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Multiple Choice Questions: Compilers

Part 1: Introduction to Compilers, Lexical Analysis, Syntax Analysis

1.​ Structure of a Compiler Which of the following is the first phase of a compiler? a)
Semantic Analysis b) Code Generation c) Lexical Analysis d) Syntax Analysis​
Answer: c) Lexical Analysis
2.​ The output of the lexical analyzer is a stream of: a) Parse trees b) Tokens c)
Three-address code d) Machine code​
Answer: b) Tokens
3.​ Which phase of a compiler groups characters into lexemes and then into tokens? a)
Syntax Analysis b) Semantic Analysis c) Lexical Analysis d) Intermediate Code
Generation​
Answer: c) Lexical Analysis
4.​ The phase of a compiler that checks for grammatical errors in the source code is: a)
Lexical Analysis b) Syntax Analysis c) Semantic Analysis d) Code Optimization​
Answer: b) Syntax Analysis
5.​ Which phase of a compiler generates intermediate code? a) Lexical Analysis b)
Syntax Analysis c) Semantic Analysis d) Intermediate Code Generation​
Answer: d) Intermediate Code Generation
6.​ The symbol table is used by: a) Only Lexical Analyzer b) Only Syntax Analyzer c)
Only Code Generator d) All phases of the compiler​
Answer: d) All phases of the compiler
7.​ Which phase of a compiler attempts to improve the intermediate code to generate
better target code? a) Lexical Analysis b) Syntax Analysis c) Code Optimization d)
Code Generation​
Answer: c) Code Optimization
8.​ The final phase of a compiler is: a) Intermediate Code Generation b) Code
Optimization c) Code Generation d) Semantic Analysis​
Answer: c) Code Generation
9.​ Error detection and reporting typically occur in: a) Only Lexical Analysis b) Only
Syntax Analysis c) Only Semantic Analysis d) All phases of the compiler​
Answer: d) All phases of the compiler
10.​A front end of a compiler typically includes: a) Lexical analysis, syntax analysis,
semantic analysis, and intermediate code generation. b) Code optimization and code
generation. c) Symbol table management and error handling only. d) Only lexical
analysis and syntax analysis.​
Answer: a) Lexical analysis, syntax analysis, semantic analysis, and
intermediate code generation.
11.​Lexical Analysis Lexical analysis is also known as: a) Parsing b) Scanning c)
Semantic analysis d) Code generation​
Answer: b) Scanning
12.​Which of the following is a tool used to generate lexical analyzers? a) Yacc b) Lex c)
Bison d) ANTLR (can be used for both)​
Answer: b) Lex
13.​Regular expressions are used to specify: a) Syntax of the language b) Lexical
structure of tokens c) Semantic rules d) Machine code instructions​
Answer: b) Lexical structure of tokens
14.​The primary task of a lexical analyzer is to: a) Build a parse tree. b) Check for type
compatibility. c) Recognize tokens based on regular expressions. d) Generate
machine code.​
Answer: c) Recognize tokens based on regular expressions.
15.​What happens when the lexical analyzer encounters an unrecognizable sequence of
characters? a) It generates a syntax error. b) It generates a semantic error. c) It
generates a lexical error. d) It skips the sequence.​
Answer: c) It generates a lexical error.
16.​Which of the following is NOT a typical token category? a) Keywords b) Identifiers c)
Operators d) Parse Trees​
Answer: d) Parse Trees
17.​A finite automaton is commonly used to implement a: a) Parser b) Lexical Analyzer c)
Code Optimizer d) Symbol Table​
Answer: b) Lexical Analyzer
18.​What is the role of the buffer in lexical analysis? a) To store the entire source code. b)
To read a portion of the input stream efficiently. c) To store generated tokens. d) To
hold the symbol table.​
Answer: b) To read a portion of the input stream efficiently.
19.​The "lookahead" in lexical analysis refers to: a) Checking the next token before
processing the current one. b) Reading characters beyond the current lexeme to
decide its type. c) Analyzing the entire program before starting tokenization. d)
Predicting the next keyword.​
Answer: b) Reading characters beyond the current lexeme to decide its type.
