LESSON 4: REVIEW OF RELATED reviewed.

It specifically stresses on the

LITERATURE AND STUDIES subject matter reviewed. 4. Experimental Research Design: It
aims to establish cause-and-effect
GAP/S BRIDGED BY THE PRESENT relationships by controlling for
Related Literature as a class refers to STUDY extraneous factors.
books, periodicals, magazines, Research/thesis identifies the variables
newspapers, legal reports and other which were not explored by other 5. Survey Research Design: It is used
published materials containing facts, laws, researchers, thus, became the focus of the to gather information about attitudes,
theories and other documented investigation. opinions, behaviors, and
observations. characteristics of a population.

Related Studies refer to theses, LESSON 6: METHODOLOGY 6. Case Study Research Design:
dissertations and research studies A. METHODS OF RESEARCH involves an in-depth investigation of a
substantially characterized by the presence particular individual, group, or
of the following part: research problem, Research design constitutes the blueprint phenomenon within its real-life context.
hypotheses, objectives, related literature, for the collection, measurement and
methodology, findings, conclusions, analysis of data 7. Qualitative Research Design:
recommendations and bibliography. Qualitative research focuses on
exploring phenomena in depth, often
General Guidelines in Citing Related Research design is the plan and structure using methods such as interviews,
Literature and Studies of the investigation conceived so as to observations, and analysis of texts or
obtain answers to research questions. artifacts.
The following are the characteristics of
related literature and studies that the Research design is synonymous with the 8. Quantitative Research Design:
researcher may cite (Calderon, et.al.): term methods of research. This refers to a Quantitative research involves
1. The materials must be as recent collecting and analyzing numerical
classified or categorized procedure for
as possible. data to test hypotheses and generalize
conducting research. findings.
2. Materials must be objective and
unbiased as possible. 1. Descriptive Research Design: This
3. Materials must be relevant to the design aims to describe systematically, B. DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND
study. factually. It seeks to answer questions SOURCES OF DATA
4. Materials must not be too few and about "what is".
not too many. DATA are collection of numbers,
2. Correlational Research Design: the quantities, facts, or records used as bases
Synthesis of the Reviewed Related investigator explores the significance
Literature and Studies of the relationship between two or SOURCES OF DATA
more factors or characteristics
This part of the chapter includes a brief Data are classified according to source as
3. Explanatory Research Design:
summary of the literature and studies follows:
Explanatory research seeks to clarify
how and why a relationship exists.
 1. Primary data. Primary data are typographical mistakes which often
those gathered from primary arise from transcription of the DIFFERENT TOOLS OR RESEARCH
sources. The primary sources are figures from the original or primary TECHNIQUES USED IN GENERATING
as follows: source. DATA
2. The primary data usually includes One of the most important components of
a. Individual person a copy of the schedule and a a research design is the tool for generating
b. Organized group or description of the procedures used data. Among these are:
organizations such as in the selection of the type of
1. questionnaire
associations, fraternities, sample and in collecting the data.
2. interviews
schools, community, etc. This gives the user an idea of
3. observation
c. Established practices such accuracy, applicability and
4. documents/records
as marriage, religious limitation of survey results.
rites, legal system, 3. The primary data are usually QUESTIONNAIRE is the most commonly
economic system broken down into finer used tools to generate data. Sometimes it
2. Secondary data. Secondary data classifications. The secondary data is called survey form.
are those gathered from secondary often omit part of combining
sources. The secondary sources categories such as showing 1. Personally-administered –
are as follows: barrios instead of sitios. confined to local area and the
a. Books including Advantages of Secondary Data organization is willing and able to
dictionaries, encyclopedia, 1. Secondary data are more assemble groups of employees to
almanacs etc. convenient to use because they respond to the questionnaire at a
b. Articles published in are already condensed and workplace.
professional journals, organized.
magazines, newspapers 2. Analysis and interpretation are 2. Mailed Questionnaires
and other publications done more easily. Advantages:
c. Unpublished theses and 3. Libraries make secondary data 1. a wide geographical area
dissertations and other more easily accessible. can be covered in the
studies survey.
d. Monographs, manuscripts A. DATA COLLECTION METHODS 2. respondents are given
e. All other second-hand AND SOURCES OF DATA their own free time and
sources (Secondary data DATA are collection of numbers, convenience to complete
are verbal or written data) quantities, facts, or records used as bases the questionnaire
for drawing conclusions or making Disadvantages:
Advantages of Primary Data inferences (Calderon, et.al.). These are 1. return rates are not high.
1. The primary data frequently give what the research is searching for and 2. any doubt the respondent
detailed definitions of terms and which are subjected to analysis using might have cannot be
