A

MAJOR PROJECT REPORT

ON
UTILIZATION OF FLY ASH ACTIVATED BY CEMENT FOR
PAVEMENT SUBGRADE
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

CIVIL ENGINEERING
BY
G. SHAKTHI : ( H.NO : 20SS1A0121)
K. SHIVA KUMAR : ( H.NO : 20SS1A0131)
P. SHREYA : ( H.NO : 20SS1A0142)
V. SUSHMITHA : ( H.NO : 21SS5A0109)

Under the guidance of

Mrs. T. SUJATHA
(M.Tech Structural Engineering)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

JNTUHU-COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING SULTANPUR

Sultanpur(V), choutkur(M), SangaReddy Dist. Telangana Pin-502 273

2020-2024

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 JNTUHU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING SULTANPUR

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled “UTILIZATION OF FLY ASH ACTIVATED
BY CEMENT FOR PAVEMENT SUBGRADE” submitted by G.SHAKTH
I(20SS1A0121), K.SHIVAKUMAR (20SS1A0131), P.SHREYA (20SS1A0142),
K.SHIVAKUMAR (20SS1A0131),V.SUSHMITHA (21SS5A0109`) is the partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Bachelor of Technology in Civil
Engineering for the year 2020-24 is an authentic work carried out by them under my
supervision and guidance.

T.SUJATHA
Internal Guide Head of the Department

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

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 DECLARATION

We do declare that the project work entitled "UTILIZATION OF FLY ASH

ACTIVATED BY CEMENT FOR PAVEMENT SUBGADE" submitted by us in the
Department of Civil Engineering, JNTUHU College of Engineering, Sulthanpur in partial
fulfillment of degree for the award of Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering is a
bonafide work, carried out by us under the supervision DR.M.PADMAVATHI, Head of
the Department of CIVIL, JNTUHUCES.

Also, we declare that the matter embedded in this report has not been submitted by us in
full or partial thereof for the award of any degree/diploma of any other university or
institution previously.

Project associates

G. SHAKTHI (20SS1A0121)
K. SHIVA KUMAR (20SS1A0131)
P. SHREYA (20SS1A0142)
V. SUSHMITHA (21SS5A0109)

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The successful completion of any task would be incomplete without mentioning

the people who made it possible and whose constant guidance and encouragement
secured us this success.

Our special thanks to the Principal Dr.G.NARASIMHA for

his encouragement shown towards us to complete the project.
Our special thanks to the Vice-Principal Dr.Y.RAGHAVENDRA RAO for his
encouragement shown towards us to complete the project.

We would like to express our gratitude to DR.M.PADMAVATHI Head of the

Department, CIVIL Engineering, JNTUH College of Engineering Sultanpur, for his
encouragement and guidance provided during the course of our project work.

We are immensely thankful to our internal guide Mrs. T. SUJATHA ( M.tech

Structural Engineering), for his valuable guidance in each and every stage of this work,
which helped us in completing this project work successfully.

We are grandly indebted to all other Teaching & Non-Teaching Staff Members
of Department of Civil Engineering, for their valuable help rendered during the course
of study.

Finally, we express our hearty thanks to Friends for their kind help and
encouragement throughout the course of this project.

Project Associates
G. SHAKTHI : (H.NO:20SS1A0121)
K. SHIVA KUMAR : (H.NO:20SS1A0131)
P. SHREYA : (H.NO:20SS1A0142)
V. SUSHMITHA : (H.NO:21SS5A0109)

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 ABSTRACT
The performance of pavement is very responsive to the characteristics of the soil
subgrade. For that reason, weak subgrade is enhanced by adopting the most efficient
stabilization technique. Stabilization with fly ash activated with cement was found to be an
effective option for improvement of soil properties. Expansive soil treated with varying
percentages of fly ash, 0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% combined with 0%, 2%, 4%, 6%, 8%
cement content. The experimental results show that addition of cement-fly ash admixture
to the soil has great influence on its properties.

The effectiveness of the use of waste fly ash (FA) and cement (OPC) in the
stabilization of subgrade soils and the reasons likely to influence the degree of stabilization
were investigated. Incorporating waste fly ash (FA) and cement (OPC) as additives leads
to significant environmental and economic contributions to soil stabilization. This study
involves laboratory tests to obtain the Atterberg limit, free swell index (FSI), the
unconfined compressive strength (UCS), the California bearing ratio (CBR).

Expansive soils pose significant challenges in construction due to their tendency

to swell and shrink with changes in moisture content, leading to structural damage
and instability. Optimum mix proportions are identified based on the desired engineering
properties and environmental considerations. Moreover, the use of fly ash and cement as
stabilizing agents offers a sustainable solution by utilizing industrial by-products and
reducing the demand for natural resources.