20.​A "lexeme" is: a) A category of tokens. b) A sequence of characters in the source
program that matches the pattern for a token. c) The internal representation of a
token. d) A syntax error.​
Answer: b) A sequence of characters in the source program that matches the
pattern for a token.
21.​Syntax Analysis Syntax analysis is also known as: a) Scanning b) Parsing c)
Semantic Analysis d) Code Generation​
Answer: b) Parsing
22.​The output of the syntax analyzer is typically a: a) Stream of tokens b) Symbol table
c) Parse tree or syntax tree d) Intermediate code​
Answer: c) Parse tree or syntax tree
23.​Which of the following parsers reads the input from left to right and produces a
rightmost derivation in reverse? a) LL parser b) Top-down parser c) LR parser d)
Predictive parser​
Answer: c) LR parser
24.​A grammar that produces more than one parse tree for the same input string is
called: a) Regular grammar b) Context-free grammar c) Ambiguous grammar d)
Unambiguous grammar​
Answer: c) Ambiguous grammar
25.​Shift-Reduce Parsing Shift-reduce parsing is a type of: a) Top-down parsing b)
Bottom-up parsing c) Predictive parsing d) Recursive descent parsing​
Answer: b) Bottom-up parsing
26.​The two main actions in a shift-reduce parser are: a) Match and Predict b) Shift and
Reduce c) Expand and Collapse d) Read and Write​
Answer: b) Shift and Reduce
27.​In shift-reduce parsing, a "handle" is: a) The entire input string. b) A substring that
matches the right side of a production and whose reduction represents one step
along a rightmost derivation in reverse. c) The start symbol of the grammar. d) A
token from the input stream.​
Answer: b) A substring that matches the right side of a production and whose
reduction represents one step along a rightmost derivation in reverse.
28.​A "reduce" action in shift-reduce parsing involves: a) Moving the current input symbol
to the stack. b) Replacing a handle on the stack with the left-hand side non-terminal
of a production. c) Advancing the input pointer. d) Checking for syntax errors.​
Answer: b) Replacing a handle on the stack with the left-hand side
non-terminal of a production.
29.​A "shift/reduce conflict" in shift-reduce parsing occurs when: a) The parser can
neither shift nor reduce. b) The parser can either shift the current input symbol or
reduce by a grammar production. c) The parser has no valid move. d) Two
productions have the same right-hand side.​
Answer: b) The parser can either shift the current input symbol or reduce by a
grammar production.
30.​A "reduce/reduce conflict" in shift-reduce parsing occurs when: a) The parser can
shift two different symbols. b) The parser can reduce by two different grammar
productions. c) The stack is empty. d) The input stream is empty.​
Answer: b) The parser can reduce by two different grammar productions.
31.​Predictive Parsing Predictive parsing is a type of: a) Bottom-up parsing b)
Shift-reduce parsing c) Top-down parsing d) Operator precedence parsing​
Answer: c) Top-down parsing
32.​Predictive parsers are also known as: a) LR parsers b) LL(1) parsers c) SLR parsers
d) LALR parsers​
Answer: b) LL(1) parsers
33.​To construct a predictive parser, we need to eliminate: a) Right recursion b) Left
recursion c) Both left and right recursion d) Ambiguity​
Answer: b) Left recursion
34.​The FIRST and FOLLOW sets are used in the construction of: a) LR parsing tables b)
Shift-reduce parsers c) Predictive parsing tables d) Lexical analyzers​
Answer: c) Predictive parsing tables
35.​A grammar is LL(1) if: a) It is left-recursive. b) It has no common prefixes. c) Its
parsing table has no multiple entries. d) It is right-recursive.​
Answer: c) Its parsing table has no multiple entries.
36.​The LL in LL(1) stands for: a) Left-to-right scan, Leftmost derivation. b) Left-to-right
scan, Rightmost derivation. c) Lookahead Left, Lookahead Left. d) Lexical Left,
Language Left.​
Answer: a) Left-to-right scan, Leftmost derivation.
