justification for the present
study is formed. It is important that the authors establish the connection between
their study and similar research or published materials. By citing previous research
or theses pertinent to a problem, you are able to set the stage for showing where
your particular study fits into the overall scheme of a project work.

Note : While reviewing literature, a researcher has to be familiar with reference

books that list the abstracts of studies done in the field of education, for
example, ERIC, Psychological Abstracts and the research journals and
book. Now a days most libraries have access to the entire ERIC file
and Resources in Education (ME), Annual Cummulation of Abstrats,
Current Index to Journals in Education (CIJE), the Educations Index.
Searching data bases such as ERIC to identify references related to a
study is very fast, quick and useful. By giving the computer the key
words related to research one receives a list of references and the
abstracts of studies pertinent to a project.

I
I
While writing the review of literature one way is to pull these studies into an
organized pattern i.e. using a funnel approach. You could begin with broad statements
that can then be used to isolate your research problem from the vast number of
topics covered in a field. Continue this funneling (Ref. Fig. 22.4) systematically
eliminating irrelevant research and then summarise those points that form a basis
1
for your study. 43
I
Research Reports Key Recent Articles
and Applications
I I I I
Ref X Ref Y Ref Z

Fig. 22.4: A funnel approach for review of related studies.

One should note that the review should be the analytical summary of the related
literature which tells a reader about the important studies and theories that proceeded
the research work (see unit 2 1 for detailed information about reviewing the literature).
Functions
It is important for you to identify the literature you have reviewed only those which
are pertinent because they permit you to establish the importance of your study.
Some references may by important for developing a documented rationale.
The review of related literature provides a synthesis of research findings, It
interrelates the research findings with existing theories and research works. For
example, application or a theory or model from one field to a totally new area of
study.
The review provides a new perspective to the study supported by the positive and
negative evidence presented in the various research documents. A synthesis is thus
the argument or new creation developed from the pre-existing materials.
The research review is also oriented and guided by the purpose and problem(s) of
a study. The review focuses on addressing the purpose and problem(s) of a problem
directly. A review presents on extended narrative that demonstrates and warrants
the argument with direct quotations, citations and graphics presentation.
One way to consider the presentation of the results of the research review is to
conceptualise an inverted triangle (fig. 22.5).

\ /
Essential points
Introducing the most broad argument
and presentation

Important information
presents the narration that
leads directly from the
broad essential points to
the conclusion and
recommendation

Fig. 22.5: The inverted triangle for reviewing related research studies.
The figure 22.5 provides a graphic representation of how to build an argument Research Report: Various
while reviewing literature and how to present the very focused conclusion and Components and Structure
recommendation in a report.
For example, a review of the research on Literacy in Emakulam, India might move
through a progression of narrowing elements like that presented in figure 22.6. If
the researcher is in the progressive narrowing or platforming, of the topics and
issues presented in the review, then any reader could move from one section to the
next with suficient information and knowledge to understand rationally the substance
of the review.

Literacy from a world wide perspective

Literacy in developing countries

Literacy in India

Literacy in Kerala

Fig. 22.6: The inverted triangle - Literacy in Ernakulam, India.

Citation and referencing

There are many styles for reporting the review of research. For this purpose the
publication style manual of the American Psychological Association, 1994 could be
used.
While referencing and citing in a research review the reviewer should keep in mind
two important issues:

i) Citations are placed in the text either to refer the reader to additional relevant
information on the topic or to provide credit to the original source of the idea
or information presented;

