GEC 107: SCIENCE AND D.

Science as a personal and social activity

- It is a means to improve life and to survive
TECHNOLOGY | PRELIM in life.

LESSON 1: Nature of Science

CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENCE:

WHAT IS SCIENCE?
A. Objectivity
Objectivity demands that one must set aside all
 originally came from the Latin word
sorts of the subjective considerations and
“scientia” which meant “knowledge”, “a
prejudices.
knowing”, “expertness”, or “experience”.
B. Verifiability
 knowledge about the structure and
Scientific knowledge is based on verifiable
behaviour of the natural and physical
evidence (concrete factual observations).
world, based on facts that you can prove,
for example by experiments (Oxford
C. Ethical Neutrality
Learner’s Dictionary)
means that one must not allow his values to distort
the design and conduct of his research.
 knowledge covering general truths of the
operation of general laws, esp. as
D. Systematic Exploration
obtained and tested through scientific
Scientific research adopts a certain sequential
method [and] concerned with the
procedure for collecting and analysis of facts
physical world (Webster's New Collegiate
about the problem under study
Dictionary)
E. Reliability
 any system of knowledge that is
Scientific knowledge must occur under the
concerned with the physical world and its
prescribed circumstances not once but
phenomena and that entails unbiased
repeatedly.
observations and systematic
experimentation (Britannica Dictionary)
F. Precision
Scientific knowledge is precise. Precision requires
Science alone of all the subjects contains within
giving exact number or measurement.
itself the lesson of the danger of belief in the
infallibility of the greatest teachers in the
G. Accuracy
preceding generation . . .
means truth or correctness of a statement or
As a matter of fact, I can also define science
describing things in exact words as they are.
another way: Science is the belief in the
ignorance of experts.
H. Abstractness
— Richard Feynman, The Pleasure of Finding
A general scientific principle is highly abstract. It is
Things Out
not interested in giving a realistic picture.

SCIENCE CAN BE ALSO DEFINED AS:

I. Predictability
Scientists do not merely describe the phenomena
A. Science as an Idea
being studied, but also attempt to explain and
- It includes ideas, theories, and all available
predict as well.
systematic explanations and observations

B. Science as an Intellectual Activity

- This process of study involves systematic
observation and experimentation.

C. Science as a body of knowledge

- It is a subject or a discipline, a field of
study, or a body of knowledge
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: (MAET)

The development of the scientific method was

attended by the emergence of a scientific
worldview that replaced the pre-scientific one.
This worldview possessed four characteristics:

1. Mathematical

Argues that all relationships that exists in the

natural world can be presented and abstracted
through a mathematical equation or model.

2. Analytical

“wholes” can be understood by studying its

components and interrelated parts.

3. Experimental

Knowledge, as well as answers to questions, are

derived through practical experiments, where LESSON 2: Distinction Between Science and
observations can be made, and not through Technology
reflection and discussions alone.
Posadas (1982) defines Science as:
4. Totalitarian
“Science refers to that dynamic, cumulative
Science has no limits in its scope in the sense that
system of verifiable concepts, principles,
its coverage continues to enlarge in the course of
methods, laws, theories and processes Which
its development.
seek to describe, understand, and predict natural
phenomena.”
Scientific method is a systematic process of inquiry
that is comprised of the following component
On the other hand, technology refers to the
activities:
translation of scientific knowledge into machines,
tools, designs, methods, and processes that are
1. Identification and definition of the
used by human beings in their practical
problem.
endeavors. Posadas (1982) defines technology as:

2. Formulation of a hypothesis
“...that dynamic cumulative system of
reproducible methods, techniques, and processes
3. Testing of the hypothesis
which may be derived from empirical know-how
or scientific knowledge, and which are used by
human societies for the production, improvement,
and distribution of goods and services as well as
the satisfaction of other material needs.”