37.​What is the lookahead symbol for a predictive parser? a) The entire input string. b)
The next token in the input stream. c) The top of the stack. d) The start symbol.​
Answer: b) The next token in the input stream.
 38.​Predictive parsing typically uses a parse table and a: a) Queue b) Stack c) Hash
table d) Binary tree​
Answer: b) Stack
39.​The primary disadvantage of recursive descent parsing (a form of predictive parsing)
is: a) It cannot handle left recursion. b) It is very slow. c) It requires a large stack. d) It
cannot handle ambiguous grammars.​
Answer: a) It cannot handle left recursion.
40.​If a grammar has a production A→Aα, it exhibits: a) Right recursion b) Left recursion
c) Ambiguity d) Epsilon production​
Answer: b) Left recursion

Part 2: Automatic Construction of Efficient Parsers (LR Parsers)

41.​LR Parsers LR parsers are a type of: a) Top-down parser b) Bottom-up parser c)
Recursive descent parser d) Predictive parser​
Answer: b) Bottom-up parser
42.​The L in LR stands for: a) Left-to-right scan b) Lookahead c) Lexical d) Leftmost​
Answer: a) Left-to-right scan
43.​The R in LR stands for: a) Rightmost derivation in reverse b) Right-to-left scan c)
Recursive d) Reduce​
Answer: a) Rightmost derivation in reverse
44.​Which type of LR parser is the most powerful? a) SLR b) LALR c) Canonical LR d) LL​
Answer: c) Canonical LR
45.​The state of an LR parser is represented by: a) A stack symbol. b) A set of LR(0)
items. c) The current input token. d) A production rule.​
Answer: b) A set of LR(0) items.
46.​Canonical Collection of LR(0) Items An LR(0) item is a production with a dot at
some position on its right-hand side, e.g., A→α⋅β. The dot indicates: a) The start of
the production. b) The end of the production. c) The position of the input pointer. d)
How much of the right-hand side has been seen so far.​
Answer: d) How much of the right-hand side has been seen so far.
47.​The closure operation on a set of LR(0) items adds: a) All productions to the set. b)
All items of the form B→⋅γ for every production B→γ whose left-hand side B appears
immediately after a dot in an existing item. c) All items with a dot at the end. d) All
terminal symbols.​
Answer: b) All items of the form B→⋅γ for every production B→γ whose
left-hand side B appears immediately after a dot in an existing item.
48.​The goto function in LR parsing calculates: a) The next state given a current state
and a grammar symbol. b) The next input token. c) The next production to use. d)
The next item to add to the closure.​
Answer: a) The next state given a current state and a grammar symbol.
49.​The canonical collection of LR(0) items is the set of all: a) Possible productions. b)
Valid states of the LR(0) parser. c) Terminal symbols. d) Non-terminal symbols.​
Answer: b) Valid states of the LR(0) parser.
50.​If a state in an LR(0) automaton contains both an item A→α⋅aβ (where a is a
terminal) and an item B→γ⋅ (a reduce item), it indicates a: a) Shift/reduce conflict in
 SLR. b) Reduce/reduce conflict in SLR. c) No conflict. d) LL(1) grammar.​
Answer: a) Shift/reduce conflict in SLR.
51.​Construction of Canonical LR Parsing Tables Canonical LR (CLR) parsers resolve
conflicts by using a lookahead of: a) 0 symbols b) 1 symbol c) Multiple symbols d)
Follow set of the production​
Answer: c) Multiple symbols (specifically, the lookahead set associated with
each reduce item)
52.​In CLR parsing, a reduce item A→α⋅,a means: a) Reduce by A→α if the next input
symbol is a. b) Shift a onto the stack. c) Accept the input. d) Error.​
Answer: a) Reduce by A→α if the next input symbol is a.
53.​The number of states in a CLR parser is generally: a) Less than or equal to SLR. b)
Less than or equal to LALR. c) Greater than or equal to SLR and LALR. d) Always
equal to SLR.​
Answer: c) Greater than or equal to SLR and LALR.
54.​The main disadvantage of CLR parsers is: a) They are less powerful than SLR. b)
They generate very large parsing tables. c) They cannot handle ambiguous
grammars. d) They are top-down.​
Answer: b) They generate very large parsing tables.
