Unit-II Feedback Amplifiers

Introduction to Feedback
◆ Feedback is used in virtually all amplifier system.
◆ Invented in 1928 by Harold Black – engineer in
Western Electric Company
■ methods to stabilize the gain of amplifier for use in
telephone repeaters.
◆ In feedback system, a signal that is proportional to
the output is fed back to the input and combined with
the input signal to produce a desired system response.
◆ However, unintentional and undesired system
response may be produced.
◆ Feedbacks are used to improve the performance of
amplifiers
◆ In the process of feedback, a part of the output signal is
sampled and fed back to the input of the amplifier
◆ If the input signal and part of the output signal both are in
phase, the feedback is called Positive feedback
◆ If the input signal and part of the output signal both are
out of phase, the feedback is called Negative feedback
◆ Use of positive feedback results in oscillations and hence
not used in amplifiers
◆ A typical feedback
connection is
shown in the following Fig
◆ The effects of negative feedback on an amplifier:
◆ Advantages
1. Higher input impedance
2. More stable gain
3. Improved frequency response and Bandwidth
4. Lower output impedance
5. Reduced noise
6. More linear operation
7. Reduced non-linear distortion
◆ Disadvantages
1. Lower gain
 Feedback Amplifier

◆ Feedback is a technique where a proportion of the

output of a system (amplifier) is fed back and
recombined with input

◆ There are 2 types of feedback amplifier:

■ Positive feedback
■ Negative feedback
 Positive Feedback
◆ Positive feedback is the process when the output
is added to the input, amplified again, and this
process continues.

◆ Positive feedback is used in the design of oscillator

and other application.
 Basic principles for oscillation
◆ An oscillator is an amplifier with positive feedback.
 Basic principles for oscillation

◆ The closed loop gain is:

 Positive Feedback - Example
◆ In a PA system

get feedback when you put the microphone in

front of a speaker and the sound gets
uncontrollably loud (you have probably heard this
unpleasant effect).
 Negative Feedback
◆ Negative feedback is when the output is subtracted
from the input.

◆ The use of negative feedback reduces the gain. Part

of the output signal is taken back to the input with a
negative sign.
Negative Feedback
 Negative Feedback - Example
◆ Speed control

If the car starts to speed up above the desired

set-point speed, negative feedback causes the
throttle to close, thereby reducing speed;
similarly, if the car slows, negative feedback acts
to open the throttle
 Feedback Amplifier - Concept

Basic structure of a single - loop feedback amplifier

 Advantages of Negative Feedback
1. Gain Sensitivity – variations in gain is reduced.
2. Bandwidth Extension – larger than that of basic
amplified.
3. Noise Sensitivity – may increase S-N ratio.
4. Reduction of Nonlinear Distortion
5. Control of Impedance Levels – input and output
impedances can be increased or decreased.
 Disadvantages of Negative Feedback

1. Circuit Gain – overall amplifier gain is reduced

compared to that of basic amplifier.
2. Stability – possibility that feedback circuit will
become unstable and oscillate at high
frequencies.
 Basic Feedback Concept

Basic configuration of a feedback amplifier

 Basic Feedback Concept
◆ The output signal is:
where A is the amplification factor
◆ Feedback signal is
where ß is the feedback transfer function
◆ At summing node:
◆ Closed-loop transfer function or gain is

if
 Basic Feedback Topologies
Depending on the input signal (voltage or current) to be amplified
and form of the output (voltage or current), amplifiers can be
classified into four categories. Depending on the amplifier
category, one of four types of feedback structures should be used.