Technology is a product of invention, in the form

of new and improved tools, or what we call
“hardware,” and better ways of doing things, or
what we call “software.”
SCIENCE  “Know-why” LESSON 3: The Scientific Work Ethic

TECHNOLOGY  “Know-how” Scientists are seen as submitting to four standards

that define their work ethic.
Developments in science are used in the
development of technology. On the other hand, a) They adhere to universalism
the invention of new machines and methods b) They generally possess a strong sense of
enable new approaches to discovering skepticism
knowledge about the natural world, as seen for c) They identify themselves as a member of a
example in the development of sophisticated community of scientists with a common
laboratory equipment and techniques that goal and consciousness.
facilitate the work of scientists. d) They are generally disinterested and
detached, in that they uphold the virtue of
What is the contribution of Science and neutrality and objectiveness in their
Technology to Society? research.

The fundamental way that science and However, others disagree with this
technology benefit society is through the characterization.
generation of new information and the
subsequent use of that knowledge to advance Mitroff (1974) points out that scientists, far from
human prosperity and address societal problems. being detached, are emotionally attached to
their hypotheses and theories. Furthermore, while
Science in the developing world and the they adhere to a community where sharing of
industrialized world differ in three ways: knowledge is a norm, it is common behavior for
1. Budget scientists to keep secret their own researches and
2. Research Agenda findings. It is also normal for scientists to judge the
3. Level of public access to scientific work of their peers not solely based on objective
information and technology standards, but also as influenced by their personal
beliefs and biases.
Scientists are human beings who respond to
problems that exist in their environment. Kuhn (1970) also points out that scientists, far from
Examples: having an open mind, are usually active in their
advocacy of a particular point of view.
 Agricultural scientist
 Industrial engineers Mulkav (1972,1979) believes in the following:
 Social scientist
 Science is not a neutral and objective
Applied research - the main task is to discover activity but is an interpretive activity that
knowledge that is relevant to the achievement of not only rests on objective discovery but is
some specific and socially relevant objective and also influenced by the politics that exist
directs its efforts toward finding a solution to a within the community of scientists.
specific problem  Scientific knowledge, being a social
product, is conditioned by the socio-
Basic research, or fundamental research - is a kind political and economic context within
of research wherein the goal is to discover which it emerges.
knowledge for its own sake, without considering its  The credibility of the scientist is not
application to societal problems. determined solely by the work she does,
but is also influenced by who she is, what
Mission-oriented research - focused on the school she graduated from, and the
development of technologies that would address reputation of the university or organization
a specific set of well-defined social, economic, in which she is working.
political, or strategic goals.
The Case of Social Science  Not all things can be measured quantitatively.
It is quite difficult to quantify things like love or
There are fields of inquiry that are not focused on pain. In fact, not all things that “count”
the study of natural world, but instead are among humans can be “counted.”
focused on the study of human beings as they live Conversely, not all things that can be
in society. These constitute the social sciences. “counted” actually count as important in
human societies.
Examples:  The externality of the expertise may not
Anthropology necessarily lead to a better analysis of a
Economics human condition. People directly involved in
Sociology problems, who may not be social scientists,
Psychology are equally capable of producing their own
Political Science knowledge about their own conditions.

Empirical-positivism – is an epistemology or a Fraenkel and Wallen (1993) have raised

set of rules that define the production of philosophical, linguistic, ethical, and political
knowledge and truth about human societies. It is questions about social researches:
the dominant epistemology producing truth and
knowledge in that it relies on the scientific 1) Question of reality – How can a researcher
method. It has the following features: claim that what she observed is “real”?
2) Question of communication – How can the
Observability – knowledge is valid when it is based “real” be captured by a single language,
on actual observable phenomena. which in most cases is English?
Objectivity – knowledge is valid when it is based 3) Question of values – How can one claim to
on characteristics of the object being observed, be neutral and value free, or objective, in
and not as perceived by the observer or the describing reality
“subject” 4) Question of societal consequences -
Traditional research efforts are usually
Neutrality – the observer or the “subject” should uncritical of the status quo, and eventually
generate knowledge about the “object” end up favoring the dominant political
independent of her biases, for such knowledge to interests
be valid.