55.​Construction LALR and SLR Parsing Tables SLR (Simple LR) parsers resolve
shift/reduce conflicts using the FOLLOW set of the non-terminal on the left-hand side
of the reduction. If A→α⋅ is a reduce item, and a is in FOLLOW(A), then: a) Reduce
by A→α if the lookahead is a. b) Shift a. c) This indicates a conflict. d) Accept.​
Answer: a) Reduce by A→α if the lookahead is a.
56.​SLR parsers are: a) More powerful than CLR. b) Less powerful than LALR. c) The
simplest type of LR parser. d) Only for unambiguous grammars.​
Answer: c) The simplest type of LR parser.
57.​LALR (Lookahead LR) parsers are formed by: a) Merging states of an SLR parser. b)
Merging states of a CLR parser that have identical LR(0) core items. c) Adding more
lookahead symbols to an SLR parser. d) Eliminating left recursion.​
Answer: b) Merging states of a CLR parser that have identical LR(0) core items.
58.​The number of states in an LALR parser is typically: a) Equal to CLR. b) Equal to
SLR. c) Greater than CLR. d) Less than CLR but equal to SLR.​
Answer: d) Less than CLR but equal to SLR.
59.​Which of the following parsers are most commonly used in practice due to their
balance of power and table size? a) SLR b) CLR c) LALR d) LL(1)​
Answer: c) LALR
60.​LALR parsers can handle all grammars that SLR parsers can handle, and more, but
still fewer than CLR. The difference lies in: a) How lookahead symbols are associated
with reduce items. b) The method of handling left recursion. c) Their ability to detect
errors. d) Their space complexity.​
Answer: a) How lookahead symbols are associated with reduce items.
61.​Using Ambiguous Grammars with LR Parsers Ambiguous grammars can cause
________ in LR parsing tables. a) No conflicts b) Shift/reduce conflicts c)
Reduce/reduce conflicts d) Both shift/reduce and reduce/reduce conflicts​
Answer: d) Both shift/reduce and reduce/reduce conflicts
62.​What is a common technique to handle ambiguity (e.g., in expressions like
if-then-else) in an LR parser generator like Yacc/Bison? a) Rewrite the grammar
 to be unambiguous. b) Use operator precedence and associativity rules. c) Switch to
a top-down parser. d) Ignore the conflicts.​
Answer: b) Use operator precedence and associativity rules.
63.​Yacc (Yet Another Compiler Compiler) is a tool for generating: a) Lexical analyzers b)
LR parsers c) Intermediate code d) Optimized code​
Answer: b) LR parsers
64.​Bison is the GNU version of: a) Lex b) Yacc c) Flex d) GCC​
Answer: b) Yacc
65.​An LR parsing table consists of two parts: a) Action table and Goto table. b) Shift
table and Reduce table. c) Terminal table and Non-terminal table. d) Production table
and Item table.​
Answer: a) Action table and Goto table.
66.​Implementation of LR Parsing Tables The ACTION table entry ACTION[s, a]
(where s is state, a is terminal) can contain: a) Shift, Reduce, Accept, or Error. b)
Only Shift or Reduce. c) Only Accept or Error. d) Only the next state number.​
Answer: a) Shift, Reduce, Accept, or Error.
67.​The GOTO table entry GOTO[s, A] (where s is state, A is non-terminal) contains: a)
The next state number. b) A reduce action. c) An error entry. d) A shift action.​
Answer: a) The next state number.
68.​When an LR parser performs a "shift" action: a) It pops symbols from the stack. b) It
pushes the current state and the current input symbol onto the stack. c) It replaces
symbols on the stack. d) It generates a new state.​
Answer: b) It pushes the current state and the current input symbol onto the
stack.
69.​When an LR parser performs a "reduce by A→β" action: a) It shifts β onto the stack.
b) It pops ∣β∣ symbols from the stack, then pushes A and the new state onto the
stack. c) It consults the GOTO table using the lookahead. d) It enters an error state.​
Answer: b) It pops ∣β∣ symbols from the stack, then pushes A and the new
state onto the stack.