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 LIST OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1-4

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Black cotton soil 2
1.3 Objectives and scope 3
1.4 Need of stabilization 3
1.5 Pavement subgrade 4
Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 5-7
2.1 General 5
2.2 Stabilization using Cement 5

2.3 Stabilization using Fly ash 6

2.4 Stabilization using Cement with Fly 7
ash
Chapter 3 SOIL STABILIZATION 8-9
3.1 Stabilization 8
3.1.1 Mechanical methods 8
3.1.2 Chemical methods 8
3.2 Applications 9
3.3 Advantages of Stabilization 9
Chapter 4 MATERIALS AND 10-12
METHODOLOGY
4.1 Fly ash 10
4.1.1 Advantages of fly ash 12
4.1.2 Limitations of fly ash usages 12
4.2 Cement 13
4.2.1 Applications of cement 14
Chapter 5 EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED 15-20
5.1 Atterberg’s Limits 15

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 5.1.1 Liquid Limit Test 15
5.1.2 Plastic Limit Test 16
5.2 Standard Compaction Test 17
5.3 California Bearing Ratio Test (CBR) 18
5.4 Free Swell Index Test 19
5.5 Unconfined Compressive Strength 20
Test (UCS)
Chapter 6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 20-27
6.1 Test Procedure 20
6.2 Liquid limit and plastic limit tests 20
6.3 Standard Compaction Test 23
6.4 California Bearing Ratio Test (CBR) 24
6.5 Free Swell Index Test 25
6.6 Unconfined Compressive Strength 26
Test (UCS)
Chapter 7 CONCLUSION 28-29
Chapter 8 REFERENCES 30

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 LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO TOPIC PAGE NO
1 Physical Properties of Fly ash 10
2 Chemical Properties of Fly ash 11
3 Chemical composition of Portland cement 13
4 Standard Load Values at Penetration 18
5 Atterberg limits in subgrade soil by adding fly ash 22
and cement.
6 The compaction test results 23
7 Effects by fly ash and cement on the FSI value 25
8 The effect of adding cement and fly ash on the UCS 26
value

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 LIST OF GRAPHS

GRAPH NO TOPICS PAGE NO

1 Effect of fly ash and cement on PL, LL, and PI 22
2 Effect of Cement-Fly ash on Optimum Moisture 23
Content
3 Effect of Cement-Fly ash on Maximum dry density 24
(MDD)
4 California bearing ratio of fly ash and cement 25
mixture
5 Free swell index for fly ash and cement mixes 26
6 Comparison of unconfined compression strength for 27
soil sample with and without, fly ash and cement
mixture

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 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO FIGURE PAGE NO

Fig.1 Black soil in India 2
Fig.2 Black cotton soil 2
Fig.3 Pavement structure 4
Fig.4 Fly ash Admixture 11
Fig.5 Ordinary Portland Cement 13
Fig.6 Weighing Balance 15
Fig.7 Casagrande Apparatus 16
Fig.8 Casagrande Groove 16
Fig.9 Plastic Limit with Black soil 16
Fig.10 (i) Compacting soil 17
Fig.10 (ii) Soil sieving 17
Fig.10 (iii) Preparing sample for compaction 17
Fig.11 CBR machine 18
Fig.12 Placing sample in CBR machine 18
Fig.13 CBR sample 19
Fig.14 Free swell index test 19
Fig.15 UCS Test machine 20
Fig.16 UCS sample 20

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UTILIZATION OF FLY ASH ACTIVATED BY CEMENT FOR PAVEMENT SUBGRADE

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Subgrade soil provides base for the whole pavement structure. Weak subgrades
of expansive soil has great tendency to swell and shrink when in contact with water. This
behaviour is believed to have been derived from clay rich of montmorillonite mineral.
These expansive soils can be improved through the addition of chemical or cementitious
additives. These additives range from waste products to manufactured materials which
include fly ash, cement, lime and proprietary chemical stabilizers. Weak subgrade soils are
usually improved by cement or lime. In fact, cement stabilization provide an effective
solution to the problem of fatigue failures caused by repeated high deflection of asphalt
surfaces where a weak subgrade exists in the pavement structure.

Experiences in areas of expansive subgrades, show significant improvement in

strength and a marked decrease in deflection when subgrades are stabilized with cement,
while treatment with lime or fly ash is a well known practice adopted to reduce swelling
behaviour. The effect of fly ash stabilization on soil properties varies widely depending on
the type of fly ash and its composition. Due to the lack of self-cementitious characteristics,
class F fly ash activated by cement result in greatest improvement in strength and swelling
of expansive soil. Some previous researchers pointed out that treatment of subgrade soils
with cement-fly ash admixture performs better than lime-treated soils particularly in soils
with low strength and high swelling properties.

Soil is the basic construction material. It supports the substructure of any

structure and it is the subgrade which supports the sub base/base in the pavement. The
existing soil at a location may not be suitable for the construction due to poor bearing
capacity and higher compressibility or even sometimes excessive swelling in case of
expansive soils. Fly ash, a byproduct of coal combustion in power plants, has gained
attention as a sustainable alternative in construction practices. . Cement, on the other hand,
has long been recognized for its ability to bind soil particles, resulting in enhanced load-
bearing capacity and reduced susceptibility to moisture-induced damage.

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The foundation of any durable pavement lies in the stability of its subgrade soil.
Subgrade instability can lead to premature deterioration of roads, causing safety hazards
and significant maintenance costs. In regions where soil conditions are less than ideal, such
as expansive clay or weak sandy soils, traditional methods may fall short in providing long-
lasting solutions. However, advancements in soil stabilization techniques, particularly
through the use of fly ash and cement, offer promising avenues for enhancing subgrade
stability and extending pavement lifespan.

1.2 Black cotton soil:

In India, expansive soils are called as Black Cotton soil. The name “Black Cotton
soil” has an agricultural origin. Most of these soils are black in colour and are good for
growing Cotton and occurring in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Parts
of Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu. These are expansive in nature. On account of high
swelling and shrinkage potential these are difficult soils to deal with in foundation design.