Measurability – knowledge about human societies

must be easily expressed as a quantitative
measurement or relationships or represented
through a numerical index.

Externality of Expertise – the observer or “subject”

must be a detached agent with the necessary
scientific credentials or experience to make a
valid claim to truth on a certain subject or
phenomena.

However, there are certain realities that limit the

applicability and challenge the validity of
empirical positivism:

 People might project one behavior, but this

may not necessarily reflect their real feelings.
Furthermore, observations made by human
beings about other human beings may be
influenced by the biases of the observer.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND THE EARLY MIDDLE PERIOD
TECHNOLOGY
 Began after the fall of the Western Roman
from the origin of human life two million years ago Empire in 476 AD, the coming of Islam in the
(Ancient Time) 7th century and the rise of Charlemagne in
the 8th century, intellectual scientific, and
2.3 million years ago – roughly- shaped stones technological activities were mainly
used for chopping and scraping. These stones concentrated on the Christian faith.
were primarily found in Eastern Africa.
 Medicine and botanical knowledge were
Mesopotamian cultures around 400 BC used for the church’s duty to help and tend
the sick. Scientific issues were hardly even
Some of the earliest scientific records as evidence discussed in depth by the church and people.
of emerging science are disease symptoms, One possible reason was that the medieval
chemical substance, and astronomical intellectuals simply “had no time for
observation instruments. occupations like science.”

During the same period in the Nile Valley of Egypt,  Another reason was that the clerics and
there were evidence regarding the treatment of intellectual thinkers did not have access to
wounds and diseases that were found. the vast amount of scientific literature written
in Greek before and during the Roman
ANCIENT TIME Empire.

Even some mathematical calculations currently  Greek was the language in the middle period
used in geometry and trigonometry such as but was lost later. Thereafter, Latin prevailed in
angles, rectangles, triangles, volume of a portion Western Christianity but only few books
of pyramid have been found around for translated into Latin contained scientific
thousands of years. subject matter.

From 300-400 BC  Plato’s work provided suitable clues for the

view of the natural world in the light of
 There was a rise in philosophers who wrote Christianity.
topics on psychology, biology and a host of
others.  It was Aristotle (384-322 BC) in his book
 There was Euclid considered as the “Father of “Physics” who thinks of the creation of the
Modern Geometry” and world as being based on nature only.
 Archimedes, the founder of engineering
mathematics who calculated a value for pi  Albertus Magnus (1200-1280) - stated that the
which is being used today. He also invented natural ways are the result of natural causes;
the first water pump. and

In other words, people during the ancient time  Roger Bacon (1214-1294) - taught that
have developed and utilized tools, machines and science must be based on empirical methods.
techniques without fully understanding how or
why they worked or comprehending their physical LATER PART OF THE MIDDLE AGES
and chemical composition.
inventions and discoveries were made:
 gunpowder and firearms that made
mathematical knowledge indispensable;
 geometry and statistics that enabled
architects to construct Gothic Cathedral;
 new pumping device,
 new machines for lifting heavy loads,
 new methods of finding and extracting Historical Development of Science and
metals; Technology in the Philippines:
 knowledge of human anatomy;
 geocentric definition of the universe; and the Before the coming of the Spaniards, there were
introduction of Gregorian calendar during the already indigenous technology that existed.
time of Pope Gregory XII in 1852. Evident on the use of technology was on wet and
dry rice technology, handicrafts, pottery,
GEOCENTRIC MODEL weaving, metal ware, and boat making. When
the Spaniards arrived and colonized the country,
 the Earth is the center of the universe and it is the colonizers changed the lives of the natives.
stationary;
 the planets, the Sun, and the stars revolve It was believed that the primary reasons for
around the Earth; colonizing the country was to make our country a
 the circle and the sphere are “perfect” source of raw materials such as gold, silver,
shapes, so all motions in the sky should follow bronze and spices (which command a very high
circular paths, which can be attributed to price in Spain and Portugal) and these were used
 objects being attached to spherical shells; for international trade.
objects obeyed the rules of “natural motion,”
which for the planets and the stars meant they Christianizing the early Filipinos was believed not
orbited around the Earth at a uniform speed the main reason for coming to the Philippines.
Converting the native Filipinos was only
accidental and for opportunity reasons. The best
possible reason Spain could easily extract raw
materials and make production of goods faster
was to set up a colonial government in the
Philippines.

