Edexcel A Level Physics Your notes

Forces & Momentum

Contents
Force & Acceleration
Mass, Weight & Gravitational Field Strength
Core Practical 1: Investigating the Acceleration of Freefall
Newton's Third Law of Motion
Momentum
Conservation of Linear Momentum

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 1
 Force & Acceleration
Your notes
Newton's First Law of Motion
Newton's First Law states:
A body will remain at rest or move with constant velocity unless acted on by a
resultant force
The law is used to explain why things move with a constant (or uniform) velocity
If the forces acting on an object are balanced, then the resultant force is zero
The forces to the left = the forces to the right
The forces up = the forces down
The velocity (i.e. speed and direction) can only change if a resultant force acts on the
object

Worked Example
If there are no external forces acting on the car, other than friction, and it is moving at a
constant velocity, what is the value of the frictional force F?

Answer:
Step 1: Identify the prompt (or 'clue') word in the question to choose which rules to
apply
The clue in this question is 'constant velocity'
This means that forces are perfectly balanced in every direction
Step 2: Calculate the missing force
For constant velocity sum of forces,
ΣF = 0

F=D
Step 3: Write the answer including units
F=6kN

Newton's Second Law of Motion

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 2
 Newton's Second Law states that:
The acceleration of an object with constant mass is directly proportional to the Your notes
resultant force on it

An unbalanced force on a body means it experiences a resultant force

If the resultant force is along the direction of motion, the body will speed up
(accelerate) or slow down (decelerate)
If the resultant force is at an angle, the body will change direction
Since resultant force is being considered, the equation is often written
ΣF = ma

The use of Σ (Sigma) signifies that F is the sum of the forces rather than just one force
acting alone

Worked Example
An object with a mass of 750 g accelerates in a straight line at 11 m s−2.
Determine the resultant force acting on the object.
Answer:
Step 1: Write down the known quantities
Mass, m = 750 g = 0.750 kg
Acceleration, a = 11 m s−2.
Step 2: Identify the equation needed and substitute in the values
ΣF = ma = 0.75 × 11 = 8.25

Step 3: Write the final answer using the correct significant figures and units
ΣF = 8.3 N

Terminal Velocity
In reality moving bodies always do have some resultant force acting on them, for
example, due to friction caused by;

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 3
 Movement through air or water (drag forces)
Movement across a surface (such as tyres on the road) Your notes
Moving parts within the object itself (such as the engine of a car, or the bearings in a
wheel)
When the drag forces become equal to the driving force the velocity reaches its
maximum value and the object is said to be moving at terminal velocity
'Terminal' means final, meaning there can be no more increases in velocity after it has
been reached
Terminal velocity is reached when the forces in the direction of motion are balanced by
the forces opposing motion
This is often used in relation to the case of a skydiver falling in freefall, although it can
apply to any situation where drag forces apply
In the case of the skydiver the force in the direction of motion is their weight, which
remains constant
As the skydiver accelerates air resistance increases, until the opposing forces
balance

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 4
 Your notes

Worked Example
Suggest two ways in which a designer could increase the maximum velocity of a car.
Answer:
Step 1: Identify exactly what the question is asking for
The question asks about 'maximum' (terminal) velocity, this occurs when all forces
are balanced
To increase the terminal velocity the car either needs to
Increase the forces in the forwards direction, or
Decrease the forces in the backwards direction (the ones which are
opposing motion)
Step 2: Write down the forces affecting the motion
In the forwards direction the only force is the thrust from the engine
The forces opposing motion include:
Friction between the tyres and the road
Air resistance
Friction in the moving parts of the engine
Friction in the moving parts of the wheel system (bearings)
Step 3: Suggest changes the designer could make
Increase the forwards thrust by increasing power from the engine
Reduce opposing forces by
Using tyres with less grip
Making the car body more streamlined
Reducing friction in the engine (using better oil for example)
Reduce friction in the moving parts with smoother surfaces or better
lubricants

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 5
Examiner Tips and Tricks Your notes
The direction you consider positive is your choice, as long as the signs of the numbers
(positive or negative) are consistent throughout your answer. A clear, labelled diagram
will tell both you and the Examiner which direction is positive, so nothing gets mixed
up.
Having said that, there is a general rule to consider the direction the object is initially
travelling in as positive. Therefore all vectors in the direction of motion will be positive
and opposing vectors, such as drag forces, will be negative.
If you do get an acceleration in your answer with a negative sign, you have found that
the object is slowing down. This is the Super Power of Physics equations!

