UNIT-V

Data Communication:

Data communication is the electronic exchange of data between two devices

across a communication channel like a wire pair cable or Fiber optics.

Characteristics of Data Communication

Data communication has four critical characteristics that are as follows:

• Delivery
• Accuracy
• Timeliness
• Jitter

► Delivery
Data must be sent in the correct order from the source device to the correct
destination.

► Accuracy:
The information must be supplied without errors. The data should be retransmitted if
there is any inaccuracy during transmission.

► Timeliness:
Data must be given within the timeframe provided. The data that was given late has
become unusable.

► Jitter:

Jitter is caused by an uneven or unexpected delay in the packet arrival time.

Components of Data Communication

The different components of Data communication are shown in the following figure.

1. Message:
The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender:
The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

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3. Receiver:
The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.

4. Transmission medium:
The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire,
coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol:
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices
may be connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French
cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.

Networking and Internetworking Devices

• Network devices are components used to connect computers or other electronic

devices together so that they can share files or resources like printers or fax
machines. Devices used to setup a Local Area Network (LAN) are the most common
types of network devices used by the public.
• An internetwork is a collection of individual networks, connected by intermediate
networking devices, that functions as a single large network.

Repeaters
A Repeater is a regenerator.Repeaters are network devices operating
at physical layer of the OSI model that amplify or regenerate an
incoming signal before retransmitting it. They are incorporated in

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 networks to expand its coverage area. They are also known as signal
boosters.

According to the types of networks that they connect, repeaters can be categorized
into two types −

• Wired Repeaters − They are used in wired LANs.

• Wireless Repeaters − They are used in wireless LANs and cellular networks.

Bridges:

A bridge is a network device that connects multiple LANs (local area

networks) together to form a larger LAN. The process of aggregating
networks is called network bridging. A bridge connects the different
components so that they appear as parts of a single network. Bridges
operate at the data link layer .

A bridge operates in both physical and data link layers.

Physical Layer : regenerates the signal.

Data Link Layer : check MAC address.

A bridge has filtering capability: Having a table used in filtering decisions

A bridge can check, does not change the physical (MAC) addresses in a
frame

Router:

The router is a physical or virtual internetworking device that is designed to

receive, analyze, and forward data packets between computer networks. A
router examines a destination IP address of a given data packet, and it uses
the headers and forwarding tables to decide the best way to transfer the
packets.

A router works on the third layer of the OSI model, and it is based on the IP
address of a computer. It uses protocols such as ICMP to communicate

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 between two or more networks. It is also known as an intelligent device as it
can calculate the best route to pass the network packets from source to the
destination automatically.

There are two types of tables in the router that are static and dynamic. The
static routing tables are configured manually, and the dynamic routing
tables are updated automatically by dynamic routers based on network
activity.

GateWays:

A gateway is a network node that forms a passage between two networks

operating with different transmission protocols.depending upon the
functionality, a gateway can operate at any of the seven layers of OSI
model. It acts as the entry – exit point for a network since all traffic that flows
across the networks should pass through the gateway.

A gateway can accept a packet formatted for one protocol (e.g.

AppleTalk) and convert it to a packet for another protocol (e.g. TCP/IP). A
gateway is generally software installed within a router.

Brouter: A network device

Brouter is a network device, which operates as a combination of both bridge and

router. In this single device, a user will get a function of both bridge and router, as it
can send out data to create a connection or link as a bridge between networks,
and can also route as a router the data to each system inside a network.

Brouter connects networks which use different protocols. It can be

programmed to work only as a bridge or only as a router. When it is
configured as a bridge, it forwards data packets to appropriate segment

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 using a specific protocol. When it is configured as a router, it routes the data
packets to the appropriate network using a routed protocol such as IP.

Switches:

Switches are networking devices operating at layer 2 or a data link layer of the OSI
model. They connect devices in a network and use packet switching to send, receive
or forward data packets or data frames over the network.

A switch has many ports, to which computers are plugged in. When a data frame
arrives at any port of a network switch, it examines the destination address, performs
necessary checks and sends the frame to the corresponding device(s).It supports
unicast, multicast as well as broadcast communications.

Hubs:
Hubs are networking devices operating at a physical layer of the OSI model that are
used to connect multiple devices in a network. They are generally used to connect
computers in a LAN.Hub commonly refers to a multiport repeater.

A hub has many ports in it. A computer which intends to be connected to the network
is plugged in to one of these ports. When a data frame arrives at a port, it is broadcast
to every other port, without considering whether it is destined for a particular
destination device or not.

Types of Hubs
Passive Hubs − Passive hubs connects nodes in a star configuration by collecting
wiring from nodes.