1. Voltage series feedback (Af = Vo/Vs) – Voltage amplifier

2. Voltage shunt feedback (Af = Vo/Is) – Trans-resistance amplifier
3. Current series feedback (Af = Io /Vs) - Trans-conductance amplifier
4. Current shunt feedback (Af = Io/Is) - Current amplifier

Here voltage refers to connecting the output voltage as input to the

feedback network. Similarly current refers to connecting the output current
as input to the feedback network.
Series refers to connecting the feedback signal in series with the input
voltage; Shunt refers to connecting the feedback signal in shunt (parallel)
with an input current source.
Current shunt Feedback
 Feedback Amplifier

Input and output Impedances

◆ Summary
1. For a series connection at input or output, the resistance
is increased by (1+βA).
2. For a shunt connection at input or output, the resistance
is lowered by (1+βA).
Feedback Amplifier
 Oscillators
Oscillation: an effect that repeatedly and regularly
fluctuates about the mean value

Oscillator: circuit that produces oscillation

Characteristics: wave-shape, frequency, amplitude,

distortion, stability

Ref:06103104HKN 27 EE3110 Oscillator

 Application of Oscillators
◆ Oscillators are used to generate signals, e.g.
■ Used as a local oscillator to transform the RF signals to IF
signals in a receiver;
■ Used to generate RF carrier in a transmitter
■ Used to generate clocks in digital systems;
■ Used as sweep circuits in TV sets and CRO.

Ref:06103104HKN 28 EE3110 Oscillator

 Linear Oscillators
1. Wien Bridge Oscillators
2. RC Phase-Shift Oscillators
3. LC Oscillators
4. Stability

Ref:06103104HKN 29 EE3110 Oscillator

 Integrant of Linear Oscillators

For sinusoidal input is connected

“Linear” because the output is approximately sinusoidal

A linear oscillator contains:

- a frequency selection feedback network
- an amplifier to maintain the loop gain at unity

Ref:06103104HKN 30 EE3110 Oscillator

 Basic Linear Oscillator

and

If Vs = 0, the only way that Vo can be nonzero

is that loop gain Aβ=1 which implies that

(Barkhausen Criterion)

Ref:06103104HKN 31 EE3110 Oscillator

Oscillators
 Oscillator Operation
• The use of positive feedback that results in a feedback amplifier
having closed-loop gain |Af| greater than 1 and satisfies the
phase conditions will result in operation as an oscillator circuit.

∠βA should be 0◦ or 360◦

 Oscillators are classified based on the type of the output
waveform.
• If the generated waveform is sinusoidal or close to
sinusoidal (with a certain frequency) then the oscillator is
said to be a Sinusoidal Oscillator.
• If the output waveform is non-sinusoidal, which refers to
square/saw-tooth waveforms, the oscillator is said to be a
Relaxation Oscillator.
Types of Oscillator Circuits:-
1. Phase-shift oscillator
2. Wien bridge oscillator
3. Tuned oscillator circuits
4. Crystal oscillators
5. Unijunction oscillator
Difference between Amplifier and Oscillator

• Amplifier – Negative Feedback, High power level

• Oscillator – Positive Feedback, Low power level
CLASSIFICATIONS OF OSCILLATORS
 Typical Uses of the Oscillator

• Radio and television stations require oscillators to develop

the basic signal to transmit their information
• Cell phones, electronic keyboards, and remote controls use
oscillators to produce the required frequencies for operation
 Tuned Oscillators
• The oscillators which use the elements L and C to produce
oscillations are called LC oscillator or tuned oscillator
• The circuit with L and C elements - Tank circuit
• Used for high frequency range from 200 kHz to few GHz
• LC Tank circuit is shown in Fig.1
• Separately charged capacitor is
connected with L as shown in Fig.2
• Now the magnetic field in inductor collapses as shown in Fig-3
and charge the capacitor in opposite direction (Lenz’s law)

• Now the capacitor again starts discharging through L. But the

direction of current through the circuit is opposite to the
direction of current earlier in the circuit
• Thus the capacitor charges with alternate polarities and
discharges producing alternating current in the tank circuit.
• When energy is transferred from L to C and C to L, - Losses
occur due to which amplitude of oscillating current reduces
• Such a oscillation is called damped oscillation

• In LC oscillator, the transistor amplifier supplies this loss of

energy at proper time hence oscillations are maintained as
sustained oscillation
• Frequency of oscillation is given by
 Basic form of LC oscillator circuit
• LC tuned circuit forms the feedback network while an
op-amp, FET or BJT can be active device in the amplifier stage