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 6
 Mass, Weight & Gravitational Field Strength
Your notes
Mass, Weight & Gravitational Field Strength
Mass
Mass is the measure of the amount of matter in an object
Consequently, this is the property of an object that resists change in motion
The greater the mass of a body, the smaller the change produced by an applied force
The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (kg)

Weight
Weight is the force a body experiences due to being in a gravitational field, it is given by
the equation
W = mg
Where
m = mass (kg)
g = gravitational field strength (N kg−1)

Gravitational Field Strength

Gravitational field strength is the force per kilogram that acts on an object, it is found
using the equation

F
g=
m
Where
F = weight (N)
m = mass (kg)
On the Earth's surface the average gravitational field strength = 9.81 N kg−1

Constant Acceleration in Freefall

Freefall is used to describe falling objects where the only force is weight
Drag forces are ignored
By considering freefall we can see that all objects must fall with exactly the same
value for acceleration, regardless of their mass or weight

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 7
 Your notes

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 8
 Core Practical 1: Investigating the Acceleration of Freefall
Your notes
Acceleration of Freefall Using Electromagnets &
Light Gates
Aim of the Investigations
The overall aim of these investigations is to calculate the value of the acceleration due to
gravity, g
The first two experiments both use the method of dropping an object and either timing
its fall, or finding the final velocity
Both use the SUVAT equations to produce a straight line graph
The third experiment, using the ramp and trolley, is based on the inclined ramp
experiment done by Galileo when he proved that all objects fall at the same rate,
regardless of weight

Electromagnet Method
Variables
Independent variable = height, h
Dependent variable = time, t
Control variables:
Same object being dropped
Same electromagnet and trap door switching system

Apparatus
Metre rule, ball bearing, electromagnet, electronic timer, trapdoor, plumb line

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 9
 Your notes

Apparatus used to measure g using the electromagnet method

Resolution of measuring equipment:
Metre ruler = 1 mm
Timer = 0.01 s

Method
By using the plumb line to find the vertical drop, position the trap door switch directly
underneath the electromagnet.
Check that the ball bearing triggers both the trap door switch and the timer when it is
released.
When the equipment is set up correctly;
As the current to the magnet switches off, the ball drops and the timer starts
When the ball hits the trapdoor, the timer stops
The reading on the timer indicates the time it takes for the ball to fall a distance, h
Measure the distance from the bottom of the ball bearing to the trap door switch with a
metre ruler and record this distance as height, h

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 10
 Increase h (eg. by 5 cm) and repeat the experiment. At least 5 – 10 values for h should be
used
Your notes
Repeat this method at least 3 times for each value of h and calculate an average t for
each
Table of Results

Analysis of Results
The acceleration is found by using one of the SUVAT equations and rearranging it to
create a straight line graph (y = mx + c)
The known quantities are
Displacement s = h
Time taken = t
Initial velocity = u
Acceleration a = g
The missing SUVAT value is final velocity, v
Therefore use

1 2
s = ut + at
2
Replace a with g and s with h and then rearrange to fit the equation of a straight line

1 2
h= gt (since initial velocity, u = 0)
2

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 11
 The above equation shows that if h is plotted on the y-axis and t2 on the x-axis the graph
1
will produce a straight line with gradient = g Your notes
2
Evaluating the experiment
Systematic Errors:
Residue magnetism after the electromagnet is switched off may cause t to be recorded
as longer than it should be
Random Errors:
Large uncertainty in h from using a metre rule with a precision of 1 mm
Parallax error from reading h
The ball may not fall accurately down the centre of the trap door
Random errors are reduced through repeating the experiment for each value of h at least
3-5 times and finding an average time, t

Safety Considerations
The electromagnetic requires current
Care must be taken to not have any water near it
To reduce the risk of electrocution, only switch on the current to the electromagnet
once everything is set up
A cushion or a soft surface must be used to catch the ball-bearing so it doesn’t roll off /
damage the surface
The tall clamp stand needs to be attached to a surface with a G clamp to keep it stable

Card and Light Gates Method

Variables
Independent variable = height, h
Dependent variable = final velocity, v
Control variables:
Same card being dropped
All other equipment is the same

Apparatus
Metre rule, clear tube with large enough diameter for card to fall cleanly through it, card,
blu-tack, light gate, data logger, plumb line

Method

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 12
 Your notes

Clamp the clear tube vertically using the plumb line as a guide
Attach the light gate about 20 cm above the bench
Clamp the metre ruler vertically next to the tube so that the vertical distance from the
top of the tube to the light gate can be accurately measured
Record the distance between the light gate and the top of the tube as height, h
Cut a piece of card to approximately 10 cm, measure this length precisely and enter it
into the data logger as the distance
Weight the card slightly at one end (a large paperclip or small pieces of blu-tack can
be used)
Hold the card at the top of the tube and release it so that it falls inside the tube
The data logger will record velocity
Repeat this measurement from the same height two more times
Move the light gate up by 5 cm, record the new height, h, and drop the card three more
times, recording the velocity each time
Repeat for five more values of height