statistical units used in the survey. statistical procedures, and interpretation, clarified.
The secondary data have usually so that inferences, and principles of 3. with the low return rates, it
little or no explanatory notes and generalizations are drawn. is difficult to determine the
may contain clerical and representative-ness of the
 sample because those 6. Rewriting the questionnaire. 16. Makes the respondents
who responded may be 7. Pre-testing the questionnaire. anonymous.
totally different from the 8. Writing the questionnaire in its final
population they were form.
General Appearance or "Get-Up" of the
intended to represent. Guidelines in the Formulation of Questionnaire
Questions for a Questionnaire.
Criteria of a Good Questionnaire
The following are the useful guidelines in INTERVIEW is feasible when a personal
1. The language must be clear the construction of questions for a interaction is available.
2. The content of the question and questionnaire:
time period involved must be 1. Structured interview – In other words,
1. Make all directions clear and the questions, their sequence and their
specific
unequivocal. wordings are fixed.
3. The question should show
2. Use correct grammar.
singleness of purpose 2. Unstructured interview – although the
3. Make all questions unequivocal.
4. The question must be free from interviewer has a list of questions, he does
assumptions. 4. Avoid asking biased questions. not need to follow the order in which they
5. The question should be free from 5. Objectify the response. come. This is more flexible and open.
suggestions. 6. Relate all questions to the topic
6. The question should have linguistic under study. OBSERVATION – Involves the researcher
completeness and grammatical watching the research situation.
7. Create categories or classes for
consistency.
approximate answers. Two Types of Observation
Kinds of Questionnaire 8. Group the questions in logical 1. Unstructured observation – is often
1. Open-ended questionnaire –This sequence. referred to as non-selective method of
leaves the respondents to answer 9. Create sufficient number of observation would be a complete account
the question in his own way. response categories. of an event.
2. Closed-ended questionnaire – 10. Word carefully or avoid questions 2. Structured observation – the
the options or answers are given that deal with confidential or researcher knows what aspects of
or enumerated and the embarrassing information the group activity are relevant for
respondents simply check or his purpose.
11. Explain and illustrate difficult
encircle his answers. questions. A. SAMPLING
Construction of a Questionnaire. There TECHNIQUES/METHOD
12. State all questions affirmatively.
are some steps in the preparation of a A sample is the small group that the
questionnaire, some of which are the 13. Make as many questions as would researcher wants to observe. Also the term
following (Calderon et.al.): supply adequate information for sampling refers to strategy by which the
the study. researcher takes a smaller group of the
1. Doing library search
14. Add a catch-all word or phrase of population or universe and makes
2. Talking to knowledgeable people.
multiple response questions. generalization for the whole population.
3. Mastering the guidelines.
4. Writing the questionnaire. 15. Place all spaces for replies at the
5. Editing the questionnaire. left side. Sampling Concepts and Terminologies
 Element is that unit about which parameter. The maximum 3. Convenience sampling. This is
information is collected and which sampling error is 5%. the process of picking out people
provides the basis for analysis.  Representative sampling. A in the most convenient and fastest
While selecting the families to be sample will be representative of way to immediately get their
included in the sample, they are the population from which it is reactions to a certain issue.
called elements but when the data selected.
have already been gathered and  Sampling stratum is that group, Types of Probability Sampling
analyzed, the families are called section or category of elements 1. Pure Random Sampling. This
units of data analysis. from which selection is made in type of sampling is one in which
 Population is the theoretically some stage of sampling. everyone in the population has an
specific aggregation of the equal chance of being selected or
elements. This is also called included in the sample.
universe. Types of Sampling 2. Systematic Sampling. In this
 Study population is that
1. Probability sampling – In technique, every nth name in a list may be
aggregation of the elements from
probability sampling, the sample is selected to be included in the sample.
which the sample is actually
a proportion (a certain percent) of The formula applied is: K=N/n
selected.
the population and such sample is
 Samples are the elements where: K = desired interval
selected from the population by
(people) who are actually selected N = population
means of some systematic way in
to participate or to be the subject
which every element of the n = sample size
of the study.
population has a chance of being 3. Stratified Random Sampling. It is the
 Sampling unit is the element or
included in the sample. process of selecting randomly, samples
set of elements considered for
2. Non-probability sampling – In from the strata of the population used in
selection in some state of
non-probability sampling, the the study.
sampling. second sampling unit,
sample is not a proportion of the 4. Purposive Sampling. Purposive
 Sampling frame is the actual list
population and there is no system sampling is determining the target
of sampling units from which the