• Amplifier produces a phase shift of 180° and feedback

network provides an additional phase shift of 180° , to satisfy
the required condition.
Analysis of the amplifier stage:-
• Input impedance of the amplifier ifs very high so I ≈ 0

• A is the gain of the amplifier stage

Analysis of Feedback Stage:-
Consider the circuit shown
In Fig
• Barkhausen criterion Aβ = 1
• Avβ will be positive only when X1 and X2 will have same sign
• This indicates that X1 and X2 must be of same type of
reactance either both inductive or capacitive
• X3 = - (X1+X2) must be inductive if X1,X2 are capacitive while
X3 must be capacitive if X1,X2 are inductive
• Following table shows the types of the LC oscillators
depending on the design of the reactance X1, X2 and X3
Oscillators
 Oscillator Operation
• The use of positive feedback that results in a feedback amplifier
having closed-loop gain |Af| greater than 1 and satisfies the
phase conditions will result in operation as an oscillator circuit.

∠βA should be 0◦ or 360◦

 Oscillators are classified based on the type of the output
waveform.
• If the generated waveform is sinusoidal or close to
sinusoidal (with a certain frequency) then the oscillator is
said to be a Sinusoidal Oscillator.
• If the output waveform is non-sinusoidal, which refers to
square/saw-tooth waveforms, the oscillator is said to be a
Relaxation Oscillator.
Types of Oscillator Circuits:-
1. Phase-shift oscillator
2. Wien bridge oscillator
3. Tuned oscillator circuits
4. Crystal oscillators
5. Unijunction oscillator
Difference between Amplifier and Oscillator

• Amplifier – Negative Feedback, High power level

• Oscillator – Positive Feedback, Low power level
 Typical Uses of the Oscillator

• Radio and television stations require oscillators to develop

the basic signal to transmit their information
• Cell phones, electronic keyboards, and remote controls use
oscillators to produce the required frequencies for operation
 Tuned Oscillators
• The oscillators which use the elements L and C to produce
oscillations are called LC oscillator or tuned oscillator
• The circuit with L and C elements - Tank circuit
• Used for high frequency range from 200 kHz to few GHz
• LC Tank circuit is shown in Fig.1
• Separately charged capacitor is
connected with L as shown in Fig.2
• Now the magnetic field in inductor collapses as shown in Fig-3
and charge the capacitor in opposite direction (Lenz’s law)

• Now the capacitor again starts discharging through L. But the

direction of current through the circuit is opposite to the
direction of current earlier in the circuit
• Thus the capacitor charges with alternate polarities and
discharges producing alternating current in the tank circuit.
• When energy is transferred from L to C and C to L, - Losses
occur due to which amplitude of oscillating current reduces
• Such a oscillation is called damped oscillation

• In LC oscillator, the transistor amplifier supplies this loss of

energy at proper time hence oscillations are maintained as
sustained oscillation
• Frequency of oscillation is given by
 Basic form of LC oscillator circuit
• LC tuned circuit forms the feedback network while an
op-amp, FET or BJT can be active device in the amplifier stage

• Amplifier produces a phase shift of 180° and feedback

network provides an additional phase shift of 180° , to satisfy
the required condition.
Analysis of the amplifier stage:-
• Input impedance of the amplifier ifs very high so I ≈ 0

