Subject: A-level Physics Topic: Practical skills Year Group: 12/13

Uncertainties Gradients Key Vocabulary

1 Accurate Measurements close to the true value.
1 In readings Uncertainty in a reading is no smaller than plus 1 ∆𝑦
or minus half the smallest division of equipment. 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
∆𝑥 2 They cause readings to be spread about the
E.g. for a thermometer with 1 oC graduations
true value due to results varying in an
the uncertainty would be ± 0.5 oC. Draw a triangle on your graph Random error
2 unpredictable way from one measurement
to show how you calculated to another.
For digital equipment such as a voltmeter the the gradient.
uncertainty is often taken to be the same Make the triangle as big as 3 They cause measurements to vary by a
Systematic
number of decimal places as the value e.g. 2.41 possible (at least 8 by 8 cm). consistent amount each time a
error
± 0.01 V. measurement is made.
3 Sig figs – how many sig figs can you read each axis to? Quote
In For measurements (e.g. ruler measurements) your gradient to the lowest of these two numbers. 4 Any indication that a measuring system gives
2 a false reading when the true value of a
measurements there is an uncertainty of ± 0.5 mm at either Zero error
end of the ruler so the overall uncertainty is ± measured quantity is zero. May result in a
4 Gradient units are given by y-units divided by x-units. systematic uncertainty.
1 mm.

5 If the graph has a curved line 5 Precise measurements are ones that have
If measurements are repeated the uncertainty is Precision
then you will need to a draw a little spread about the mean value.
given by half the range of the measured values. tangent to determine the
gradient of the curve at a The values taken as the difference between
3 Percentage 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦
particular point. the judgements of two values. E.g. ruler,
% 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 = × 100 Measurement
uncertainty 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 Vernier calliper, micrometer, protractor,
analogue meter, stop clock.

The value found from a single judgement

Combining uncertainties Reading
when using a piece of equipment. E.g.
thermometer, top pan balance, measuring
1 a=b+c
Add the absolute uncertainties cylinder, digital voltmeter.
Δa = Δb + Δc 6 To find the uncertainty in a gradient, two lines should be drawn
on the graph. One should be the “best” line of best fit. The 6 A measurement is repeatable if the original
2 Add percentage uncertainties second line should be the steepest or shallowest gradient line experimenter repeats the investigation using
a=bxc Repeatable
εa = εb + εc of best fit possible from the data. same method and equipment and obtains
the same results.
3 a=b/c
Add percentage uncertainties
εa = εb + εc 7 A measurement is reproducible if the
investigation is repeated by another person,
4 Multiply the percentage uncertainties by the Reproducible or by using different equipment or
a = bc power techniques, and the same results are
εa = c × εb obtained.

5 Absolute uncertainties (denoted by Δ) have the same units as the 8 This is the smallest change in the quantity
quantity. Percentage uncertainties (denoted by ε) have no units. being measured (input) of a measuring
Resolution
instrument that gives a perceptible change in
6 You may be required to change a % uncertainty back into an the reading.
absolute uncertainty.
Example: 9 The value that would be obtained in an ideal
2.41 V ± 5 % is equal to 2.41 V ± 0.12 V since 5 % of 2.41 x (5/100) True value
measurement.
= 0.12.
10 The interval within which the true value can
Uncertainty
be expected to lie.
 Subject: A-level Physics Topic: Practical skills Year Group: 12/13
Tables and significant figures Equation of a straight line Key Vocabulary
1 Accurate Measurements close to the true value.
1 y Dependent variable
1 Tables should have clear headings with units indicated using a
forward slash before the unit. The body of the table should not m Gradient 2 They cause readings to be spread about the
contain units. 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 true value due to results varying in an
Random error
x Independent variable unpredictable way from one measurement
to another.
2 Data should be written in tables to the same number of significant c y-intercept
figures. This number should be determined by the resolution of the 3 They cause measurements to vary by a
In the practical paper you will often be given an equation you Systematic
device being used to measure the data. 2 error
consistent amount each time a
Example: A length measured to be 60 cm using a ruler with mm have never seen before along with a graph. You will need to measurement is made.
graduations should be recorded as 600 mm, 60.0 cm or 0.600 m, manipulate the equation you are given into the form y = mx + c.
and not just 60 cm. 4 Any indication that a measuring system gives
3 Example: a false reading when the true value of a
Rearrange so that Zero error
measured quantity is zero. May result in a
4𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 is on systematic uncertainty.
3 When doing calculations involving several measured quantities the
the LHS of the equation
answer should always be given to the same number of significant Precise measurements are ones that have
figures as the data with the lowest number of significant figures.
(since this is 5 Precision
on the y-axis). little spread about the mean value.

The values taken as the difference between

the judgements of two values. E.g. ruler,
Measurement
Graphs Vernier calliper, micrometer, protractor,
analogue meter, stop clock.

1 Never draw axes using difficult scaling e.g. 3, 7, 11 etc. Then compare to y = mx + c The value found from a single judgement
equation to see what the when using a piece of equipment. E.g.
gradient and y-intercept Reading
2 Axes should always be labelled with the variable being measured and thermometer, top pan balance, measuring
represent. cylinder, digital voltmeter.
the units. These should be separated with a forward slash. Axes
should not be labelled with the units on each scale marking.
So here the gradient 6 A measurement is repeatable if the original
represents λ and the y- experimenter repeats the investigation using
3 The plots should cover at least half of the grid supplied for the intercept represents b.
Repeatable
same method and equipment and obtains
graph. the same results.

3 7 A measurement is reproducible if the

Read ahead in the question to see if you are going to need to y-
investigation is repeated by another person,
intercept as it might be appropriate for you to include the origin.
Reproducible or by using different equipment or
techniques, and the same results are
5 If you need the y-intercept and the origin is not shown on the graph, obtained.
a) Determine the gradient of your line (m).
b) Pick a point on the graph (x,y) and sub the values you read off 8 This is the smallest change in the quantity
into the equation y = mx + c . being measured (input) of a measuring
Resolution
instrument that gives a perceptible change in
6 Error bars • plot the data point at the mean value the reading.
• calculate the range of the data, ignoring any
anomalies 9 The value that would be obtained in an ideal
True value
• add error bars with lengths equal to half the measurement.
range on either side of the data point.
10 The interval within which the true value can
Uncertainty
be expected to lie.