ii) References are provided to aid the reader in locating the original source of
information cited in the review.
A citation in the text is required whenever the idea or information is not the original
idea of the reviewer. If a reviewer quotes directly the basic substance of the
information from a source, a citation must be provided. To use the information or
ideas of another researcherlauthor without proper acknowledgement through a
citation is a serious issue. The names of the author(s) and the publication data are
always provided in a citation. For example, John, W.Best, and Kahn, V. James,
Research in Education (New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, 2001), pp. 61-80. Both
author and date are essential information because a specific author or group of
authors may have written more than one document included in the review. Thus for
a reader to understand which document is being cited, both the author and data are 45
Research Reports necessary in every citation. In case of a direct quotation (identified by the use of
and Applications quotation marks the page from which the quotation was taken must be provided.
Page numbers are always required for direct quotations or statistics.
Design of the Study
The next major chapter of a research report is the design of the study. This is the
third chapter of the research report. This section is generally identified by Title,
Methods or Methodology or Procedures or Design of the Study. Here the
author provides a description of the procedures for selection of sample/research
participants, research instruments and procediires for the administration of tools.
The section is highly structured and contains detailed statement explaining the
research methodology used to conduct the study. Ideally, this chapter should be
written in such a way that would enable a reader to replicate the study using the
same methodology (The detailed discussion about the various sections is discussed
in the next unit 23, chapterisation and its functions). This chapter includes the
procedures and instruments, results, and finally the report's main body which
concludes with the discussion section. The discussion section serves the function of
presenting the outcomes of the study. Here the author provides interpretation of
findings, culminating with a conclusion that provides an answer to the research
problem.
This section of a research report serves six major functions. They are:
Summarising the findings.
Planning and interpreting of what the results mean to achieve meaningful
conclusions and generalizations
Theorizing or theory development, either as support for existing theory or for
the establishment of original theory
Recommendation or application - since results of a research have theoretical
and practical implications for altering professional practices, the discussion section
provides the platform for making recommendations.
Suggesting extensions -this section of a report includes suggestions for future
research.
The author should concludes the main body of a report that reflects whether
the original research problem is better understood, or even resolved as a result
of this study.

Check Your Progress

I Notes: a) Space is given below for writing your answer.

I
3.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
Discuss the functions of (i) review of related research and (ii) writing a
I
discussion section in a research report.

I i) Functions of review of literature

I
 Research Report: Various
i Functions of a discussion section Components and Structure
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

22.5.3 The End

The last section labeled "References", and "appendices" appear at the end of a
research report.
References
The purpose of the 'references' section is to enable the reader to find out the
books that have been referred. The reference section is a list of works of other
authors that have been cited in the report. The references are listed alphabetically
according to the last name of the first author of the work. A bibliography contains
a reference to all background material. The reference section lists only those works
that have been referred in the report. If you have more than one work by the same
author or authors, the works should be listed according to data of publication. For
each author, give the last name followed by a comma and the first (and middle)
initials followed by periods. For example,
Book
Koul, L. (1 986): Methodology of Educational Research, New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
Separate multiple authors with commas and the last author with the amper-
sand ('&") rather than the word "and".
After the author(s) comes the year (in parenthesis). For example:
Best, J.W. & Kahn, J.V. (1995) Research in Education. (7thed.), New
Delhi: Prentice - Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
For a journal reference, underline the title of the journal, volume number and
adjacent punctuation marks.
For example:
Journal
Barbara, B.L. and Tracy, C.R. (2003): The effects of collaborative action research
on preservice and experienced teacher partners in professional development.
Journal of Teacher Education. Vol. 54, No. 2, Pages 135-149.
Tariq, A. and Darcy, M. (2003): Overcoming resistance to change: A case study of
revision and renewal in a US secondary education teacher preparation programme.
Teaching and Teacher Education: An International Journal of Research and
Studies. Vol. 19, No. 4 pages 409-420.
Book
Mcniff, J. and Whitehead, J. (2002): Action Research Principles and Practices.
(2nded.) London: Routledge Falmer.
Travers, Robert M.W. (1 978). An Introduction to Education Research. New York:
Mac-millan Publishing Company, Inc. 47
 Research Reports Appendix
and Applications
An appendix is an optional supplement to a research report. If there is a long
article that you feel is essential for understanding and replication, probably should
be included as an appendix. For example complicated statistical analysis, published
articles, copies of questionnaires, inventories, tabular formation, special materials or
illustrations of testing equipments may include as appendices at the end of a report.

Check Your progress

Notes: a) Space is given below for writing your answer.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
4. Discuss the difference between a bibliography and a reference.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
5. List the main chapters of a research report.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................

22.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, our main focus was on how to write a research report. At the outset,
we defined what a research report enumerates the significance of a research report.
Different types of research reports like research articles, abstracts, theses and
dissertations and project reports were discussed. Format of a research report was
also discussed. It consists of the preliminary section, the body of the report and the
reference section. There are three major sections in a research report. These are
f the beginning, the main body and the end. The details of chapterisation will be 1
discussed in the Unit 23.