• A is the gain of the amplifier stage

Analysis of Feedback Stage:-
Consider the circuit shown
In Fig
• Barkhausen criterion Aβ = 1
• Avβ will be positive only when X1 and X2 will have same sign
• This indicates that X1 and X2 must be of same type of
reactance either both inductive or capacitive
• X3 = - (X1+X2) must be inductive if X1,X2 are capacitive while
X3 must be capacitive if X1,X2 are inductive
• Following table shows the types of the LC oscillators
depending on the design of the reactance X1, X2 and X3
 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
• Most communications and digital applications require the use of oscillators
with extremely stable output. Crystal oscillators are invented to overcome
the output fluctuation experienced by conventional oscillators.
• Crystals used in electronic applications consist of a quartz wafer held
between two metal plates and housed in a a package as shown in Fig. 9 (a)
and (b).
 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
• Frequency range:15kHz-10MHz
• Materials used: Rochelle salt, tourmaline
• Applications:communication
transmitters,digital watches,clock…..
 Crystal Oscillator
• Piezoelectric Effect
– The quartz crystal is made of silicon oxide (SiO2) and
exhibits a property called the piezoelectric
– When changing an alternating voltage is applied
across the crystal, it vibrates at the frequency of the
applied voltage. In the other word, the frequency of
the applied ac voltage is equal to the natural resonant
frequency of the crystal.
– The thinner the crystal, higher its frequency of
vibration. This phenomenon is called piezoelectric
effect
• Characteristic of Quartz Crystal
– The crystal can have two resonant
frequencies;
– One is the series resonance frequency f1
which occurs when XL = XC. At this R
frequency, crystal offers a very low
impedance to the external circuit where L CM
Z = R.
C
– The other is the parallel resonance (or
antiresonance) frequency f2 which
occurs when reactance of the series leg
equals the reactance of CM. At this
frequency, crystal offers a very high
impedance to the external circuit
 Crystal Oscillator
The crystal is connected as a series element in the feedback path from collector to the
base so that it is excited in the series-resonance mode

•B
J •F
T E
T
Crystal Oscillator
• Since, in series resonance, crystal impedance is the
smallest that causes the crystal provides the largest
positive feedback.
• Resistors R1, R2, and RE provide a voltage-divider
stabilized dc bias circuit. Capacitor CE provides ac
bypass of the emitter resistor, RE to avoid
degeneration.
• The RFC coil provides dc collector load and also
prevents any ac signal from entering the dc supply.
• The coupling capacitor CC has negligible reactance
at circuit operating frequency but blocks any dc flow
between collector and base.
• The oscillation frequency equals the series-resonance
frequency of the crystal and is given by:
 Unijunction Oscillator
• The unijunction transistor can
be used in what is called a
relaxation oscillator as shown
by basic circuit as follow.
• The unijunction oscillator
provides a pulse signal
suitable for digital-circuit
applications.
• Resistor RT and capacitor CT
are the timing components
that set the circuit oscillating
rate
UJT
 Unijunction Oscillator

Sawtooth wave appears at the emitter

of the transistor.
This wave shows the gradual increase of
capacitor voltage
 Tuned Oscillators
• The oscillators which use the elements L and C to produce
oscillations are called LC oscillator or tuned oscillator
• The circuit with L and C elements - Tank circuit
• Used for high frequency range from 200 kHz to few GHz
• LC Tank circuit is shown in Fig.1
• Separately charged capacitor is
connected with L as shown in Fig.2
• Now the magnetic field in inductor collapses as shown in Fig-3
and charge the capacitor in opposite direction (Lenz’s law)

• Now the capacitor again starts discharging through L. But the

direction of current through the circuit is opposite to the
direction of current earlier in the circuit
• Thus the capacitor charges with alternate polarities and
discharges producing alternating current in the tank circuit.
• When energy is transferred from L to C and C to L, - Losses
occur due to which amplitude of oscillating current reduces
• Such a oscillation is called damped oscillation

• In LC oscillator, the transistor amplifier supplies this loss of

energy at proper time hence oscillations are maintained as
sustained oscillation
• Frequency of oscillation is given by
• Avβ will be positive only when X1 and X2 will have same sign
• This indicates that X1 and X2 must be of same type of
reactance either both inductive or capacitive
• X3 = - (X1+X2) must be inductive if X1,X2 are capacitive while
X3 must be capacitive if X1,X2 are inductive
• Following table shows the types of the LC oscillators
depending on the design of the reactance X1, X2 and X3
Transistorized Hartley Oscillator
• The Figure shows the Hartley oscillator circuit