All the black soils are not expansive soils and all the expansive soils are not black
in colour. These soils passed high strength in summer and decreased rapidly in winter. The
soil has a swelling property due to the presence of montmorillonite mineral. Black cotton
soils which has high expansive characteristics. These soils are low shrinkage limit and with
high optimum moisture content. It is highly sensitive to moisture changes.

Fig.1. Black soil in India Fig.2. Black cotton soil

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1.3 Objectives and Scope:

The major objectives of the project are as follows:

➢ To study the properties of black cotton soil made available.
➢ To check for the suitability of cement-fly ash combination as a stabilizing agent
for black cotton soil.
➢ To obtain the most efficient proportion of cement, fly ash and soil to be mixed for
its stabilization.
➢ To explore the possibility of using fly ash in road construction.
➢ To study the effect of fly ash and cement on proctor’s density and OMC of clayey
soils.
➢ To study the changes in CBR of soil by addition of fly ash and cement.

1.4 Need of stabilization:

Traditionally, stable sub-grades, sub-bases and/or bases have been constructed by using
selected, well-graded aggregates, making it easy to predict the load-bearing capacity of
the constructed layers.

➢ It increases the soil's strength, making it better able to support traffic loads.
➢ It decreases the soil's plasticity, minimizing its expansion and contraction with
moisture changes.
➢ It enhances the soil's load-bearing capacity, improving the overall pavement
structure.
➢ It utilizes waste fly ash, reducing the need for landfills.
➢ Cost-Effectiveness: It is more economical compared to using cement alone.
➢ It makes the soil more resistant to weathering and erosion.
➢ It ensures longer-lasting pavements with fewer maintenance needs.

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1.5 Pavement Subgrade:

The pavement subgrade is the foundational layer situated directly beneath the
pavement structure, playing a critical role in ensuring the overall performance and
longevity of the pavement. It provides essential support, distributing the loads from traffic
evenly to prevent excessive stress and potential failure of the pavement layers above.
Proper preparation of the subgrade involves removing unsuitable materials, enhancing soil
properties through stabilization methods such as the addition of fly ash and cement, and
compacting the soil to achieve the required density and strength. This stabilization process
not only improves the load-bearing capacity and strength of the subgrade but also reduces
its plasticity and susceptibility to moisture-induced volume changes. By creating a more
stable and durable base, the subgrade minimizes risks of deformation, such as rutting and
cracking, thus extending the lifespan of the pavement and reducing maintenance costs.

Fig. 3. Pavement structure

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 General:
To overcome the problem in black soil, research has been carried out in the
different parts of the world, to find out the most economical and efficient means of using
admixtures and their combinations.

Soil stabilization is widely known as an effective alternative for improving soil

properties. Stabilization can be derived from mechanical or chemical means. Mechanical
stabilization, or compaction, is the densification of soil by application of mechanical
energy. Chemical stabilization involves mixing or injecting soil with chemically active
compounds such as cement, lime, fly ash, calcium or sodium chloride or with viscoelastic
materials such as bitumen. Among these, the most widely used chemical additives are
cement, lime and fly ash. These additives are most frequently associated with improving
the strength and reducing the swelling properties of expansive soils and can be used with a
variety of soils. Extensive researches have been conducted pertaining to the use of chemical
stabilizers, namely cement, lime and fly ash. The stabilization mechanisms for them are
well documented, and their effectiveness has been demonstrated in many applications.

Cement contains calcium required for the pozzolanic reactions to occur.

Further cement already contains silica thus stabilization with cement is fairly independent
of soil properties.. It has a long history of use as an engineering material and has been
successfully employed in geotechnical applications.

2.2 Stabilization using cement:

Kowalski et al. [7], Portland cement is hydraulic cement made by heating limestone and
clay mixture in a kiln and pulverizing the resulting material which can be used either to
modify or to improve the quality of the soil or to transform the soil into a cemented mass
with increased strength and durability. The amount of cement used will depend upon
whether the soil is to be modified or stabilized.

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Kent Newman and Jeb S.Tingle [5] in their study of previous research efforts. Portland
cement was used as the stabilizer control for comparison of properties to the polymers and
was used at concentration of 2.75%, 6% and 9%. Previous research work have shown that
the addition of inert material (sand) to swelling soil can be a method of stabilization of soil.

Bahai Louafi and Ramdane Bahar [1] in their experimental work have study the effect
of performance of an addition of sand as stabilizer on swelling soil. Based on the study
undertaken, they found that the addition of sand reduces consistency limits. They have also
worked on introducing sand layer into two different configurations and found that these
layers effectively reduce the swelling of soil.

Study by Rao and Shivananda (2005): Found that adding 6% cement to black cotton soil
reduced the plasticity index significantly, indicating improved workability and reduced
plasticity. The swell potential was reduced by up to 80%, demonstrating a substantial
improvement in stability .

Al-Rawas et al. (2002): Demonstrated that the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of
black cotton soil increased from 200 kPa to over 600 kPa with the addition of 8% cement.
This significant improvement in strength makes the soil more suitable for load-bearing
applications .

2.3 Stabilization using Fly ash:

Zala Yashwantsinh et.al, (2013): The authors had worked on Stabilization of black cotton
soil using fly ash in various proportions (5%,10%,15%). These were the observations and
conclusions made from the study. Liquid limit was decreasing with increase in percentage
of fly ash and Plastic limit was decreasing with increase in percentage of fly ash.