22.7 UNIT-END ACTIVITY

I
1. Collect at least one Ph.D or MA or M.Ed. research report each based on
survey, experimental, qualitative case study, historical and philosophical research
studies. Examine how these reports have been developed. Write a critical note
on your analysis.
48
22.8 POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Would you write up a report as you go along or leave it until you have completed
the work?

2. Why would you do things this way?

3. Would you begin your research report by thoroughly reviewing the literature?
4. Would you consider writing a research report as an on-going task throughout
the research study?

5. Why do you want to write a report?

6. How much detail do you think you should discuss about methods of study?

7. What basic formatlreference book would be appropriate for writing a report?

22.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

American Psychological Association (200 1): Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (Yh ed.). Washington, DC:American Psychological
Association (REF BF 76.7.083.200 1).

Baumgartner, A. Ted., Strong, H. Clinton, and Hensley, D. Lany (2002): Conducting

and Reading Research in Health and Human Performance. Third Edition, San
Francisco: McGraw Hill.
Bell, J. (1999): Doing Your Research Project, A guide for first-time researchers in
Education b d Social Science. Third Edition, New Delhi: Viva Books Private Ltd.

Best, J.W., and Kahn, J.V. (1995): Research in Education, Seventh Edition, New
Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited

Blaxter, L., Hughes, C., and Tight, M. (2002): How to Research. First South Asian
Edition, New Delhi: Viva Books Private Limited.

Campbell, W.G (2000): Form and Style: Thesis, Reports, Term Papers. I lthed.,
Boston: Houghton Mifin.
i
Chicago Manual of Style (2003): Ch~cago:The University of Chicago.
i
Crowl, Thomas K. (1993): ~unda&entalsof Educational Research. Wim. C .
Brown Communications, Inc. USA. c
Gibaldi, J. (2003): MLA Handbook for Writers of Research. (6'h ed.),
http://doj.shef.ac.uWResearch Methods - Lecture % 20 Eleven. doc.

Koul, Lokesh (1 997): Methodology of Educational Research. New Delhi: Vikas

Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., Third Revised Edition.

Slade, C. (2000): Form and Style: Research Papers, Reports, Thesis. 1lth ed.,
Boston: Honghton Mifflin.

Strunk Jr., W. and White, E.B., Angell, R. (2000): The Elements of Style. (4" ed.),
Pearson: Allyn and Bacon.
Research Reports
and Applications 22.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. A good abstract should be accurate, concise, coherent, readable, specific and
self contained
2. The major difference between a research journal and a dissertation is the length
of the document and the content/information covered. The dissertation in its
original from is not acceptable to journals but the condensed versions of
dissertation may appear as journal articles. The author of a dissertation produces
a "final" manuscript, but the author of a journal article produces a "copy"
manuscript. The format of the dissertation is as per the requirements/style
mentioned by an institution to which it is submitted. The format of a research
article conforms to the guidelines and policies of the journal.
3. i) The review of related literature forms a theoretical basis and justification
for the present study. It helps the researcher to make the connection
between the present study and similar research or published materials. It
helps to establish the importance and documented rationale of a research
study. The review provides a new perspective to the present study
supported by the positive and negative evidence presented in the various
research documents.

ii) The discussion section of a report provides the platform for making
recommendations and application of research findings . It serves the function
of presenting the outcomes of the study. It summarizes the finding with
conclusions and generalizations. It describes the planning and interpreting
what the results mean to achieve meaninghl generalizations. It also provides
a base for theorizing or theory development, either as support for an existing
theory or for the establishment of an original theory.
4. A bibliography contains all background materials made use of in the research
report but a reference section lists only those which have been referred in the
report.
5. Chapter I
Chapter 2
Introduction
Review of Related Literature
1
Chapter 3 Design of the Study
Chapter 4 Results and Discussion
Chapter 5 Conclusion and Recommendations 1
 UNIT 23 SCHEME OF CHAPTERISATION
AND REFERENCING
Structure
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Objectives
23.3 Need for Chapterisation and its Functions
23.4 Diversity in Chapterisation
23.5 Referencing and Footnotes - Need and Importance
23.6 Various Styles of Referencing
23.7 Let Us Sum Up
23.8 Suggested Readings
23.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
FIi
?!