• RFC is the radio frequency choke- its reactance is high at

high frequencies – can be used to separate ac and dc
operating conditions
Derivation of Frequency of Oscillation:-
• The output current which is the collector current is hfeIb
• The equivalent circuit is shown below

• Converting current source into equivalent voltage source

• Replacing jω by s
• According to current division principle

• Now,
• Substituting s=jω yields,

• Rationalizing the above equation on RHS

• To satisfy the Barkhausan criterion, the imaginary part of the
above equation must be zero

• Frequency of oscillation is given by

Colpitts Oscillator
• Simplified equivalent circuit is shown below
• Replace jω = s,
• By current division rule

• Now replace s = jω
• To satisfy Barkhausan criterion imaginary part of RHS must
be = 0 , hence
 Clapp Oscillator
• To achieve frequency stability , Colpitts oscillator circuit is
slightly modified, called Clapp oscillator
• Here one more capacitor C3 is introduced in series with the
inductance

• C3 is variable one so frequency of operation varied easily

 Clapp Oscillator
• To achieve frequency stability , Colpitts oscillator circuit is
slightly modified, called Clapp oscillator
• Here one more capacitor C3 is introduced in series with the
inductance

• C3 is variable one so frequency of operation varied easily

Derivation of Frequency of Oscillations:-
• The equivalent circuit of Clapp oscillator is shown below

• Converting current source into equivalent voltage source

yields the following equivalent circuit
• Now,
• Now,
• To satisfy the Barkhausen criterion imaginary part of the
above equation must be equal to zero
• Therefore,
Power Amplifiers
 Introduction
• Power amplifier is an amplifier, which is capable of providing a
large amount of power to the load such as loudspeaker or
motor etc..,
• Used as a last stage in electronic system For ex: Public address
system (PAS)
• PA system consists of microphone, a multistage amplifier, a
power amplifier and a loudspeaker.
- The microphone converts the sound waves into electrical signal
- This electrical signal is of very low voltage and insufficient t drive
- Hence, this signal is first raised to a sufficiently high value by
passing it through a multistage small signal amplifier
- Now the signal is used to drive power amplifier and the output
of
power amplifier drives the loudspeaker
• Power amplifier is more commonly known as audio amplifier
• Audio amplifiers are used in public address systems, tape
recorders, stereo systems, television receivers, radio receivers,
broad cast transmitters etc..,
• Power amplifier does not actually amplify the power
• It takes power from the dc power supply connected to the
output circuit and converts it into useful ac signal power.
• The power fed to the load, type of ac power developed, at the
output of a power amplifier , is controlled by the input signal
• Actually a power amplifier is a dc to ac power converter, whose
action is controlled by the input signal
• The power amplifiers are also known as large signal amplifiers
• Large signal – uses large part of their load line for operation
• Small signal amplifiers also known as voltage amplifiers
Difference between Voltage amplifier and Power amplifier

Si No Voltage Amplifier Power Amplifier

1 Transistor used for this The current gain (β) of a transistor
application has large value of used in power amplifier is usually
current gain- typically 100 between 20 and 50
2 Input resistance of a transistor The input resistance of the
is required to be quite low as amplifier is generally very large as
compared to the output compared to its output resistance
resistance
3 The physical size of the Employs large size transistors.
transistor is usually small and is Considerable amount of heat
known as low or medium dissipated within the transistor
power transistor
4 Usually employs RC coupling Uses transformer coupling
for inter stage connection
 Performance Parameters

