MODULE THREE

OPERATING SYSTEM
An operating system (OS) can be defined as a set of computer programs that
manage the hardware and software resources of a computer. An operating system
maintains a proper balance between the software and hardware present in a
computer system. It is also called the infrastructure software component of a
computer system due to the fact that it is responsible for the management and
coordination of activities and the sharing of the limited resources of the computer.
The operating system acts as a host for applications that are run on the machine. As
a host, one of the purposes of an operating system is to handle the details of the
operation of the hardware. This relieves application programs from having to
manage these details and makes it easier to write applications. Operating Systems
can be viewed from two points of views: Resource manager and Extended
machines. From Resource manager point of view, Operating Systems manage the
different parts of the system efficiently and from extended machines point of view,
Operating Systems provide a virtual machine to a user that is more convenient to
use.
At the foundation of all system software, an operating system performs basic
tasks such as controlling and allocating memory, prioritizing system requests,
controlling input and output devices, facilitating networking and managing file
systems. The operating system forms a platform for other system software and for
application software. Windows, Linux, and Mac OS are some of the most popular
OS's.

3.1 OBJECTIVES OF OPERATING SYSTEM

Modern Operating systems generally have following three major goals

3.1.1 To hide details of hardware by creating abstraction

An abstraction occurs when software hides lower level details and provides a set
of higher-level functions. An operating system transforms the physical world of
devices, instructions, memory, and time into virtual world that is the result of
abstractions built by the operating system. There are several reasons for
abstraction.
First, the code needed to control peripheral devices is not standardized.
Operating systems provide subroutines called device drivers that perform
operations on behalf of programs for example, input/output operations.
 Second, the operating system introduces new functions as it abstracts the
hardware. For instance, operating system introduces the file abstraction so that
programs do not have to deal with disks.
Third, the operating system transforms the computer hardware into multiple
virtual computers, each belonging to a different program. Each program that is
running is called a process. Each process views the hardware through the lens of
abstraction. Fourth, the operating system can enforce security through
abstraction.

3.1.2 To allocate resources to processes (Resource management)

An operating system controls how processes (the active agents) may access
resources (passive entities).

3.1.3 Provide a pleasant and effective user interface

The user interacts with the operating systems through the user interface and
usually interested in the “look and feel” of the operating system. The most
important components of the user interface are the command interpreter, the
file system, on-line help, and application integration. The recent trend has been
toward increasingly integrated graphical user interfaces that encompass the
activities of multiple processes on networks of computers.

3.2 HOW AN OPERATING SYSTEM WORKS

When the power of computer is turned on, the first program that runs is usually a set
of instructions kept in the computer's read- only memory (ROM). This code examines
the system hardware to make sure everything is functioning properly. This power-on
self test (POST) checks the CPU, memory and basic input-output system (BIOS) for
errors and stores the result in a special memory location. Once the POST has
successfully completed, the software loaded in ROM (sometimes called the BIOS or
firmware) will begin to activate the computer's disk drives. In most modern
computers, when the computer activates the hard disk drive, it finds the first piece of
the operating system: the bootstrap loader. The bootstrap loader is a small program
that has a single function: It loads the operating system into memory and allows it to
begin operation. In the most basic form, the bootstrap loader sets up the small driver
programs that interface with and control the various hardware subsystems of the
computer. It sets up the divisions of memory that hold the operating system, user
information and applications. It establishes the data structures that will hold the
myriad signals, flags and semaphores that are used to communicate within and
between the subsystems and applications of the computer. Then it turns control of
the computer over to the operating system.

3.3 Types of OS
A. Types of Operating Systems Based on the Types of Computer they Control and
the Sort of Applications they Support

Based on the types of computers they control and the sort of applications they
support, there are generally four types within the broad family of operating systems.
The broad categories are as follows:

1. Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS)

They are used to control machinery, scientific instruments and industrial

systems. An RTOS typically has very little user-interface capability, and no end-
user utilities, since the system will be a sealed box when delivered for use. A very
important part of an RTOS is managing the resources of the computer so that a
particular operation executes in precisely the same amount of time every time it
occurs. In a complex machine, having a part move more quickly just because
system resources are available may be just as catastrophic as having it not move
at all because the system is busy. RTOS can be hard or soft. A hard RTOS
guarantees that critical tasks are performed on time. However, soft RTOS is less
restrictive. Here, a critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks and retains
that priority until it completes.

2. Single-User, Single-Tasking Operating System

As the name implies, this operating system is designed to manage the computer
so that one user can effectively do one thing at a time. The Palm OS for Palm
handheld computers is a good example of a modern single-user, single-task
operating system.

3. Single-User, Multi-Tasking Operating System

This is the type of operating system most people use on their desktop and laptop
computers today. Windows 98 and the Mac O.S. are both examples of an
operating system that will let a single user have several programs in operation at
the same time.
4. Multi-User Operating Systems

A multi-user operating system allows many different users to take advantage of

the computer's resources simultaneously. The operating system must make sure
that the requirements of the various users are balanced, and that each of the
programs they are using has sufficient and separate resources so that a problem
with one user doesn't affect the entire community of users. Unix, VMS, and
mainframe operating systems, such as MVS, are examples of multi-user
operating systems. It's important to differentiate here between multi-user
operating systems and single-user operating systems that support networking.
Windows 2000 and Novell Netware can each support hundreds or thousands of
networked users, but the operating systems themselves are not true multi-user
operating systems. The system administrator is the only user for Windows 2000
or Netware. The network support and the entire remote user logins the network
enables are, in the overall plan of the operating system, a program being run by
the administrative user.