Saxena Anil Kumar (2013)- Effect of fly ash and lime on engineering properties of BC
soil. A liquid limit & Plastic limit was increases with increases in percentage of fly ash &
lime. Compaction characters of soil increase with increasing % of fly ash & lime. CBR
value of BC soil increases with increase in % of fly ash & lime.

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UTILIZATION OF FLY ASH ACTIVATED BY CEMENT FOR PAVEMENT SUBGRADE

Sivapullaiah(1996) reported that the addition of fly ash decreased the liquid limit of black
cotton soils and studied the effect of fly ash on the index properties of these soils from
Karnataka in India . Bhoominadhan and Hari (1999) proposed the use of fly ash in
construction works like brick making and soil stabilization.

2.4 Stabilization using cement with fly ash:

Phanikumar and Sharma (2004): A similar study was carried out by Phanikumar and
Sharmaand the effect of fly ash on engineering properties of expansive soil through an
experimental programme. The effect on parameters like free swell index (FSI), swell
potential, swelling pressure, plasticity, compaction, strength and hydraulic conductivity of
expansive soil was studied. The ash blended expansive soil with fly ash contents of 0, 5,
10, 15 and 20% on a dry weight basis and they inferred that increase in fly ash content
reduces plasticity characteristics and the FSI was reduced by about 50% by the addition of
20% fly ash. The hydraulic conductivity of expansive soils mixed with fly ash decreases
with an increase in fly ash content, due to the increase in maximum dry unit weight with
an increase in fly ash content.

Thomas & White (2003) used self-cementing fly ashes (from eight different fly ash
sources) to treat and stabilize five different soil types (ranging from ML to CH) in Iowa for
road construction applications. They investigated various geotechnical properties (under
different curing-conditions) such as compaction, qu-value, wet/dry and freeze/thaw
durability, curing time effect, and others. They reported that Iowa self-cementing fly ashes
can be an effective means of stabilizing Iowa soil. Unconfined compressive strength,
strength gain, and CBR-value of stabilized soils increased especially with curing time. Soil-
fly ash mixtures cured under freezing condition and soaked in water slaked and were unable
to be tested for strength.

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UTILIZATION OF FLY ASH ACTIVATED BY CEMENT FOR PAVEMENT SUBGRADE

CHAPTER 3

SOIL STABILIZATION

3.1 STABILIZATION

Soil stabilization is a process used to improve the engineering properties of soil, making it
more stable and suitable for construction and other applications. This process can enhance
soil strength, reduce its permeability, and increase its load-bearing capacity. Various
methods are employed to achieve soil stabilization, which can be broadly categorized into
mechanical, chemical, and biological methods. Here’s an overview of these techniques:

3.1.1 Mechanical Methods:

1. Compaction:

• Involves mechanically compressing the soil to reduce voids, increase

density, and improve its load-bearing capacity.

• Typically done using rollers, vibratory compactors, or tampers.

2. Soil Replacement:

• Involves removing the weak soil and replacing it with more stable material,
such as gravel, sand, or a mixture of soil and aggregates.

3. Geosynthetics:

• The use of geotextiles, geogrids, or geomembranes to reinforce soil,

improve drainage, and prevent erosion.

3.1.2 Chemical Methods:

1. Lime Stabilization:

• Adding lime (calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide) to clay soils to reduce

plasticity, increase strength, and improve workability.

• Commonly used for road construction and foundation stabilization.

2. Cement Stabilization:

• Mixing Portland cement with soil to create a more stable, hardened material.

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UTILIZATION OF FLY ASH ACTIVATED BY CEMENT FOR PAVEMENT SUBGRADE

• Suitable for improving the bearing capacity and reducing the

compressibility of soils.

3. Fly Ash:

• Utilizing fly ash, a byproduct of coal combustion, to improve soil

properties.

• Helps in reducing shrink-swell behaviour and increasing strength.

3.2 Applications :
Road and Pavement Construction: Stabilized soil provides a strong base and subbase,
reducing maintenance and increasing lifespan.

Foundations and Embankments: Improved soil stability supports structures and prevents
settlement.

Slope and Erosion Control: Stabilization methods help in maintaining slope integrity and
preventing erosion.

Landfill Liners and Caps: Enhanced soil properties prevent leachate migration and
environmental contamination.

3.3 Advantages of stabilization:

Some of the many advantages that soil stabilization has are listed below:

➢ Stabilization waterproofs the pavement soil.

➢ Stabilization improves soil strength to support traffic loads.
➢ Stabilization helps reduce soil volume change due to temperature or moisture.
➢ Stabilization improves soil workability.
➢ Stabilization reduces dust in work environment.
➢ Stabilization improves durability of pavement.
➢ Stabilization reduces cost of pavement construction.

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UTILIZATION OF FLY ASH ACTIVATED BY CEMENT FOR PAVEMENT SUBGRADE

CHAPTER 4

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

4.1 FLY ASH :

Fly ash is a by-product of thermal power plants which use coal as fuel. It is finely
divided residue that results from the combustion of pulverized coal and is transported from
the combustion chamber by exhaust gases. Generally Fly ash can be classified as Class-c
fly ash and Class-F fly ash. This classification is based on the percentage of calcium oxide
available in fly ash .At present about 100 thermal power plants in India produce 1.3 million
tones of fly ash.