Circuit Efficiency:-
• Major criterion for a power amplifier is not power gain, but the
maximum ac output power
• Ability of a power amplifier, to convert dc power supply from
the source into ac power, is a measure of its effectiveness and is
called its circuit efficiency
• Mathematically,
Distortion:-
• In actual practice for any good amplifier the output is found to
be different from the input either in its waveform or frequency
content. This difference between input and output is called
distortion
• Two types of distortions namely amplitude distortion
(Harmonic) and cross over distortion are important in amplifier
• The amplitude distortion results from non-linearity of the
transistor. It occurs because of the fact that transistor output
may not increase equally, for all portions of the input signal
during positive and negative half cycles.
• Cross over distortion occurs when transistors do not operate in
the correct phase with each other.
Power dissipation capability:-
• Ability of power transistor to dissipate heat is known as power
dissipation capability or power rating
• Heat generated within the transistor due to excessive current
passing through it during amplification
• If the heat generated is more than its power dissipation
capability , transistor may burn out
• Heat sink is used to increase the power dissipation capability
 AC Load Line
• Amplifier has two types of load lines i.e., dc and ac load lines
• Common emitter amplifier and its equivalent circuits are
shown in Figure.

• We can determine the upper and lower ends of dc load line

• Upper end is A and lower end is B

• From the ac equivalent circuit

………………(1)
• Then the a.c collector current
• The a.c collector to emitter voltage,
Substituting the value of ic and vce in the equation (1)

…………..……(2)

• The above equation is a straight line equation called a.c load

line. When transistor goes to saturation , the collector to
emitter voltage (VCE) becomes zero. In that case the above
equation may be written as,

• Above equation gives upper end of ac load line. Similarly when

the transistor goes into cut-off the collector current IC = 0, in
this case the equation (2) can be written as
• The above equation gives lower end of ac load line. Slope
of ac load line (equal to 1/rL) is greater than dc load line
 Classification of Power Amplifiers
• Classification is based on transistor biasing condition and
amplitude of the input signal
• Portion of the cycle for which transistor conducts on the above
basis
Class-A Amplifier:-
• Transistor bias and amplitude of the input signal is such that the
output current flows for the complete cycle (i.e 360°) of the
input signal.
• Figure shows output for a
class – A amplifier.
Class – B Amplifier:-
• Transistor bias and amplitude of the input signal is such that the
output current flows for only one half cycle (i.e 180°) of the
input signal.
• Figure shows output for a class – B amplifier.

Class – C Amplifier:-
• Transistor bias and amplitude of the input signal is such that the
output current flows for less than half cycle (i.e less than 180°) of
the input signal.
• Figure shows output for a class – C amplifier.
• In addition to the above three types, there is another
amplifier called class – AB amplifier.
• The characteristics of such amplifier lies in-between those
of class – A and class – B amplifiers.
• In class – AB amplifier, the output current flows for more
than half cycle but less than the complete cycle ( i.e.,
current flows for more than 180° but less than 360°)
• The class – A and class – B amplifiers are called audio
power amplifiers because they are capable of amplifying
signals with frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
Class – A Amplifier
• Class-A amplifier is basically a common emitter amplifier as
shown in Figure
• Only difference from
small signal amplifier
is the signal handled
are in volts
• Transistor used is of
Power transistor
capable of operating
in watts.
• In this amplifier Q point is set at centre of the load line, in
order to achieve maximum output signal.
• Fig shows the a.c load line and the variation of collector current
and the collector-to-emitter voltage above and below the
Q-point values for maximum output.
• Ideally the collector
current can vary from
its Q-point value (i.e ICQ)
to its saturation value
(i.e ICsat) = 2ICQ and down
to its cut-off value (i.e zero)
• The maximum or peak value
of the collector current is ICQ and that of the collector to
emitter voltage is VCEQ. It is the largest signal possible from
class-A amplifier.
• Expression for amplifier parameters such as voltage gain, current
gain and power gain
• Voltage gain
• In large signal amplifier, diode resistance is to be found
graphically from the trans-conductance curve shown below
• (re = 26mV/IE is not valid for large signal or power amplifier)
• It is given as,

• Current gain
• a.c input power to the base of
the transistor
• a.c output power from the collector
• Power gain

• Characteristics of Class-A Amplifier

• Output current flows during entire cycle of the a.c input
• Operation is restricted to small centre region of the load line
• Output waveform is almost similar to input waveform
• The a.c power output per active device is smaller than that of
class-B or class-C amplifier
• The overall efficiency or circuit efficiency of class-A amplifier
with series fed resistive load is 25%
• If we use a transformer coupled load instead of direct
coupled resistive load, max.possible efficiency increases to
50%
Power relations for class –A amplifier:-
• Following figs show the output circuit of single stage class-A
amplifier and ac load line with Q point located at its centre