Socio-political systems were erected and

introduced to divide the country’s land and
mineral resources including its people into an
encomienda (hacienda) system for easier and
THE EARLY MIDDLE PERIOD faster extraction of the country’s valuable
 began in the 16th to 17th century. resources it could find.
 Modern science began to develop. Scientific
revolution started in Europe and spread later After more than three hundred years (333) years
to other parts of the globe. to be exact under Spanish rule, the country
evolved into a colony largely exporting raw
From the 18th century through late 20th century materials and importing those that the country
cannot produce. If there were local technological
 science and technology emphasized more on innovation at that time, these were due largely to
physical and biological sciences. the importation of foreign manufactured goods.
 Scientific knowledge was often presented in a
progressive narrative in which theories When the Americans came, the feudal system
replaced false beliefs. established by Spain still maintained but a “farce”
 Today, there are many scientific and trading system between the Philippines and the
technological advancements to enhance our United States was established. The low
daily activities, whether it be as simple as technological impact of Philippine raw materials
Ipad, a computer game, a video game, and was traded for high technological impact of
other digital gadgets for entertainment and foreign finished products.
information purposes or as vital as an artificial
heart for human survival. It is science and
technology that revolutionized society into a
cyberspace contemporary society.
Due to lesser value of Philippine products 4. Human beings are above all other beings. They
compared to that of foreign finished products, the are special creations of God, though lower in
trade between the Philippines and the more rank than angels. Each human being has a
advanced countries was basically unequal. This specific place ordained by God.
trade imbalance has caused lesser developed 5. Angels, spirits, and other supernatural beings
countries, like the Philippines, to incur loans to pay exist in a hierarchy, with each possessing
for this trade deficit. Such foreign loans grew magical and extraordinary powers.
steadily, as trade imbalance became more
unequal. 6. The holy is different from the secular, and
religion has a strong influence on the minds of
human beings.
In order for the colonial power to maintain their
dominance in the world market, it was essential 7. Study of the natural world is not that important.
that other countries including their colonies do not Qualities are given more emphasis than
develop its own system of manufacturing goods quantities, and explanations of phenomena
and services that shall compete with the goods are based on their causes as well as their
produced by the mother country. For the effects.
Philippines, this would mean that no genuine  16th century was the Age of Reformation. In
progress for scientific and technological the first place, this means that the century
advancement would ever be drawn up. witnessed the Protestant Reformation, that
revolt from the Roman Catholic Church
Under 46 years of American rule, Philippines sild led by Martin Luther and others which
down from being the second country next to ended the ecclesiastical unity of western
Japan in terms of technological development to Christendom.
being next to bottom ranking among Southeast
• The Age of Enlightenment – the great ‘Age
Asian countries in technological development.
of Reason’ – is defined as the period of
Even after more than 100 years of
rigorous scientific, political, and
“independence” the Philippines have yet to rid philosophical discourse that characterized
itself of the poor systems created by the colonial European society during the ‘long’ 18th
rulers and later on by the succeeding Philippine century: from the late 17th century to the
governments. ending of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815.

Sumerian Civilization
Until the end of President Aquino’s term, his
administration did not serve well the scientific and Sumeria is located on the southernmost tip of
technological needs of the Filipino masses. Up to ancient Mesopotamia. Sumerians are known for
this time (2018), we have yet to see how President their high degree of cooperation with one
Duterte’s administration, through the DOST, if S &T another and their desire for great things. They are
will improve its ranking and serve best Filipino not contented with the basic things that life can
people in terms of scientific and technological offer. This desire pushed them to develop many
benefits. things connected with science and technology.