Fly Ash is a fine grey powder consisting mostly of spherical, glassy particles
that are produced as a byproduct in coal-fired power stations. Fly ash has pozzolanic
properties, meaning that it reacts with lime to form cementitious compounds. Itis
commonly known as a supplementary cementitious material.

Environmental benefits of fly ash:

• Increasing the life of concrete roads.

• Net reduction in energy use and greenhouse gas.
• Less material for disposal in landfill.
• Fly ash is costless and abundantly available all over the country.
• Utilization of fly ash solves the problem of air and water pollution.
• PROPERTIES FLY ASH
Specific Gravity 2.05
Density 2.17g/cm3
Fineness 290 m2/kg
Moisture content 2%
Colour Grey
Table 1: Physical Properties of Fly ash

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UTILIZATION OF FLY ASH ACTIVATED BY CEMENT FOR PAVEMENT SUBGRADE

CONSTITUENT PERCENTAGE
Silica 59.48
Alumina 27.12
Iron Oxide 7.34
Calcium Oxide 2.32
Magnesium Oxide 0.56
Sulphur Tri Oxide 0.94
Table 2 : Chemical Properties of Fly ash

Based on the chemical composition of fly ash, fly ash has been categorized into two
categories, as given:

1. Class-C fly ash

2. Class-F fly ash

Class c are often high-calcium fly ashes with carbon content less than 2 %;
whereas class F are generally low calcium fly ashes with carbon content less than 5% but
some times as high as 10%. In general, class c fly ashes produced from burning sub-
bituminous are anthracite coals. Performance properties between class c and class f ashes
are varying depending on chemical and physical properties of the ash. Many class c ashes
when exposed to water will react and become hard just like cement but not class f ashes.
Most, if not all, class f ashes will only react with the by-products when cement reacts with
water. Class c and class f fly ashes were used in this project.

Fig. 4 Fly ash Admixture

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UTILIZATION OF FLY ASH ACTIVATED BY CEMENT FOR PAVEMENT SUBGRADE

4.1.1 Advantages of Fly Ash :

• Fly ash reduces swelling properties of the soil, which gives stability to the
embankment during the wet season. Hence the road in such type of expansive soil
gets more service life. There will not be any problems like settlement and failure of
pavement.
• It expedites the construction process by improving excessive wet or unstable sub
grade.
• It improves the sub grade condition, which ultimately results in the reduction of
thickness of pavement. Thus, the economical benefits can be directly achieved by
such type of depth reduction.
• Low specific gravity of fly ash results in a low base pressure.
• Fly ash can be spread and compacted by using conventional construction
equipment.
• On one hand fly ash proves to be an effective admixture for improving the soil
quality, on other hand in this type of utilization affords means of disposing of
industrial by product without adversely affecting environment.

4.1.2 Limitation of Fly Ash Usages :

• Fly ashes are not available in bags in certified quality packs, which is the main
limitation in their ready utilization.
• Erosion of fly ash is the main concern when using as a fill material. Due to its fine-
grained non-cohesive nature , fly ash is easily suspected to erosion.
• Transportation of fly ash should be careful enough hence pollution can be avoided
due to spreading of fine particles in air on route of transportation.
• The sulphate content of fly ash some time causes concern about possibilities of
sulphate attack on adjacent concrete structure.

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4.2 CEMENT:

Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general use around the
world as a basic ingredient of concrete and mortar. Cement is generally made up of
limestone and gypsum. Adding cement to the subgrade soil increases its bearing capacity
and durability. Various proportions of cement (2%, 4%, 6% and 8%) were mixed in black
cotton soil, in order to increase its strength.

Cement is the oldest binding agent since the invention of soil stabilization
technology in 1960’s. It may be considered as primary stabilizing agent or hydraulic binder
because it can be used alone to bring out the stabilizing action required. Cement reaction
is not dependent on soil minerals, and key role is its reaction with water that may be
available in any soil. This can be the reason why cement is used for stabilize a wide range
of soils.

Chemical component Percent

Alumina (Al2O3) 5 – 9%
Silica (SiO2) 19 – 25%
Calcium oxide (CaO) 60 – 64%
Ferric Oxide (FeO) 2 – 4%
Tri-calcium silicate (C3S), Di-calcium 5 – 9%
silicate (C2S), Tetra-calcium aluminates
Table 3: Chemical composition of Portland cement

Fig. 5 Ordinary Portland Cement

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OPC, or Ordinary Portland Cement, is the most widely used type of cement in
construction and civil engineering projects. It is made from a combination of limestone and
other materials such as clay, which are heated in a kiln to form clinker. The clinker is then
ground to a fine powder and mixed with a small amount of gypsum to create the final
product. OPC is valued for its versatility, strength, and relatively quick setting time, making
it suitable for a wide range of applications, including concrete, mortar, stucco, and grout.
It provides the structural foundation for buildings, bridges, roads, and other infrastructure.
Available in different grades, OPC can be tailored to specific project requirements,
ensuring optimal performance and durability.