for selecting the sample. population, those to be involved in the
sample, or some stage of the
sample, (single- stage sampling). study.
 Variable is a set of exclusive Types of Non-Probability Sampling 5. Cluster Sampling. is used when
attribute 1. Accidental sampling. In this type of the population is so big or the
 Parameter is the summary sampling, there is no system of selection geographical area of the research
description of a given variable in a but only those whom the researcher or is so large.
population. The mean income, the interviewer meets by chance are included
mean age of all families are in the Determination of Sample Size
parameters. The age distribution of 2. Quota sampling. In this type of 1. Slovin's Formula
all people is a parameter. sampling, specified numbers of
 Sampling error is the degree of n = N / (1+Ne^2)
persons of certain types are
error of a sample statistics when where: n = sample size
included in the sample.
compared with the sample N = population size
 e = desired margin or Ordinal data are rank-ordered, data with A. Assumptions. To be valid, all
error respect to a trait of achievement or statistical tests are based on
2. Gay (1976) offers some minimum performance. certain assumptions that must be
acceptable sizes depending on the Interval data and ratio data are data that met. These assumptions usually
type of research as follows: can be placed along a continuum or scale entail considerations such as the
a. Descriptive research - 10 percent wherein distances between points are following:
of the population. For smaller equal feature of equality of 1. The assumed scale of
population, a minimum of 20% measurement of the
A statistical procedure is usually classified
may be required. variable.
as either descriptive or inferential.
b. Correlational research - 30 2. The form of the
Descriptive Statistics. The descriptive statistical distribution.
subjects
aspect of statistics allows researchers to 3. The method of sampling.
c. Ex post facto research or causal
summarize large quantities of data using 4. The sampling size.
comparative research - 15 subjects
measures that are easily understood by an
or groups
observer or a reader. Hypotheses.
d. Experimental research - 15
subjects per group some The most commonly used descriptive The whole process of hypothesis
authorities believe that 30 per measures are: measures of central testing follows an indirect
group should be considered tendency (mean, median and mode), of approach or what some authors
minimum. dispersion/variability (range, average call proof by contradiction.
deviation, variance, standard deviation),
skewness and kurtosis. Two Types of Error
The ultimate objective of any
Inferential Statistics. The other aspect of hypothesis testing situation is to
B. STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF statistics is making decisions or inferences make a decision; in particular, to
DATA about the characteristics by interpreting decide whether to reject the null
Statistics is efficient because it provides a data patterns. hypothesis (Ho) in favor of the
systematic structure for the organization of alternative hypothesis (Ha). The
research data. Hypothesis Testing researcher should bear in mind
that the decision would be based
The procedures in hypothesis testing on the information derived from a
The Research Question as a include those which are useful in situations sample.
Consideration. The nature of your where we are interested in making a
research question or problem overrides decision about a parameter intie, rather
almost all other considerations in choosing than in obtaining an estimate of its value. The Test Statistic. At this point, let us
a statistical test. assume that a random sample was
obtained from the population of interest.
The Nature of Raw Data. Traditionally, Elements of a Statistical Test
three items in connection with the nature of There are five basic elements of statistical
raw data are considered in the choice of P-Value. After computing for the test
tests of hypotheses about a parameter:
statistics. statistic from the sample data, a measure
assumptions, hypotheses, test statistic, p- is obtained of how unusual from the
value and conclusions.
sample data, a measure is obtained or how  the parts sections of your
unusual this observed value is, relative to instrument
what would be expected for its value is  the validity and reliability of the
relative to what would be expected for its instrument
value.
Conclusions. In reporting the results of DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE
statistical tests, many researchers make Discuss the following:
use of the p-value instead of selecting a  Preliminaries. Letter to the
prior a (alpha). barangay captain/dean/manager,
respondents, etc.
 Orientation/briefing of
enumerators/interviewers
 Distribution system
 Retrieval rate
 Follow-up activities to achieve the
LESSON 7: WRITING CHAPTER 3
desired retrieval rate
(METHODOLOGY)
METHOD OF RESEARCH STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA
Research Design is the research plan or  Indicate the statistical tools of the
scheme to be implemented in answering study. Identify which part of the
the research problems. research problem will make use of
the specified statistical tool.
POPULATION, SAMPLE SIZE AND
SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
Discuss the following:
 the study population and sample
how the sample size was arrived at
 the sampling technique used and
actual selection of sample

DESCRIPTION OF RESPONDENTS
 Discuss the
characteristics/description of the
sample

RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
Discuss the following:
 the construction of your instrument