23.1 INTRODUCTION
Once the research data have been collected, analysed and interpreted, the next
important task is to report the results of the research, and these are to be
communicated to others. This requires preparation of research report which we
may call thesis or dissertation or project report. You have already studied about
research reports and its various components in unit 22. In a research report, the
researcher communicates both the procedures as to how the research was carried

1 out and the findings. Implications of the findings and their relationship to other
knowledge in the field also need a special mention in the report along with the
suggestions. Reporting of the entire research has to be divided into a number of
chapters. In this unit, you will learn about various chapters in the report and their
I
main functions along with referencing.

I
I
After going through this unit you will be able to:
I! describe the need for chapterisation;
list the functions of each chapter in the report;
I
explain diversity in chapteristion;
write various references and footnotes;
I
apply various styles of referencing and footnotes.

23.3 NEED FOR CHAPTERISATION AND ITS

FUNCTLONS
In any research, an 'after completion report' has to be produced for various purposes.
It may be a part of requirement in the department, faculty or institution for its
assessment. If research is assigned by a particular agency, then the report is to be
Research Reports submitted to the same for further action. In any case, a researcher is supposed to
and applications organize hislher dissertationlthesis or report according to certain guidelines which
you have studied in unit 22. A researcher is supposed to communicate clearly his1
her results along with procedure to the readers. There is a general pattern widely
used in most of the reports, sanctioned by tradition, but it has its own logic. The
entire report provides answers to five fundamental questions as reported by Glatthorn
(1 998).

1. What is the problem that I studied?

2. How does my study relate to previous works?

3. What method did I use to study the problem?

4. What result did I obtain?

5. What does it all mean?

According to Cryer (1999), your dissertationlthesis or report should focus on the

following questions.

1. How have you defined or developed the research question(s), topic(s), or

theme(s) with which the report is concerned?

2. How are you developing your research methodology? (stressing 'how it is

appropriate)

3. How do you expect to ensure that you will collect appropriate data which is
convincing for its purpose?

4. How are you using the literature?

5. How are you dealing?

From the questions raised by Glatthorn (1998) and Cryer (1999), you might have
understood the purpose of report writing. If you examine each question given by
Cryer closely, you will certainly say that each question, itself, demands a separate
chapter in the report. In whichever way you design your report, it must communicate
to the reader (i) the purpose of study, i.e. objectives of the study, professional
significance of the problem, overview of the method~logy,delimitations of the study,
definition of key words (ii) review of the theoretical and empirical literature;
(iii) description of general methodology, (iv) presentation of results and (v) discussion
of findings and suggestions. From this, it is clear that each chapter in the dissertation/
thesis has its own functions. We will discuss the chapterisation of a dissertation1
thesis under the following heads along with its function.

Introduction

"Introduction" is normally the first chapter in the dissertationlthesis. As the name

suggests, it introduces the entire topic or problem under investigation alongwith its
importance, background of the study, objectives of the study, definition of key words,
hypotheses, delimitations of the study and overview of methodology. Of course,
there is a separate chapter for methodology, but an overview about the same may
be included in the chapter on introduction. Normally such sub captionslsections are
quite common, it is not necessary to follow them rigidly, there could be variation in
order of sub captions as per the need.

The first chapter should conclude with a paragraph that looks ahead to the rest of
the chapters, indicating to the readers what they may expect.
52
The Introductory Chapter Scheme of Chapterisation
and Referencing
Gives the theoretical background to the specific area under investigation; f