4.2.1 Applications of Cement:

Using cement as a stabilizer in subgrade stabilization offers numerous benefits that

contribute to the overall performance and longevity of pavement structures. Here are key
reasons for using cement in this application:

• Cement significantly enhances the load-bearing capacity of the subgrade, making

it capable of supporting heavier traffic loads without excessive deformation or
rutting. Cement is essential for the durability and longevity of the pavement.
• This strengthens the subgrade, reducing the risk of structural failure under load.
• This minimizes cracking and differential settlement, leading to a more stable
subgrade.
• Cement-treated soils exhibit greater resistance to weathering, erosion, and
environmental degradation.
• The enhanced properties of a cement-stabilized subgrade can allow for a reduction
in the overall pavement thickness required to achieve the desired performance.
• Cement facilitates faster and more efficient construction processes.
• Cement promotes more sustainable construction practices.
• Cement can be used to stabilize a wide range of soil types, including silts, clays,
and granular materials.

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CHAPTER 5

EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED

The various tests to be conducted on the soil sample are listed below:
• Atterberg’s Limits
1. Liquid Limit Test
2. Plastic Limit Test
• Standard Compaction Test
• California Bearing Ratio Test
• Free Swell Index
• Unconfined Compression Test

5.1 ATTERBERG’S LIMITS:

5.1.1 LIQUID LIMIT TEST

The liquid limit test is a method used in civil engineering to determine the water content at
which soil changes from a plastic state to a liquid state. During the test, a soil paste is
placed in a device called a Casagrande cup, where a groove is made in the soil. The cup is
then repeatedly dropped from a standard height, and the number of drops needed to close
the groove is counted. By adjusting the water content and repeating the test, the liquid limit
is found by plotting the results and determining the water content at which the groove
closes in 25 drops.

Fig. 6 Weighing Balance

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Fig. 7 Casagrande Apparatus

Fig. 8 Casagrande Groove

5.1.2 PLASTIC LIMIT TEST

The plastic limit test is a simple procedure used to determine the water content at which
soil changes from a semi-solid to a plastic state. To perform the test, a small amount of soil
is mixed with water and rolled into thin threads on a flat surface. The soil is gradually dried
by rolling it until the threads start to crumble and break at a diameter of 3 mm. The water
content of the soil at this point is measured and recorded as the plastic limit.

Fig. 9 Plastic limit with black soil

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5.2 STANDARD COMPACTION TEST

The Standard Proctor Compaction test is used in construction to determine the optimal
moisture content at which soil can be compacted to achieve its maximum dry density.
During the test, a soil sample is placed in a mould and compacted in layers using a standard
weight dropped from a fixed height. The soil's dry density is measured after each
compaction. This process is repeated with varying moisture levels to create a curve that
shows the relationship between moisture content and dry density. The peak of this curve
indicates the optimal moisture content for maximum compaction.

Fig. 10 (i) Compacting Soil fig. 10 (ii) Soil Sieving

Fig. 10 (iii) Preparing sample for compaction

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5.3 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST

CBR is the ratio expressed in percentage of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil
mass with a standard circular plunger of 50 mm diameter at the rate of 1.25 mm/min to that
required for corresponding penetration in a standard material. The California Bearing Ratio
(CBR) test is a method used to evaluate the strength of soil subgrades and base materials
for road and pavement construction. In this test, a cylindrical plunger is pressed into a soil
sample at a constant rate, and the pressure required to achieve specific penetration depths
(typically 2.5 mm and 5 mm) is measured. These measurements are then compared to the
pressure required to achieve the same penetration in a standard crushed rock material. The
ratio of these pressures, expressed as a percentage, gives the CBR value. A higher CBR
value indicates a stronger soil that can better support road and pavement structures.
The following table gives the standard loads adopted for different penetrations for the
standard material with a C.B.R. value of 100%.
PENETRATION OF PLUNGER (mm) STANDARD LOAD (Kg)
2.5 1370
5.0 2055
Table 4: Standard Load Values at Penetration

Fig. 11 CBR machine Fig. 12 Placing sample in CBR machine

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Fig. 13 CBR sample

5.4 FREE SWELL INDEX TEST

The Free Swell Index test is used to measure the swelling potential of clay soils when they
come into contact with water. In this test, a dry soil sample is placed in two separate
graduated cylinders: one with distilled water and one with kerosene. The soil in the water
cylinder absorbs the water and swells, while the soil in the kerosene cylinder remains
unchanged because kerosene does not cause swelling. After 24 hours, the volume of soil
in both cylinders is measured. The Free Swell Index is calculated as the percentage increase
in volume of the soil in water compared to its volume in kerosene.

Fig. 14 Free swell index test

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5.5 UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST

The Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) test measures the maximum axial
compressive stress that a cylindrical soil or rock sample can withstand under unconfined
conditions (without lateral support). In this test, a sample is placed in a compression
machine and subjected to increasing axial load until it fails. The UCS value is calculated
by dividing the maximum load at failure by the cross-sectional area of the sample. UCS is
the load needed per unit area on which a cylindrical sample of a cohesive soil falls in
compression.