Lesson 4: Cuneiform – is the one of the major contributions

Historical Developments in Science and of the Sumerians. It is the first writing system that
Technology utilizes words, pictures and triangular symbols
which are carved on clay using wedge
instruments and then left to dry.
1. Anthropocentrism – human beings are at the
center of the universe in both the physical and Uruk City – is a great wonder not only because it is
spiritual sense; the concept of the universe was considered to be the first true city in the world but
based on human imagination. also the way it is erected.
2. Geocentrism – the earth is at the center of this The Great Ziggurat of Ur – is another engineering
universe, With the sun, the planets, and the and architectural feat of the Sumerians. Also
stars revolving around the earth. called the mountain of God, it was built in the
3. All beings on earth have their assigned places. same manner that they constructed the City of
Uruk. It served as the sacred place of their chief
god, where only their priests were allowed to Papyrus was a plant that grew abundantly
enter. along the Nile River in Egypt.

Irrigation and Dikes – The Sumerians created dikes - Ink – as a result of the invention of the paper,
and irrigation canals to bring water to farmlands the Egyptian invented ink by combining soot
and at the same time control the flooding of the with different chemicals to produce inks of
rivers. This method was considered as one of the different colors.
world`s most beneficial engineering works.
- Hieroglyphics – like the Sumerians, the
Sailboats – were essential in transportation and Egyptians also developed a system of writing
trading as well as in fostering culture, information, using symbols.
and technology. - Cosmetics – although cosmetics in the modern
times are used to improve and highlight the
Wheel – Sumerians were able to invent the wheel
facial features of a person, their function in
since the specialized tools needed to create it
ancient Egypt was for both health and
were already available. The first wheels were not
aesthetic reasons.
made for transportation but for farm work and
food processes. With the use of wheel and axle, - Wig – at present, wigs are used to enhance the
mass production was made easier. appearance of people who are balding or
those who want to try new hair trends.
Plow – was invented to dig the soil in a faster
Meanwhile, during the ancient Egyptian times,
pace. With this tool, farmers could cultivate larger
wigs were worn for health and wellness rather
parcels of land faster, enabling them to mass
than for aesthetic purposes.
produce food without taking so much effect and
time. - Water Clock/Clepsydra – utilizes gravity that
affects the flow of water from one vessel to the
Roads – in order to facilitate faster and easier other. In the process, time is measured.
travel, the Sumerians developed the first roads.
With this work, the flow of traffic became faster Greek Civilization
and more organized. The invention of roads was
very useful especially during the rainy season Greece is an archipelago in the southeastern part
when traveling in soft and muddy roads proved to of Europe. Known as the birthplace of western
be too difficult. philosophy, some of the major achievements of
the Greeks include in-depth works on philosophy
Babylonian Civilization and mathematics.

Babylonian civilization emerged near the Tigris - Alarm Clock – although the alarm clock during
and Euphrates Rivers. The Babylonians were great that time did not resemble the present-day
builders, engineers, and architects. alarm clock, the purpose was just the same –
to tell an individual when to stop or when to
- Hanging Gardens of Babylon – Today, people start.
can only marvel at the beauty of the famous
Hanging Gardens of Babylon from stories of - Water Mill – were commonly used in
historians and paintings that portray the place. agricultural processes like milling of grains
It was said to be a structure made up of layers which was a necessary form of food processing
upon layers of gardens that contained several during that time.
species of plants, trees, and vines.

Egyptian Civilization

Another early civilization famous for its legacy is

the Egyptian civilization located in North Africa.
Many stories tell about the engineering feats of
the Egyptians especially regarding the
infrastructures established by the pharaohs.