• When a.c input signal is applied , the Q point shifts up and

down from its centre position. Accordingly, the output will
increase or decrease from its quiescent value.
• Similarly, VCE will also swing from its quiescent value VCEQ
• As long as the signal variations are limited to the linear region
of the load line, average value of the collector current is ICQ ( It
is true because the +ve and –ve i/p signal swings produce equal
changes in ICQ.
• The total average power supplied to the output circuit by the
collector supply is given by the relation,

• This power is utilized within the load resistor and transistor in

the following ways:
1. The power consumed in the load resistor (RL) whose value is
given by the relation,
It is dissipated in the form of heat
2. The power consumed within the transistor, is given by
• The power consumed y the transistor is further utilized in the
following two parts:
1. A part of power is utilized to develop a.c power across load
resistor . It constitutes the useful a.c power output, given by

2. The remaining part is dissipated in the form of heat within

the transistor collector region (PC), it goes as a waste
• The complete equation may be written as follows

• Under no signal or zero signal condition, the a.c output power

is zero. Therefore all the power supplied to the transistor goes
as a waste in the form of heat.
• The transistor is cooler when delivering power to a load than
when there is no such a.c power transfer
• The power dissipation of a transistor with no input signal is
equal to the product of its Q – point current and voltage

• When the peak to peak value of the output voltage is known,

the a.c power output
Overall and Collector Efficiency of Class-A Amplifier:-
• Mathematically the overall efficiency is given by

• We know that ac output power ,

• The average dc input power,

• For largest possible output signal from class-A amplifier,

the Q point must be located at the centre of ac load line
• Maximum or peak value of the output voltage is equal to
VCEQ and the peak value of output current (IP) is equal to ICQ
i.e.,
• Hence,

• Above value is the maximum possible value of overall

efficiency . It means max.value of efficiency for class-A amp is
25%
• Collector efficiency for a class – A amplifier is given by
• Maximum value of collector efficiency is obtained when the
output signal is the largest possible
• Under this condition, the average a.c output power

• The d.c input power to the transistor is maximum under

zero signal condition and its value is

• Maximum collector efficiency is 50%

Transformer Coupled Class – A Amplifier
• Over all efficiency of a direct coupled class –A amplifier does
not exceed 25%
• Main reason for the above fact – due to direct coupling of load
the quiescent current (ICQ) passes through the resistance.
• This current causes considerable amount of power loss, whose
value is equal to . It does not contribute to a.c power.
• The above problem can be solved by using a suitable
transformer for coupling the load to the amplifier as shown
below
• Primary winding of a transformer has a
low, resistance therefore the power
absorbed in the winding is negligible
as compared to the resistive load.
• This is also known as single ended amplifier. This term is used
to differentiate this type from push-pull amplifiers
• The function of the transformer is to match the low impedance
load (such as loudspeaker) to that of the output impedance of
the amplifier.
• Transformation ratio (n= N2/N1)
• In an ideal transformer - no primary drop
• All the supply voltage appears as the collector - to – Emitter
voltage of the transistor (i.e VCC = VCEQ)
• Therefore, the total power drawn from the d.c supply is equal
to the d.c power developed within the transistor.
• Overall efficiency and collector efficiency becomes equal

• Proof:-
average power delivered by the d.c supply
Power developed in the transistor under zero signal condition
For the largest possible output signal
Class – B Amplifier
• The transistor turning on when the ac signal is applied.
• This is essentially no bias, and the transistor conducts current
for only one-half of the signal cycle
• To obtain output for the full cycle of signal, it is necessary to use
two transistors
• Each transistor conduct on opposite half-cycles
• The combined operation providing a full cycle of output signal.
• one part of the circuit pushes the signal high during one
half-cycle and the other part pulls the signal low during the
other half-cycle, the circuit is referred to as a push-pull circuit.
• Figure shows a diagram for push-pull operation.