Fig. 15 UCS machine Fig. 16 UCS sample

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CHAPTER 6

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

6.1 TEST PROCEDURE:

Laboratory experiments were carried out on natural soil samples to evaluate

various properties. The amount of fly ash for stabilization is taken in the proportions of
5%, 10%, 15% and 20% by dry weight of soil and the amount of cement was taken at 2%
, 4%, 6% and 8% by dry weight of soil. Using these proportions, mix samples were
prepared as given below and a set of laboratory tests were performed to determine the index
properties, swelling and CBR values of both natural soil and mixed proportion samples.
Mix Proportion Samples of soil, Fly ash and cement used for Stabilization are:

1. Natural soil.

2. Soil +5% Fly ash +2% Cement.

3. Soil +10% Fly ash +4% Cement.

4. Soil +15% Fly ash +6% Cement.

5. Soil +20% Fly ash +8% Cement

6.2 LIQUID LIMIT TEST AND PLASTIC LIMIT TEST:

Influence of Fly Ash and Cement on the Engineering Properties of Subgrade Soil:
Laboratory experiments were carried out, and the Atterberg limits were found, through
which we were able to obtain the liquid limit (LL) and the plastic limit (PL). Through these
two limits, we finally get the plasticity index (PI). Fly ash and cement with subgrade soil
were extensively examined with the various percentages specified in the results are shown
in table 5.

The plasticity index (PI) is a measure used in soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering
to describe the plasticity characteristics of a soil. It is defined as the numerical difference
between the liquid limit (LL) and the plastic limit (PL) of a soil sample:

PI=LL−PL

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Where, PL – Plastic limit

LL – Liquid limit

PI – Plasticity Index

MIX PROPORTION LIQUID PLASTIC PLASTICITY

LIMIT (%) LIMIT (%) INDEX
Natural soil 43.27 29.81 13.46
Soil+5% FA+2% OPC 45.61 33.78 11.83
Soil+10% FA+4% OPC 42.12 29.26 12.86
Soil+15% FA+6% OPC 38.6 27.5 11.1
Soil+20% FA+8% OPC 38.21 26.4 11.81
Table 5: Atterberg limits in subgrade soil by adding fly ash and cement.

50
45
40
35
Atterberg limits

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Natural soil 5% FA+2% OPC 10% FA+4% OPC 15% FA+6% OPC 20% FA+8% OPC
Mix proportion

LL PL PI

Graph 1: Effect of fly ash and cement on PL, LL, and PI

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6.3 STANDARD COMPACTION TEST

Influence of Fly Ash and Cement on Compaction Values. Compaction is a
method of increasing soil density by using mechanical tools to remove air voids and liquids
between soil particles. Standard proctor compaction tests are conducted in the laboratory
to determine the optimum moisture content (OMC) of the soil at maximum dry density
(MDD).

Compaction results on MDD and Optimum moisture content:

MIX PROPORTION OPTIMUM MOISTURE MAXIMUM DRY

CONTENT DENSITY
Natural soil 18.21 2.13
Soil+5% FA+2% OPC 17.42 2.21
Soil+10% FA+4% OPC 16.98 2.28
Soil+15% FA+6% OPC 16.01 2.42
Soil+20% FA+8% OPC 17.23 2.31
Table 6: The compaction test results

MOISTURE CONTENT
18.5 18.21

18
17.42
17.5 17.23
16.98
17

16.5
16.01
16

15.5

15

14.5
Natural soil 5% FA+2% OPC 10% FA+4% OPC 15% FA+6% OPC 20% FA+8% OPC

Moisture content

Graph 2: Effect of Cement-Fly ash on Optimum Moisture Content

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2.45 2.42

2.4
2.35 2.31
2.28
2.3
2.25 2.21
MDD (g/cc)

2.2
2.13
2.15
2.1
2.05
2
1.95
Natural soil 5% FA+2% OPC 20% FA+4% OPC 15% FA+6% OPC 20% FA+8% OPC
Mix proportion

Maximum Dry Density

Graph 3: Effect of Cement-Fly ash on Maximum Dry Density (MDD)

6.4 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST

Effect of Fly Ash and Cement on California Bearing Ratio. The California
bearing ratio (CBR) tests were conducted per the AASHTO code. The California Bearing
Ratio (CBR) test is a widely used method for evaluating the strength of subgrade soil,
subbase, and base course materials for road and pavement construction. The mould was a
standard CBR with a detachable collar. The test was conducted on samples prepared at the
modified Proctor’s optimum water content and maximum dry density.

CBR= (Standard Load/Measured Load) ×100

With the increase of fly ash and cement content, the CBR value of soil increases.
The optimum percentage of the mixture (15% fly ash+6% cement) gives the CBR value
10.1, the best result for subgrade soil from following Graph 4.

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CBR (%)
12
10.1
10 9.4
8.8

8
5.9
6
3.6
4

0
Natural soil 5% FA+2%OPC 10% FA+4%OPC 15% FA+6%OPC 20% FA+8%OPC

Mix proportion (%)

Graph 4: California bearing ratio of fly ash and cement mixture

6.5 FREE SWELL INDEX TEST

Influence of Fly Ash and Cement on Free Swell Index (FSI). The change of free expansion
index of different percentages of subgrade soil, fly ash, and cement mixture is shown in
the table. Therefore, we can say that the addition of fly ash and cement reduces the FSI
value, which implies a decrease in the degree of the expansiveness of the blended mixture.

The free soil index is expressed as follows :

FSI (%) = (VW-VK/VK)

where Vw and Vk are the volume of soil sample read from a graduated cylinder filled with
distilled water and kerosene, respectively.