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 13
 Your notes

Analysis of Results
The acceleration is found by using one of the SUVAT equations and rearranging it to
create a straight line graph (y = mx + c)
The known quantities are
Displacement s = h
Initial velocity = u
Final velocity = v
Acceleration a = g
The missing SUVAT value is time, t
Therefore use

v 2 = u 2 + 2as
Replace a with g and s with h and then rearrange to fit the equation of a straight line

v 2 = 2gh (since initial velocity, u = 0)

The above equation shows that if v2 is plotted on the y-axis and 2h on the x-axis the
graph will produce a straight line with gradient = g

Evaluating the experiment

Systematic Errors:
The metre ruler needs to be fixed vertically and close to the tube
All height measurements are taken at eye level to avoid parallax errors
Random Errors:
Large uncertainty in h from using a metre rule with a precision of 1 mm

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 14
 Parallax error from reading h
The card may fall against the sides of the tube, slowing it down Your notes
Dropping the card from the top of the tube can introduce parallax errors
Random errors are reduced through repeating the experiment for each value of h at least
3-5 times and finding an average time, t
Safety Considerations
The tall clamp stand needs to be attached to a surface with a G clamp to keep it stable

Ball Bearing Method

Variables
Independent variable = height, h
Dependent variable = time, t
Control variables:
Same steel ball–bearing
Same electromagnet
Distance between ball-bearing and top of the glass tube

Equipment List

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Metre ruler = 1 mm

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 15
 Timer = 0.01 s
Method
Your notes

Apparatus set up to measure the distance and time for the ball bearing to drop
This method is an example of the procedure for varying the height the ball-bearing falls and
determining the time taken – this is just one possible relationship that can be tested
1. Set up the apparatus by attaching the electromagnet to the top of a tall clamp stand. Do
not switch on the current till everything is set up
2. Place the glass tube directly underneath the electromagnet, leaving space for the ball-
bearing. Make sure it faces directly downwards and not at an angle
3. Attach both light gates around the glass tube at a starting distance of around 10 cm
4. Measure this distance between the two light gates as the height, h with a metre ruler
5. Place the cushion directly underneath the end of the glass tube to catch the ball-bearing
when it falls through
6. Switch the current on the electromagnet and place the ball-bearing directly underneath
so it is attracted to it
7. Turn the current to the electromagnet off. The ball should drop
8. When the ball drops through the first light gate, the timer starts
9. When the ball drops through the second light gate, the timer stops
10. Read the time on the timer and record this as time, t

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 16
11. Increase h (eg. by 5 cm) and repeat the experiment. At least 5 – 10 values for h should be
used
Your notes
12. Repeat this method at least 3 times for each value of h and calculate an average t for
each
An example of a table with some possible heights would look like this:

Example Table of Results

Analysis of Results
The acceleration is found by using one of the SUVAT equations
The known quantities are
Displacement s = h
Time taken = t
Initial velocity u = u
Acceleration a = g
The following SUVAT equation can be rearranged:

Substituting in the values and rearranging it as a straight line equation gives:

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 17
 Your notes

Comparing this to the equation of a straight line: y = mx + c

y = 2h/t (m s-1)
x=t
Gradient, m = a = g (m s–2)
y-intercept = 2u
1. Plot a graph of the 2h/t against t
2. Draw a line of best fit
3. Calculate the gradient - this is the acceleration due to gravity g
4. Assess the uncertainties in the measurements of h and t. Carry out any calculations
needed to determine the uncertainty in g due to these

The graph of 2h/t against t produces a straight-line graph where the acceleration is the
gradient
Evaluating the Experiment
Systematic Errors:
Residue magnetism after the electromagnet is switched off may cause t to be recorded
as longer than it should be
Random Errors:
Large uncertainty in h from using a metre rule with a precision of 1 mm
Parallax error from reading h

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 18
 The ball may not fall accurately down the centre of each light gate
Random errors are reduced through repeating the experiment for each value of h at least Your notes
3-5 times and finding an average time, t
Safety Considerations
The electromagnetic requires current
Care must be taken to not have any water near it
To reduce the risk of electrocution, only switch on the current to the electromagnet
once everything is set up
A cushion or a soft surface must be used to catch the ball-bearing so it doesn’t roll off /
damage the surface
The tall clamp stand needs to be attached to a surface with a G clamp so it stays rigid

Acceleration of Freefall Using a Ramp & Trolley

This method of finding acceleration due to freefall uses the SUVAT equations, but
applies them to a trolley rolling down an inclined ramp.