B. Types of OS based on the Nature of Interaction that takes place between the
Computer User and His/Her Program during its Processing

Modern computer operating systems may be classified into three groups, which are
distinguished by the nature of interaction that takes place between the computer
user and his or her program during its processing. The three groups are: called batch,
time-shared and real time operating systems.

1. Batch Processing OS

In a batch processing operating system environment, users submit jobs to a

central place where these jobs are collected into a batch, and subsequently
placed on an input queue at the computer where they will be run. In this case,
the user has no interaction with the job during its processing, and the computer’s
response time is the turnaround time (i.e. results are ready for return to the
person who submitted the job).

2. Time Sharing OS

Another mode for delivering computing services is provided by time sharing

operating systems. In this environment a computer provides computing services
to several or many users concurrently on-line. Here, the various users are sharing
 the central processor, the memory, and other resources of the computer system
in a manner facilitated, controlled, and monitored by the operating system. The
user, in this environment, has nearly full interaction with the program during its
execution, and the computer’s response time may be expected to be no more
than a few second.

3. Real Time OS

The third class of operating systems, real time operating systems, are designed to
service those applications where response time is of the essence in order to
prevent error, misrepresentation or even disaster. Examples of real time
operating systems are those which handle airlines reservations, machine tool
control, and monitoring of a nuclear power station. The systems, in this case, are
designed to be interrupted by external signal that require the immediate
attention of the computer system. In fact, many computer operating systems are
hybrids, providing for more than one of these types of computing service
simultaneously. It is especially common to have a background batch system
running in conjunction with one of the other two on the same computer.

C. Other Types of OS based on the Definition of the System/Environment

A number of other definitions are important to gaining a better understanding and

subsequently classifying operating systems:

1. Multiprogramming Operating System

A multiprogramming operating system is a system that allows more than one

active user program (or part of user program) to be stored in main memory
simultaneously. Thus, it is evident that a time-sharing system is a
multiprogramming system, but note that a multiprogramming system is not
necessarily a time-sharing system. A batch or real time operating system could,
and indeed usually does, have more than one active user program simultaneously
in main storage. Another important, and all too similar, term is ‘multiprocessing’.
A multiprocessing system is a computer hardware configuration that includes
more than one independent processing unit. The term multiprocessing is
generally used to refer to large computer hardware complexes found in major
scientific or commercial applications.
 2. Network Operating Systems

A networked computing system is a collection of physical interconnected

computers. The operating system of each of the interconnected computers must
contain, in addition to its own stand-alone functionality, provisions for handling
communication and transfer of programs and data among the other computers
with which it is connected. In a network operating system, the users are aware of
the existence of multiple computers, and can log in to remote machines and copy
files from one machine to another. Each machine runs its own local operating
system and has its own user (or users). Network operating systems are designed
with more complex functional capabilities. Network operating systems are not
fundamentally different from single processor operating systems. They obviously
need a network interface controller and some low-level software to drive it, as
well as programs to achieve remote login and remote files access, but these
additions do not change the essential structure of the operating systems.

3. Distributed Operating Systems

A distributed computing system consists of a number of computers that are

connected and managed so that they automatically share the job processing load
among the constituent computers, or separate the job load as appropriate
particularly configured processors. Such a system requires an operating system
which, in addition to the typical stand-alone functionality, provides coordination
of the operations and information flow among the component computers. The
distributed computing environment and its operating systems, like networking
environment, are designed with more complex functional capabilities. However, a
distributed operating system, in contrast to a network operating system, is one
that appears to its users as a traditional uniprocessor system, even though it is
actually composed of multiple processors. In a true distributed system, users
should not be aware of where their programs are being run or where their files
are located; that should all be handled automatically and efficiently by the
operating system.

3.4 FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

The major functions of operating systems are;

 Processor management: An operating system deals with the assignment of

processor to different tasks being performed by the computer system.
  Memory management: An operating system deals with the allocation of main
memory and other storage areas to the system programs as well as user
programs and data.

 Input/output management: An operating system deals with the co-ordination

and assignment of the different output and input device while one or more
programs are being executed.

 File management: An operating system deals with the storage of file of various
storage devices to another. It also allows all files to be easily changed and
modified through the use of text editors or some other files manipulation
routines.

Other functions of the operating systems are;

 Establishment and enforcement of a priority system: The operating system

determines and maintains the order in which jobs are to be executed in the
computer system.

 Automatic transition from job to job as directed by special control statements.

 Interpretation of commands and instructions.

 Coordination and assignment of compilers, assemblers, utility programs, and

other software to the various user of the computer system.

 Facilitates easy communication between the computer system and the

computer operator (human). It also establishes data security and integrity.

3.5 OPERATING SYSTEMS FLAWS

Operating systems are written by human programmers who make mistakes.

Therefore there can be errors in the code even though there may be some testing
before the product is released. Some companies have better software quality control
and testing than others so one may notice varying levels of quality from operating
system to operating system. Errors in operating systems cause three main types of
problems:

 System crashes and instabilities - These can happen due to a software bug
typically in the operating system, although computer programs being run on
the operating system can make the system more unstable or may even crash
the system by themselves. This varies depending on the type of operating
 system. A system crash is the act of a system freezing and becoming
unresponsive which would cause the user to need to reboot.

 Security flaws - Some software errors leave a door open for the system to be
broken into by unauthorized intruders. As these flaws are discovered,
unauthorized intruders may try to use these to gain illegal access to your
system. Patching these flaws often will help keep your computer system
secure. How this is done will be explained later.

 Sometimes errors in the operating system will cause the computer not to
work correctly with some peripheral devices such as printers.