MIX PROPORTION FREE SWELL DEGREE OF PERCENTAGE

INDEX (%) EXPANSIVENESS DECREASE (%)
Natural soil 40 High -
Soil+5% FA+2% OPC 32.1 Moderate 19.75
Soil+10% FA+4% OPC 23.2 Moderate 27.72
Soil+15% FA+6% OPC 12 Low 48.27
Soil+20% FA+8% OPC 10 Low 16.66
Table 7: Effects by fly ash and cement on the FSI value

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FSI (%)
45 40
40
35 32.1
Free swell index (%)

30
23.2
25
20
15 12
10
10
5
0
Natural soil 5% FA+2% OPC 10% FA+4% OPC 15% FA+6% OPC 20% FA+8% OPC
Mix proportion

Free swell index

Graph 5: Free swell index for fly ash and cement mixes

6.6 UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST

Influence by Fly Ash and Cement on Unconfined Compressive Strength. Unconfined
compressive strength test, referred to as an uniaxial compression test, is a special case of
triaxial test. In the triaxial test, the unconfined pressure is zero. The application of the
unconfined compression test (UCS) is to quickly estimate or evaluate the unconfined
compressive strength of soil with enough cohesion to examine the unconfined state. Unlike
fly ash and cement mixtures, the unconfined compressive strength of subgrade soil is
arranged in Table . This shows that the UCS value differs from the increase in the
percentage of fly ash and cement used to calculate the shear strength.

MIX Natural Soil+5% Soil+10% Soil+0% Soil+20%

PROPORTION soil FA+2% FA+4% FA+6% FA+8%
OPC OPC OPC OPC
UCS(Kpa) 86.8 93.2 102.6 120.51 116.5
Table 8: The effect of adding cement and fly ash on the UCS value

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UCS Test
140

120

100
UCS (Kpa)

80

60

40

20

0
Natural soil 5% FA+2% OPC 10% FA+4% OPC 15% FA+6% OPC 20% FA+8% OPC
Mix proportion

UCS

Graph 6: Comparison of unconfined compression strength for soil sample with and
without, fly ash and cement mixture.

The UCS is calculated as the maximum load divided by the original cross-sectional
area of the sample. The results provide critical insights into the soil's strength and its ability
to support structural loads, making the UCS test essential for foundation design, slope
stability analysis, and the assessment of soil improvement techniques.

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CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

Subgrade soil with cement and fly ash was investigated, and the effect of the stabilization
on the characteristics and geotechnical properties of the subgrade soil were studied.
According to the experimental results, the following conclusions can be drawn:

• Fly ash combined with cement is an effective agent of soil stabilization, based on
the results observed. In this study, expansive soil was treated with varying
percentages of fly ash 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20 percent combined with a 2, 4, 6, 8 percent
cement content to investigate their effect on geotechnical characteristics.
• The plastic limit, liquid limit, and plasticity index of the subgrade soil increase first
and then decrease with FA and cement content.
• Meanwhile, the swelling potential of soil also reduces with the inclusion of fly ash
and cement. The swelling characteristic, namely, the free swelling index, decreased
from 40% to 10%, which is 75% lower than the initial value.
• With the expansion of fly ash and cement content, the optimum moisture content
decreases, and the maximum dry bulk density increases. The optimal moisture
content is reduced, and the maximum dry unit weight increased with an increase in
fly ash and cement content. Adding fly ash and cement can be comparable with the
improved compaction effect. Therefore, the subgrade soil becomes more stable.
• With the increase of fly ash and cement content, the CBR value of soil increases.
The CBR value increases with the addition of fly ash and cement. The optimum
percentage of the mixture (15% fly ash+6% cement) gives the CBR value 10.1, the
best result for subgrade soil.
• UCS increased with a steady increase in the proportion of fly ash and cement
binder. The Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) test results clearly
demonstrate that stabilizing subgrade soils with a combination of fly ash and
cement significantly enhances the soil's compressive strength.

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Based on the comprehensive analysis results, it can be concluded that wastes (by-
products) such as fly ash and cement can be effectively used in civil engineering
construction. Meanwhile, the use of stabilized soil in this method has the dual advantages
of removal removing harmful substances from the environment and, at the same time, the
usage of inexpensive construction material for foundations and road networks.

In conclusion, the stabilization of pavement subgrade using fly ash and cement
presents a highly effective method for enhancing the engineering properties of subgrade
soils. This approach significantly improves the strength, durability, and load-bearing
capacity of the subgrade, which are critical factors for the long-term performance of
pavements.

The combined use of fly ash and cement not only addresses the mechanical
deficiencies of weak subgrade soils but also contributes to sustainable construction
practices by recycling industrial byproducts. Field and laboratory studies have consistently
demonstrated significant improvements in the unconfined compressive strength (UCS),
California Bearing Ratio (CBR), and overall stability of soils treated with fly ash and
cement.

Overall, the stabilization of pavement subgrade with fly ash and cement is a
cost-effective and environmentally beneficial solution that enhances the performance and
longevity of pavement structures, ensuring safer and more reliable transportation
infrastructure.

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CHAPTER 8

REFERENCES

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A. E. Ramaji, “A review on the soil stabilization using low-cost methods,” Journal of

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B. R. Phanikumar and T. V. Nagaraju, “Effect of fly ash and rice husk ash on index and
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J. Muthuramalingam and L. Sing, “Experimental studies on treated sub-base soil with

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C. Fan, B. Wang, and T. Zhang, “Review on cement stabilization/solidification of

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C. McDowell, Stabilization of Soils with Lime, Lime-Fly ash, and Other Lime Reactive
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P. Indiramma, C. Sudharani, and S. Needhidasan, “Utilization of fly ash and lime to

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