Variables
Independent variable = velocity of the trolley, v
Dependent variable = time, t
Control variables:
Height of ramp must be constant
Same trolley being used

Apparatus
Inclined ramp
Trolley with ≅10 cm card attached
Light gate and computer or datalogger
Stopwatch
Block to prevent slipping

Method

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 19
 Your notes

Carefully cut a piece of card so that it is between 5 – 10 cm in length, and has a height
which can break the beam of a light gate as the trolley passes through.
Measure and record the length, d, of the card
Record this in the datalogging software
Attach the card to the trolley and roll the trolley past the light gate checking the beam is
broken by the card
Adjust the height of the light gate as needed.

Start the timing on the software, making sure it is set to record instantaneous velocity
Release the trolley and simultaneously start the stopwatch.
As the card passes the light gate stops the stopwatch
record the time, t
Repeat procedure 3 times, discard anomalies and calculate mean t

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 20
 This reduces errors
Repeat the procedure at least 5 times, varying the height the trolley is dropped from for
each reading Your notes
This causes a variation in v which is recorded by the light gate, and t which is
recorded using the stopwatch.

Analysis of Results
The acceleration is found by using one of the SUVAT equations and rearranging it to
create a straight line graph (y = mx + c)
The known quantities are
Time taken, t = average t
Initial velocity, u = 0 (the trolley starts from rest)
Final velocity v = v (recorded by the light-gate)
Acceleration a = g
The missing SUVAT value is displacement, s
Therefore use

v = u + at
This matches the equation of a straight line
y = velocity, v
x = average time, t
gradient = acceleration, a

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 21
 y-intercept = initial velocity, u
Plot a graph of v against average t
Your notes
The gradient will be the acceleration
This acceleration is provided by gravity, and so will give a value for g
Evaluating the experiment
Systematic Errors:
Make sure for each repeat reading the trolley is released from the same point
The card should be measured carefully so value d is accurate
Random Errors:
Large uncertainty in d from using a ruler with a precision of 1 mm
Reaction time when starting and stopping the stopwatch
Random errors are reduced through repeating the experiment for each value of v at
least 3 times and finding an average time, t
The card may hit the light gate
Discard a result where this occurs
They trolley may not travel straight down the ramp
Discard a result where this occurs

Safety Considerations
The trolley may fly off the end of the ramp
Use a block or tray at the bottom of the ramp to prevent this

Examiner Tips and Tricks

This experiment can be modified by using the light gate to record time through the
gate.
You can then use the time from the light gate to calculate the velocity, v of the trolley
by calculating with v = d/t where d is the length of the card and the time is the time on
the light gate.
However, most light-gate software should allow you to eliminate this step.

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 22
 Newton's Third Law of Motion
Your notes
Newton's Third Law of Motion
Newton’s third law of motion states:
Whenever two bodies interact, the forces they exert on each other are equal in size,
act in opposite directions, and are of the same type
Newton’s third law explains the following important principles about forces:
All forces arise in pairs – if object A exerts a force on object B, then object B exerts
an equal and opposite force on object A
Force pairs are of the same type – for example, if object A exerts a gravitational
force on object B, then object B exerts an equal and opposite gravitational force on
object A
Newton’s third law explains the forces that enable someone to walk
The image below shows an example of a pair of equal and opposite forces acting on two
objects (the ground and a foot):

Newton's Third Law: The foot pushes the ground backwards, and the ground pushes the
foot forwards
One force is from the foot that pushes the ground backwards
The other is an equal and opposite force from the ground that pushes the foot forwards

Worked Example
A physics textbook is at rest on a dining room table.

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 23
Eugene draws a free body force diagram for the book and labels the forces acting on
it.
Your notes

Eugene says the diagram is an example of Newton's third law of motion. William
disagrees with Eugene and says the diagram is an example of Newton's first law of
motion. By referring to the free-body force diagram, state and explain who is correct.
Answer:
Step 1: State Newton's first law of motion
Objects will remain at rest, or move with a constant velocity unless acted on by a
resultant force
Step 2: State Newton's third law of motion
Whenever two bodies interact, the forces they exert on each other are equal and
opposite
Step 3: Check if the diagram satisfies the two conditions for identifying Newton's
third law
In each case, Newton's third law identifies pairs of equal and opposite forces, of
the same type, acting on two different objects
The diagram only involves one object
Furthermore, the forces acting on the object are different types of force - one is a
contact force (from the table) and the other is a gravitational force on the book
(from the Earth) - its weight
The image below shows how to apply Newton's third law correctly in this case,
considering the pairs of forces acting:

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 24
 Your notes

Step 4: Conclude which person is correct

In this case, William is correct
The free-body force diagram in the question is an example of Newton's first law
The book is at rest because the two forces acting on it are balanced - i.e. there is
no resultant force

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Remember that pairs of equal and opposite forces in Newton's third law act on two
different objects. It's a really common mistake to confuse Newton's third law with
Newton's first law. That also means it's a really common exam question, which often
uses a version of the example below.
Applying this check will help you distinguish between them.
Newton's first law involves forces acting on a single object.
These differences are shown in Scenario 1 (Newton's first law) vs. Scenario 2 (Newton's
third law)

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 25
 Your notes

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 26
Momentum
Your notes
Defining Momentum
Linear momentum (p) is defined as the product of mass and velocity

Momentum is the product of mass and velocity

Momentum is a vector quantity - it has both a magnitude and a direction
This means it can have a negative or positive value
If an object travelling to the right has positive momentum, an object travelling to the
left (in the opposite direction) has a negative momentum
The SI unit for momentum is kg m s−1

When the ball is travelling in the opposite direction, its velocity is negative. Since
momentum = mass × velocity, its momentum is also negative

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 27
Worked Example Your notes
Which object has the most momentum?

Answer:

Both the tennis ball and the brick have the same momentum
Even though the brick is much heavier than the ball, the ball is travelling much
faster than the brick
This means that on impact, they would both exert a similar force (depending on
the time it takes for each to come to rest)

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Since momentum is in kg m s−1:
If the mass is given in grams, make sure to convert to kg by dividing the value by
1000.
If the velocity is given in km s−1, make sure to convert to m s−1 by multiplying the
value by 1000
The direction you consider positive is your choice, as long the signs of the numbers
(positive or negative) are consistent throughout the question.
Sketching a diagram which includes the signs on positive and negative values will
help you avoid mistakes when calculating

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 28
 Conservation of Linear Momentum
Your notes
The Principle of Conservation of Linear
Momentum
The principle of conservation of momentum states that in a closed system, the total
momentum before an event is equal to the total momentum after the event
Momentum is always conserved in collisions where no external forces act
This is usually written as:
Total momentum before a collision = Total momentum after a collision
Since momentum is a vector quantity, a system of objects moving in opposite directions
can have an overall momentum of 0
This applies to objects moving towards each other or away from each other
The diagram below shows two masses m with velocity u and M at rest (M has zero
velocity)

The momentum of a system before and after a collision

Before the collision:
The momentum is only of mass m which is moving
If the right is taken as the positive direction, the total momentum of the system is m
×u
After the collision:
Mass M also now has momentum

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 29
 The velocity of m is now -v (since it is now travelling to the left) and the velocity of M
is V
Your notes
The total momentum is now the momentum of M + momentum of m
This is (M × V) + (m × -v) or (M × V) – (m × v)

Worked Example
Trolley A of mass 0.80 kg collides head-on with stationary trolley B whilst travelling at
3.0 m s–1. Trolley B has twice the mass of trolley A. On impact, the trolleys stick
together.
Using the conversation of momentum, calculate the common velocity of both trolleys
after the collision.
Answer:

Conservation of Linear Momentum & Newton's

Third Law

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 30
Newton’s third law of motion states:
Whenever two bodies interact, the forces they exert on each other are equal and Your notes
opposite
This means:
When one object exerts a force on another object, the second object will exert an
equal force on the first object in the opposite direction
When two objects collide, both objects will react, generally causing one object to
speed up (gain momentum) and the other object to slow down (lose momentum)

Newton's third law can be applied to collisions

Consider the collision between two trolleys, A and B:
When trolley A exerts a force on trolley B, trolley B will exert an equal force on trolley
A in the opposite direction
In this case:
FB–A = –FA–B
While the forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, the accelerations of
the objects are not necessarily equal in magnitude
From Newton's second law, acceleration depends upon both force and mass, this
means:
For objects of equal mass, they will have equal accelerations
For objects of unequal mass, they will have unequal accelerations

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Momentum questions are often very long and wordy. Even if you are given a diagram,
make a quick sketch representing all the bodies as point masses. Mark the velocities

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 31
with arrows and include positive and negative signs.

Your notes

The Maths of momentum is straightforward, so as long as you have your vector

directions clear in your mind, nothing can go wrong!

© 2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. Get more and ace your exams at savemyexams.com 32