Clearly states the problem under investigation with specific reference to its
placement in the broader area under study;
Describes the significance of the research problem focusing on why study is
undertaken;
States precisely the objectives of the study.
States hypotheses and/or research questions if any. (This you have studied in
Block 3, Units 10 & I 1 ).
Defines the important terms conceptually as well as operationally, if possible.
Defines the scope and limitations of the study.
Thus, the main function of this chapter on introduction, is to introduce the entire
thesisldissertation, in brief. By going through this chapter, the readers will be clear
about the intention of the researcher.
Review of Related Literature
Review of related literature is generally the second chapter of the research report,
and usually consists of the review of important literature related to the problem
under study. This chapter generally begins with an overview of how the chapter is
organized followed by a review of the theoretical and empirical literature and ending
with summary of what the previous research seems to mean and how it related to
this study. Here the investigator tries to identify research gaps. Focusing on what
has been done so far, when and where earlier studies were carried out, what
methodology was used by them. This chapter has two major functions. First, while
selecting a problem area or simply a topic for investigation, the investigator goes
through many books, journals, research abstracts, encyclopedia, etc. to finally
formulate a problem for investigation. Thus, a review of related literature helps in
identifying a problem. Related literature is one of the sources for identification of a
research problem. Second, review also helps the researcher to formulate the broader
assumptions about the factors/variables involved in the problem and later develops
the hypothesishypotheses for the study. Ary Donald et. al(1972) describes following
functions of review of related literature.

i) Knowledge of related research enables the investigator to define the frontiers

of his field.
hi An understanding of theory in the field enables the researcher to place his
question in perspective.

iii) Through studying related research one learns which procedures and instruments
have proved useful and which seem less promising.
iv) A thorough search through related research studies avoids unintentional
replication of previous studies.
v) The study of related literature places the researcher in a better position to
interpret the significance of his own results.
While reviewing literature in the area concerned, you have to keep in mind that the
reviewed literature has to be critically analysed and summarised in terms of
agreements and disagreements among the authors and researchers in order to justify
the necessity for conducting your investigation. 53
 Research Reports
and Applications
Design of the Study
I
Design of the study highlights methodology of the study. Design of the study is like 1!
a blue print of the entire study. In short, research design is a plan of investigation, 1

which includes an outline of what the investigator will do, ftom writing the objectives,
hypotheses and their implications to the final analysis of data. It generally includes
the subjects or participants usually called sample, instruments or tools needed for
collection of data, procedure followed for collection of data and its analysis. Design
of study has the following functions. a

i) It conveys facts about the nature and type of data required along with where
such data is found.
4

ii) Design deals with sample of the study. How has the sample been drawn?
What will be the sample size? These questions will be answered in the design
section.

iii) Design also conveys facts about various instruments needed for the study.
How will the tools be designed? How have valid and reliable tools been
constructed? Detailed description of this will find a place in the design section.
iv) Design also clarifies as to how data will be collected, tabulated and analysed.
It will briefly describe the technique for the analysis of data.
Thus, design of a study is an important section of the report which answers many
questions like: what, where, when, how much and by what, concerning a study.

I Analysis of the Data

The next chapter after the design of the study is about analysis of the data and its
interpretation. It is the heart of the whole report; because it deals with the outcome
of the study. Here data collected are presented in a tabular form and analysed with
the help of appropriate statistical techniques. Nature of your study will decide as to
how this chapter is to be organized. If the study involves hypotl~eses,one may go
for presentation of results as per the order of hypotheses. One may also present
the results as per order of research questions or objectives.
The data collected is always presented in a tabular form; before the table, purpose
of table is clarified and after table, follows the interpretation of tables. Thus, this
chapter gives an idea about actual calculations along with interpretation and final
results. It also presents the details about testing of each hypothesis and the conclusions
on it. The main function of this chapter is to provide the reader a clear idea regarding
the status of the analysis along with outcome of the study.