- Paper or Papyrus – although Egypt was not the

first to develop a system of writing, they were
able to make writing easier for the world.
 Roman Civilization that it was said to have literally divided China
from the rest of the world.
The Roman Empire was perceived to be the - Gunpowder – was originally developed by
strongest political and social entity in the west. It Chinese alchemists who aimed to achieve
was considered to be the cradle of politics and immortality. They mixed charcoal, sulfur, and
governance during that period. potassium nitrate, but instead of creating an
elixir of life, they accidentally invented a black
- Newspaper – the first newspaper, known as powder that could generate large amounts of
gazettes, contained announcements of the heat and gas in an instant.
Roman Empire to the people.
Medieval / Middle Ages
- Bound Books of Codex – with the papyrus
pages bound together and covered by animal The start of the Middle Ages was marred by
skin, the ancient Roman Empire was able to massive invasions and migrations. Great
produce the first books or codex. technology was needed in the fields of weaponry,
navigation, mass food and farm production, and
- Roman Architecture – is one of the most visual
contributions of the ancient Roman Empire to health.
the world. It was considered a continuation of
- Printing Press – after the Chinese developed
Greek architecture, hence, the resemblance.
woodblock printing, Johann Gutenberg was
However, Roman architecture was still
able to invent the printing press, a more
regarded as pioneering since the Romans
reliable way of printing using a cast type. This
were able to adapt new building and
general invention soon evolved to be the
engineering technology on architectural
mechanical printing press which was
designs established in the past.
eventually used all over the world.
- Roman Numerals –Romans devised their own
- Microscope – guided by the principles used for
number system specifically to address the
the invention of eyeglasses in the earlier years,
need for a standard counting method that
Zacharias Janssen was able to develop the first
would meet their increasing communication
compound microscope.
and trade concerns.
- Telescope – the invention of this, an optical
Chinese Civilization
instrument that helps in the observation of
The Chinese civilization is considered to be the remote objects, was a great help for
navigators during this time. Together with it, the
oldest civilization in Asia, if not the world. Also
invention of the compass, oars, and rudders
knows as the middle kingdom, China is located
made sea traveling easier and safer.
on the far east of Asia. It was famous among
other ancient civilizations because of its silk trade. - War weapons – since wars were widespread
Not a greater amount was written about ancient during the Middle Ages, great developments in
China partly due to its distance from the other the weaponry technology also occurred.
civilizations.
Science
- Silk – although silk is naturally produced by • Science is a systematic and organized body of
silkworms, the Chinese were the ones who knowledge that explains or predicts nature
developed the technology to harvest the silk and the universe.
and process it to produce paper and clothing. • According to Posadas, science refers to that
- Tea Production – was developed when an dynamic, cumulative system of verifiable
unknown Chinese inventor created a machine concepts, principles, methods, laws, theories
that was able to shred tea leaves into strips. and processes which seek to describe,
Because of this invention, the Chinese were understand and predict natural phenomena.
able to increase their production of tea and
trade with other nations. • Hence, scientific knowledge is an outcome of
- Great Wall of China – It was constructed to discovery.
keep out foreign invaders and control the
Technology
borders of China. It showcased the extent
• Technology is the collection of methods,
of Chinese engineering technology at that
techniques and processes used in the
time. The structure was so massive and strong
production of goods and services, or the
accomplishment of objectives, such as
 scientific investigations or any other consumer
demands.

• It refers to the translation of scientific

knowledge into machines, tools, designs,
methods and processes that are used by
human beings in their practical endeavors.

Science & Technology

• Science may drive technological development
by generating demand for new instruments to
address a scientific question or issue or by
illustrating technical possibilities previously
unconsidered.

• Science is concerned with “know -why”

whereas technology is concerned with “know-
how”

• In turn, technology is the child (product) of

science; and science is the parent (cause) of
technology. Technology uses scientific
principles and scientific findings in achieving
technological advancements and
improvement.

• Technology is a product of invention, in the

form of new and improved tools or what we
call “hardware” and better ways of doing
things or we call “software”

Science and technology affect society in general.