70.​If an LR parser reaches an "accept" state, it means: a) A syntax error has been
found. b) The input string has been successfully parsed. c) The parser needs more
input. d) A deadlock occurred.​
Answer: b) The input string has been successfully parsed.
71.​Construction LALR Sets of Items The process of constructing LALR(1) states
involves: a) Building SLR states and adding lookaheads. b) Building CLR states and
merging states with identical cores. c) Directly constructing states using a different
algorithm than CLR. d) Using recursive descent.​
Answer: b) Building CLR states and merging states with identical cores.
72.​An LALR parser is generally preferred over a CLR parser because: a) It is more
powerful. b) It has smaller parsing tables. c) It is easier to implement. d) It avoids all
conflicts.​
Answer: b) It has smaller parsing tables.
73.​The merging of states in LALR parser construction can introduce: a) New shift/reduce
conflicts that were not present in CLR. b) New reduce/reduce conflicts that were not
present in CLR. c) More powerful parsing capabilities. d) Simpler grammar rules.​
Answer: b) New reduce/reduce conflicts that were not present in CLR.
 74.​If two CLR states have the same LR(0) core but different lookahead sets for their
reduce items, what happens when they are merged into an LALR state? a) The
lookahead sets are unioned. b) A reduce/reduce conflict occurs. c) A shift/reduce
conflict occurs. d) One of the lookahead sets is discarded.​
Answer: a) The lookahead sets are unioned.
75.​LALR(1) grammars are a proper subset of: a) SLR(1) grammars b) CLR(1) grammars
c) LL(1) grammars d) Regular grammars​
Answer: b) CLR(1) grammars

Part 3: Syntax-Directed Translation & Intermediate Code

76.​Syntax-Directed Translation Schemes A Syntax-Directed Definition (SDD) is a

context-free grammar with attributes attached to grammar symbols and: a) Lexical
rules. b) Semantic rules. c) Optimization rules. d) Code generation rules.​
Answer: b) Semantic rules.
77.​An attribute that is computed from the attributes of its children in the parse tree is a:
a) Synthesized attribute b) Inherited attribute c) L-attributed d) S-attributed​
Answer: a) Synthesized attribute
78.​An attribute that is computed from the attributes of its parent or siblings in the parse
tree is an: a) Synthesized attribute b) Inherited attribute c) S-attributed d) L-attributed
(which allows inherited attributes from left siblings)​
Answer: b) Inherited attribute
79.​An S-attributed definition is one in which: a) All attributes are inherited attributes. b)
All attributes are synthesized attributes. c) Attributes can be both inherited and
synthesized. d) It only involves L-attributed definitions.​
Answer: b) All attributes are synthesized attributes.
80.​L-attributed definitions allow attributes to be computed in: a) Only a bottom-up pass.
b) Only a top-down pass. c) A single left-to-right traversal of the parse tree. d)
Multiple passes, mixing top-down and bottom-up.​
Answer: c) A single left-to-right traversal of the parse tree.
81.​Implementation of Syntax Directed Translation Syntax-directed translation can be
implemented: a) Only during code generation. b) Only during lexical analysis. c) By
constructing a parse tree and then traversing it, or by performing actions during
parsing. d) Only with recursive descent parsers.​
Answer: c) By constructing a parse tree and then traversing it, or by
performing actions during parsing.
82.​What is the role of semantic rules in Syntax-Directed Translation? a) To define the
grammar's syntax. b) To associate meaning and actions with grammar productions.
c) To perform lexical analysis. d) To generate machine code.​
Answer: b) To associate meaning and actions with grammar productions.