a Summary and Discussion

This is usually the final chapter of the report. The title of this chapter varies from
individual to individual. For some it is Major Findings and Conclusion, for some it is
Suggestions and Conclusion, for some it is Summary and Discussion. This chapter
mainly deals with major findings and conclusion thereon, suggestions based on the
findings of the study, suggestions for further study and discussion of findings in the
light of the studies reviewed earlier.
The major findings of study analysed and interpreted in the preceding chapter are
precisely and objectively stated in this chapter. Here the investigator uses specialized
or technical language, but in this (final) chapter, same must be presented in non-
technical language so that a non-specialist like a planner or an administrator can
also understand them. Major findings are followed by a discussion of the results.
For discussion of the results, studies reviewed earlier will be kept in focus. Here,
54 one is trying to relate his findings to previous studies. If the findings have any
I
I disagreement with earlier studies or findings, they do not explain at length the problem Scheme of Chapterisation
i and Referencing
under study, and an explanation with proper justification has to be provided. Based
on findings, a researcher should provide implications. These implications will suggest
I
activities and some directions for the practitioners in the field. It is followed by
suggestions for further research. These suggestions are provided based on limitations
of the present study. Some researchers include summary of the entire report in this
chapter, which includes the theoretical background to the suggestions for further
study. Thus, the present chapter is very important from the view point of users of
the research mainly in two ways: (i) it gives practical suggestions, directions and
activities to be carried out by users in the field and (ii) it suggests areas for further
research so that new beginnings can be made in this area in future.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Space is given below for writing your answer.

b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
1. State two main functions of the following chapters in the research report.
i) Introduction
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
ii) Review of related literature
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
iiii Design of the study
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
iv) Analysis of the data
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
v) The summary and discussion.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
1

23.4 DIVERSITY IN CHAPTERISATION

Earlier we have seen that a research report generally comprises the following
chapters, (i) Introduction (ii) Review of related literature, (iii) Design of the study,
(iv) Analysis of the data & (v) The summary and discussion. This is a general
guideline to organize the research report, but one should not be too rigid about it.
Whatever pattern you follow to organize your report, it must enable you to
communicate your procedure and results clearly to the readers. Patterns of
organization have no intrinsic value, they operate only to facilitate communication.
55
Research Reports The particular, organization pattern one selects will be decided by certain
and Applications considerations as the nature of the study, the field in which one is working and the
particular requirements of the institute or agency. This may lead to diversity in
chapterisation.
Thus, you will agree that one need not follow a rigid pattern for chapterisation, but
the same should be decided based on the field of study, nature of research area
and requirement of the department or agency. We will study certain cases where
diversity is seen in chapterisation.
Suppose, one is working on some latest area, which has not been explored to a
large extent. Here the investigator may be tempted to describe the theoretical
background in greater detail; one may devote a full chapter for the background of
the study. Suppose, an investigator is studying one or more aspects of District
Primary Education Programme (DPEP) in India. Here one may be interested to
communicate to the readers the emergence of DPEP along with its historical
background. This requires one full chapter other than the review of related literature.
So one has to deviate from the normal pattern of chapterisation. Similarly, an
investigator working on an area of "Distance Education" may write a separate
chapter on Distance Education focusing on its history, emergence, its status in India,
etc. On other hand, when an investigator does not find enough number of research
studies related to histher problem under investigation, he/she may not go for a
separate chapter on review of related studies but the same could be combined with
the chapter on "introduction".
i
Another illustration of diversity is found where one goes for construction of tools.
If an investigator is interested in constructing some test to measure achievement or
intelligence or a tool to measure attitude or aptitude, he/she may devote one full
chapter on various aspects like writing of items, item analysis, reliability, validity
and norms.
Many investigators report the results based on each objectives separately. In a
study where various States, Districts, Blocks are involved, results for each of them
are separately presented. There are investigators interested in writing a full length
chapter on discussion only.
Thus, we have seen that depending on the need of the study, an investigator may
deviate from the general pattern of reporting. Whichever pattern you follow,
ultimately, it should answer certain questions related to the research problem, its
significance, its relevance with previous studies, methods used for data collection

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Space is given below for writing your answer.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
2. State three factorsresponsible for diversity in chapterisation.
..............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
56
 Scheme of Chapterisation
23.5 REFERENCING AND FOOTNOTES - NEED AND and Referencing-
IMPORTANCE
Research reports present references and bibliography. A bibliography is a list
of published works, although by common usage both published and unpublished
materials are listed in a bibliography. Many researchers use these two terms
. references and bibliography interchangeably, but the two terms have definite
meanings. A bibliography is a list of titles - books, research reports, articles,
papers etc. that may or may not have been referred to in the text of the research
report. References include only such studies, books, articles or papers that have
been actually referred to in the text of the research report. In short
REFERENCES consists of all documents, including journal articles, books,
chapters, technical reports, computer programmes and unpublished works that
are mentioned in the text of the manuscript. A bibliography contains everything
that would be in the reference section plus other publications which were
consulted by the researcher but were not cited in the manuscript.