These are as follows:

1. Improved S & T result to industrialization and

thus converting a simple society to a complex
one.
2. People’s life and lifestyle change as a result of
improved S & T.
3. Urbanization results when S &T improve
because people usually migrate to a place
where their basic needs are met.
4. People have stronger desire for material goods
when S &T improve in the place.
5. There are more discoveries and inventions that
benefit the people due to improved S &T.
Lesson 5: Intellectual Revolutions During his time, he was judged by the church as
heretic and his idea was unacceptable to be
Nicholas Copernicus (1473 – 1543) taught to Catholics.
A Polish astronomer who proposed that the sun is
stationary and is at the center of the universe and Do you think the church should intervene in
Earth revolved around it. scientific activities?

Copernicus was strongly influenced by a book What are the implications of the Copernican
entitled Epitome published in 1496 by a German revolution to society?
author, Johannes Mueller.
The Copernican revolution outlines a fundamental
Shortly after his model of the universe was cultural transformation away from religious
completed in 1510 , he circulated a summary of paradigms and towards scientific paradigms.
his ideas to his few close friends in a manuscript
called Commentariolus (Little Commentary) It freed the human mind from the intellectual
stranglehold that religion and the Divine Right of
Kings had held over it for thousands of years.

Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882)

English naturalist whose scientific theory of

evolution by natural selection became the
foundation of modern evolutionary studies.

He developed his interest in natural history during

his time as a student at Shrewsbury School.
The publication of his book De revolutionibus
orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Darwin`s life changed when one of his professors
Heavenly Spheres) in 1543 is often cited as the recommended him to join a five-year voyage
start of the scientific revolution. through the HMS Beagle on the Islands of
Galapagos.
In his model, Copernicus outlined two kinds of
planetary motion: In 1859, he published The Origin of Species which
presented evidence on how species evolved over
 The orbits of Venus and Mercury lay inside time and presented traits and adaptation that
the orbit of the Earth, thus, closer to the differentiate species.
Sun.
 The orbits of Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter lay In 1871, in his book The Descent of Man was so
outside the Earth`s orbit, thus farther from impressive yet very controversial. It offered a
the sun detailed discussion of man’s descent from ape-
like ancestors as well as the link between sexual
selection and human race.

What are the implications of the Darwinian

revolution to society?

Darwinism allowed us to gain a better

• According to his model, Mercury will have understanding of our world, which in turn allowed
the shortest year, followed by Venus, Earth, us to change the way that we think.
Mars, Jupiter and Saturn
• The issue is that the stars cannot be He discovered that mutations can prove as
placed in a fixed position like crystals in a beneficial to a society by allowing a species to
distance sphere adapt to environmental changes.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) What are the implications of the Freudian
revolution to society?
Rosenfels (1980) described him as a towering
literary figure and a very talented communicator Freud revolutionized how we think about and
who did his share to raise the consciousness of the treat mental health conditions. Freud founded
civilized world in psychological matters. psychoanalysis as a way of listening to patients
and better understanding how their minds work.
He developed as important observational
method to gather reliable data to study human`s
inner life. This method is called psychoanalysis.

His method was proven to be effective in

understanding some neurological conditions that
were not understood by medicine at that time.

Focuses on human sexuality and evil nature of

man.

Three Levels of the Mind

Conscious Mind (lowest level)

Consists of our thoughts, desires, and wishes which
we are aware of or can be recalled at any time.

Pre-conscious Mind
It consists of experiences that we are not aware of
but are made conscious by simply focusing on
them.

Unconscious Mind (sometimes referred to as sub-

conscious)
contained repressed urges, thoughts, memories,
and wishes which are disturbing and threatening.

Three Structures of Personality

ID (Makahayop)
-Destructive and pleasure-seeking structure of
personality
-Where the sex urge (libido) is present

EGO (Makatao)
-It builds; it acts according to laws and morals.
-It is bound by limits of reality
-Controls the id and acts as mediator between
superego and id

SUPEREGO (Maka-Diyos)
Strives for perfection
Always good and honorable