• An ac input signal is applied to the push-pull circuit, with each

half operating on alternate half-cycles, the load then receiving a
signal for the full ac cycle.
• An npn transistor that provides the negative half of the ac cycle
• An pnp transistor that provides the positive half of the ac cycle
• Class – B operation of transistors provides greater efficiency
than was possible using single transistor in class – A operation
Class – B Amplifier Circuits:-
Transformer-Coupled Push-Pull Class B Amplifier
• The center-tapped transformer on the input produces opposite
polarity signals to the two transistor inputs.
• The center-tapped transformer on the output combines the
two halves of the AC waveform together.
Transformer less class B push pull
amplifier
• No need for bulky
transformer
• Transistor used as a
phase splitter(180
degree phase shift)
Complementary symmetry class-B
push pull amplifier
• This circuit uses both
npn and pnp
transistor to construct
class B amplifier as
shown to the left
• One disadvantage of
this circuit is the need
for two separate
voltage supplies
Class B Amplifier Push-Pull Operation:-
• During the positive half-cycle of the AC input, transistor Q1
(npn) is conducting and Q2 (pnp) is off.
• During the negative half-cycle of the AC input, transistor Q2
(pnp) is conducting and Q1 (npn) is off.
• Each transistor produces one-half of an AC cycle. The
transformer combines the two outputs to form a full AC cycle.
Crossover Distortion:-
• If the transistors Q1 and Q2 do
not turn on and off at exactly
the same time, then there is a
gap in the output voltage.
Amplifier Distortion:-
• This distortion can be analyzed using Fourier analysis. In Fourier
analysis, any distorted periodic waveform can be broken down
into frequency components. These components are harmonics
of the fundamental frequency.
• According to Fourier analysis, if a signal is not purely sinusoidal,
then it contains harmonics
Input DC Power: -
• The power supplied to the load by an amplifier is drawn from
the power supply (or power supplies; see Fig.) that provides the
input or dc power.
• The input dc power is given by
• where Idc is the average or dc current drawn from the power
supplies.
• In class B operation, the current drawn from a single power
supply has the form of a full-wave rectified signal, while that
drawn from two power supplies has the form of a half wave
rectified signal from each supply.
• The value of the average current drawn can be expressed as
so

Output (AC) Power:-

• The power delivered to the load (usually referred to as a
resistance, RL) can be calculated using any one of a number of
equations.
• If one is using an rms meter to measure the voltage across the
load, the output power can be calculated as
• If one is using an oscilloscope, the peak, or peak-to-peak,
output voltage measured can be used:

• The larger the rms or peak output voltage, the larger the
power delivered to the load.
Efficiency:-
• The efficiency of the class B amplifier can be calculated using
the basic equation:
………….. (1)

• Now by substituting the value of PO(a.c) and Pi(d.c) obtained

above in equation (1), we get
• Above equation shows that the larger the peak voltage, the
higher the circuit efficiency, up to a maximum value when

• Now the maximum efficiency is

Power Dissipated by Output Transistors:-
• The power dissipated (as heat) by the output power transistors
is the difference between the input power delivered by the
supplies and the output power delivered to the load.

• Where P2Q is the power dissipated by the two output power

transistors
• The dissipated power handled by each transistor is
Maximum power considerations:
• For class B operation, the maximum output power is delivered
to the load when VL(p) = VCC :

• The corresponding peak ac current IP is then

Class C Amplifier
A class C amplifier, as that shown in Fig. 16.25, is biased to operate for less than
180° of the input signal cycle. The tuned circuit in the output, however, will
provide a full cycle of output signal for the fundamental or resonant frequency of
the tuned circuit (L and C tank circuit) of the output. This type of operation is
therefore limited to use at one fixed frequency, as occurs in a communications
circuit, for example. Operation of a class C circuit is not intended primarily for
large-signal or power amplifiers.