AAer having clarity about references and bibliography, let us understand the
need and importance of referencing and footnotes. Articles, papers, books,
research reports (Dissertationslthesis) monographs etc. quoted inside the text
of the report should find a place in the reference section. In the text of the
report, the author's surname along with the year of publication is given e.g.
(Glatthorn, 1998). When few sentences are quoted from a source, the page
number too is noted, e.g. (Glatthorn 1998 :137-138). Full length reference be
placed at the end of the chapter or at the end of the thesislreport or at the foot
of that page as footnote. The traditional style of giving references is to place
them as the footnotes on the relevant page(s). The footnotes areoserialized
inside the text and in the footnotes of each chapter. In some cases footnotes
are generally avoided, instead full reference is given at the end of the report.

Footnotes and reference perform many functions. As the name implies, footnotes
are usually found at the foot of a page, although in some manuscripts they
appear at the end of each chapter or at the and of a paper. Footnotes and
references are used to ;

i) Validate a point, statement or argument. The original source or authority is

acknowledged through the use of a footnote or reference.

ii) provide the reader with sufficient information to enable himlher to consult
the sourcels independently.

iii) provide cross-references to material appearing in other parts of the report.

V v ) explain, supplement or amplify material that is included in the main body of

chapterlpaper
e
iv) acknowledge a direct quotationls.

Thus, it is very clear that researchers acknowledge their indebtness to other

authors not only as a matter of courtesy but also as means of confirming their
work.

By now you might have understood the concept of footnotes and references
alongwith their importance. Now, let us see how to use footnotes and references
in the report.
Research Reports
and Applications 23.6 VARIOUS STYLES OF REFERENCING
There are mainly two style manuals used for referencing. These are:
American Psychological Association, Publication Manual, 3rd edition.
Washington, DC : American Psychological Association, (1983).
The Chicago Manual of style, 13" revised edition, Chicago University of Chicago
Press, 1982.
Generally, references are arranged in alphabetical order where the researcher has
cited the name of the author and the year of publication of the work in the text.
Another practice followed is references are arranged in a sequence as they appear
in the text of the research report. Here related statement in the body of the text is
numbered. :
However, most research reports use alphabetical listing of references.
Now, let us see how to use footnotes:-
* Footnotes are always double-spaced between each other, though each footnote
is typed single-spaced.
It is usual to give the full name of the author in its normal order, i.e. first name
(or initial) and second name precede surname. e.g.
6 John, W. Best. (1993). Research in Education. New Delhi : Prentice Hall
of India, P. 148 here '6' indicates number given in the text, "John" is first
name, "W" is second name and Best is surname and P. 148 indicates that
matter or direct sentence or quotation is taken from that page.
Ibid in the footnote refers to the same work and the reference that precedes
it. Here the succeeding references to a work immediately follow the first full
citation. Ibid in latin means the sarne.e.g.
6 John, W. Best. (1993). Research in Education. New Delhi : Prentice Hall
of India. P. 148
7 Ibid. P.148 (This indicates the same work and the same page as above i.e.
'6' here).
8 Ibid, p. 149 (This indicates the same work as above but a different page)
Op. cit :-0p.cit. in Latin means the work cited. It is used in a footnote to the
same work as a preceding but not immediately preceding reference, so here
another reference to the same work is made but not consecutively.
For example
5. Allan, A Glatthorn (1998): Writing the Winning Dissertations: A Stepby-
Step Guide. California: Corwin Press Inc. P.189.
6. Fred, N. Kerlinger. (1 973): Foundations of Behavioural Research. NewYork:
Holt, R. Inehart & Winston. P. 259.
7. Glatthorn, op.cit. P. 191.
Here reference 7 refers to the same reference as 5 except the pages differ in
the two cases
Loc. Cit. Loc. Cit, is used when reference is made to the same page as a
preceding but not immediately preceding reference, the last name of the author
and phrase loc. Cit. are used.
e.g. 8. Kerlinger, loc, cit. here this refers to same work as in '6' on the same
58 Page.
A number of other abbreviations appear in research reports. While writing a research
report, abbreviations, may be used to condense space in references or footnotes. If
a researcher is not familiar, s h e h e should consult the relevant literature as and
when required. In the following table, a comprehensive list of abbreviations has
been given for ready reference.
Table: 23.1: List of some important abbreviations used in footnotes and bibliographic.