83.​When semantic actions are embedded directly into a grammar (often in the middle of
productions), it forms a: a) SDD (Syntax-Directed Definition) b) SDG
(Syntax-Directed Graph) c) SDTS (Syntax-Directed Translation Scheme) d) AST
(Abstract Syntax Tree)​
Answer: c) SDTS (Syntax-Directed Translation Scheme)
84.​Intermediate Code Intermediate code is generated between which two phases of a
compiler? a) Lexical Analysis and Syntax Analysis b) Syntax Analysis and Semantic
Analysis c) Semantic Analysis and Code Optimization d) Code Optimization and
Code Generation​
Answer: c) Semantic Analysis and Code Optimization (or between front-end
and back-end)
85.​Which of the following is NOT a common form of intermediate code? a)
Three-address code b) Postfix notation c) Machine code d) Syntax trees​
Answer: c) Machine code
86.​The primary advantage of using intermediate code in a compiler is: a) To make the
compiler faster. b) To improve error reporting. c) To enable portability and retargeting
of the compiler. d) To simplify lexical analysis.​
Answer: c) To enable portability and retargeting of the compiler.
87.​Postfix Notation The expression a + b * c in postfix notation is: a) + a * b c
b) a b c * + c) a b + c * d) * + a b c​
Answer: b) a b c * +
88.​Postfix notation is also known as: a) Infix notation b) Prefix notation c) Reverse
Polish Notation (RPN) d) Algebraic notation​
Answer: c) Reverse Polish Notation (RPN)
89.​Evaluating an expression in postfix notation typically involves using a: a) Queue b)
Stack c) Hash table d) Linked list​
Answer: b) Stack
90.​Postfix notation is often used as an intermediate representation because: a) It is easy
for humans to read. b) It explicitly represents the order of operations without
parentheses. c) It is directly executable by machines. d) It minimizes memory usage.​
Answer: b) It explicitly represents the order of operations without parentheses.
91.​Parse Trees and Syntax Trees A parse tree (or concrete syntax tree) represents: a)
The sequence of tokens. b) The exact syntactic structure of the input according to the
grammar rules. c) The semantic meaning of the program. d) The optimized code.​
Answer: b) The exact syntactic structure of the input according to the grammar
rules.
92.​An Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) differs from a parse tree by: a) Including all
non-terminal nodes. b) Omitting nodes for non-terminals and productions that
represent only syntactic structure. c) Being a linear representation. d) Only showing
the terminal symbols.​
Answer: b) Omitting nodes for non-terminals and productions that represent
only syntactic structure.
93.​Which tree representation is more concise and convenient for semantic analysis and
code generation? a) Parse Tree b) Syntax Tree (AST) c) Binary Search Tree d)
B-tree​
Answer: b) Syntax Tree (AST)
94.​Three-Address Code Three-address code statements typically have the form: a)
result = operand1 op operand2 b) op operand1 operand2 c) operand1
op operand2 = result d) op result operand1 operand2​
Answer: a) result = operand1 op operand2
95.​In three-address code, temporary variables are often used to: a) Store permanent
results. b) Break down complex expressions into a sequence of simple ones. c)
 Represent control flow. d) Hold input values.​
Answer: b) Break down complex expressions into a sequence of simple ones.
96.​A quadruple representation of three-address code consists of: a) Two fields:
operator and result. b) Three fields: operator, operand1, operand2. c) Four fields:
operator, operand1, operand2, result. d) Five fields: operator, operand1, operand2,
result, label.​
Answer: c) Four fields: operator, operand1, operand2, result.
97.​An indirect triple representation of three-address code uses: a) Pointers to
entries in a statement table. b) Fixed-size records for each statement. c) Only two
fields. d) Direct memory addresses.​
Answer: a) Pointers to entries in a statement table.
98.​Which of the following is NOT a type of three-address statement? a) Assignment
statements b) Conditional jumps c) Procedure calls d) Direct memory access (raw
machine code)​
Answer: d) Direct memory access (raw machine code)
99.​Postfix Translation with Top-Down Parser When generating postfix code with a
top-down parser (like recursive descent), the actions for printing operators typically
happen: a) Before processing operands. b) After processing operands. c) Only at the
start of the production. d) At the end of the input.​
Answer: b) After processing operands.
100.​ For an expression like E -> E + T, in a recursive descent parser, the action to
print + would usually be placed: a) Before calling the function for the first E. b) After
calling the function for the first E but before +. c) After parsing + and the T. d) Before
parsing +.

**Answer: c) After parsing `+` and the `T`.**