Words Abbreviations
Anonymous anon.
About (approximate data) c.
And others et. al.
Book, Books bk. , bks.
Chapter, chapters. chap.' chaps.
Column, Columns col., cols.
Division, Divisions div., divs.
Editor, Editors ed., eds.
Edition, Editions ed., eds.
For example e.g.
Figure, Figures fig., figs.
Idem (the same as before) id.
Line, Lines I,11

Manuscript ms.

Mimeographed mime0.
No date given n.d.
No name given n.n
No place given n.p.
Number, Numbers no., nos.
Page, Pages P-. PS.
Part, Parts pt., pts.
Paragraph, Paragraphs par., pars.
Previously cited op.cit.
Revised rev.
Same person idem.
Same reference ibid.
Section, Sections sec., secs.
The place cited loc. cit.
That is i.e.
Translated trans.
Volume vol.
59
I Research Reports
and Applications
Thus, we have seen how to use footnotes/references in the report. You have already
studied in detail about bibliography in unit 22. Here our discussion is limited to only
references/footnotes. Note the following points while using footnotes.
Having adopted a method of footnoting, be consistent throughout the whole
report.
Footnotes should be concise, but clarity and readability should not be sacrificed
for brevity.
All footnotes regardless of length are terminated by a full stop.
The same bottom margin should be maintained on each page of the typescript,
regardless of the number of footnotes.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Space is given below for writing your answer.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
3. State three uses of footnotes.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
4. When do you use ibid, op.cit. and Loc. cit.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

23.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have discussed the need for chapterisation and its functions. Each
chapter in the report has its own functions. We have also seen that there is no
uniformity in the scheme of chapterisation. Diversity in chapterisation mainly depends
on, (i) field of study, (ii) nature of research area, (iii) requirement of a department
or agency. We have also seen some of the cases where diversity enters.
Footnotes in the report, though it is a traditional concept, has many functions in the
research report. It is always advisable to maintain consistency in writi.~gfootnotes.
We have discyssed how to make use of footnotes in the report.

23.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Ary D., Jacobs L.C. and Razaviewh, H. (1972): Introduction to Research in
Education. N.J.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc.

1 Cryer, P. (1999): The Research Student5 Guide to Success. New Delhi : Viva 1
I Glatthorn, A.A. (1998): Writing the Winning Dissertations: A Step-by-Step Guide.
in Press, Inc.
 Schtme of Chapterisation
23.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS and Referencing

1. i) Introduction:
a) Gives the theoretical background to the specific area under study.
b) Describes the significance of the present problem focusing on why
study is undertaken.

i Review of related Literature :

a) Review of related literature enables the researcher to place his question

in a proper perspective.
b) It also enables the researcher to define the frontiers of his field.
iii) Design of the study.
a) It conveys the nature and type of data rkquired along with where
such data is found.

b) It will clarify how data will be collected, tabulated and analysed.

iv) Analysis of data:

a) This chapter will give idea about actual calculations alongwith its
interpretations and end results.
b). This caption provides the reader with a clear idea regarding status of
analysis alongwith outcome of study.
v) The Summary and Discussion

a) This chapter deals mainly with major findings of the study and
discussion.

b) This chapter also provides practical suggestions and areas for further

2. Three factors responsible for diversity in chapterisation are:

i) Field of study;

ii) Nature of research area; and

iii) Requirement and department or agency.
3. Uses of Footnotes:

i) footnotes help in validating a point, statement or argument.

ii) they provide cross-references to other sections of a paper.

iii) they provide the reader with sufficient information to enable him to consult
sources independently.
4. Ibid is used to refer to the same work and reference that precede it.
Op. cit is used in a footnote when another reference to the same work is made
on the same page but not consecutively.
Loc.cit. is used when reference is made to the same page as preceding but not
immediately preceding the reference.
-.

NOTES