Active Hubs − Active hubs amplify and regenerate the incoming electrical signals
before broadcasting them.

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Intelligent Hubs − Intelligent hubs are active hubs that provide additional network
management facilities.

Topology:

It refers to the way a network is laid out,either physically or logically.two or more

devices connected to a link.two or more links form a a topology.

Geometric representation of how the computers are connected to each other is

known as topology.

Types of Topology

There are five types of topology in computer networks:

1. Mesh Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Bus Topology
4. Ring Topology

5.Tree Topology
6. Hybrid Topology

Mesh Topology

In mesh topology each device is connected to every other device on the network
through a dedicated point-to-point link. When we say dedicated it means that the
link only carries data for the two connected devices only.

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Lets say we have n devices in the network then each device must be connected
with (n-1) devices of the network. Number of links in a mesh topology of n devices
would be n(n-1)/2.

Advantages of Mesh topology

1. No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices which
means the link is only available for those two devices.
2. Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t affect other links
and the communication between other devices on the network.
3. Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus unauthorized
access is not possible.
4. Fault detection is easy.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1. Amount of wires required to connected each system is tedious and headache.

2. Since each device needs to be connected with other devices, number of I/O
ports required must be huge.
3. Scalability issues because a device cannot be connected with large number of
devices with a dedicated point to point link.

Star Topology

In star topology each device in the network is connected to a central device called
hub. If one device wants to send data to other device, it has to first send the data to
hub and then the hub transmit that data to the designated device.

Advantages of Star topology

1. Less expensive because each device only need one I/O port and needs to be
connected with hub with one link.
2. Easier to install
3. Less amount of cables required because each device needs to be connected
with the hub only.
4. Robust, if one link fails, other links will work just fine.
5. Easy fault detection because the link can be easily identified.

Disadvantages of Star topology

1. If hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can work without
hub.

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2. Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance because it is the central
system of star topology.

Bus Topology

In bus topology there is a main cable and all the devices are connected to this main
cable through drop lines. There is a device called tap that connects the drop line to
the main cable. Since all the data is transmitted over the main cable, there is a limit
of drop lines and the distance a main cable can have.

Advantages of bus topology

1. Easy installation, each cable needs to be connected with backbone cable.

2. Less cables required than Mesh and star topology

Disadvantages of bus topology

1. Difficultly in fault detection.

2. Not scalable as there is a limit of how many nodes you can connect with
backbone cable.

Ring Topology

In ring topology each device is connected with the two devices on either side of it.
There are two dedicated point to point links a device has with the devices on the
either side of it. This structure forms a ring thus it is known as ring topology. If a device
wants to send data to another device then it sends the data in one direction, each
device in ring topology has a repeater, if the received data is intended for other
device then repeater forwards this data until the intended device receives it.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Easy to install.
2. Managing is easier as to add or remove a device from the topology only two links
are required to be changed.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

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 1. A link failure can fail the entire network as the signal will not travel forward
due to failure.
2. Data traffic issues, since all the data is circulating in a ring.

Tree Topology

Tree topology is the topology in which the nodes are connected hierarchically, with

all the nodes connected to the topmost node or root node. Hence, it is also known

as hierarchical topology. Tree topology has at least three levels of hierarchy.

Tree topology is applied in Wide Area Network.

Advantages

-The main reason why tree topologies are used is to extend bus and star topologies.

-Under this hierarchical format, it is easy to add more nodes to the network when
your organization grows in size.

-to find errors and troubleshooting easily

Disadvantages

-If the root node fails then all of its subtrees become partitioned.

-Maintaining the network system is not simple either because the more nodes you
add, the more difficult it becomes to manage the network.

- Cables are required to connect every device throughout the hierarchy which
makes the network layout more complex .

Hybrid topology

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A combination of two or more topology is known as hybrid topology. For example a
combination of star and mesh topology is known as hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid topology

1. We can choose the topology based on the requirement for example, scalability is
our concern then we can use star topology instead of bus technology.
2. Scalable as we can further connect other computer networks with the existing
networks with different topologies.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

1. Fault detection is difficult.

2. Installation is difficult.
3. Design is complex so maintenance is high thus expensive.

Data Transmission Speed

Transmission speed is the rate at which data packets cross a computer network from
one server to another. Transmission speed is typically measured in megabits per
second (Mbps), which equals one million bits per second, although gigabit and
even terabit speeds are becoming common. Transmission speed depends on:

• The wires or cables used in the network. They vary in Mbps.

• The distance between two servers, the sending and receiving points.
Distance can severely affect transmission speed, to the point of great
financial detriment if a company’s network connection is just a little too
slow, for example.
• The number of packets being transmitted across a network. Many requests
on a network can slow it.

Transmission mode:

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o The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known
as transmission mode.
o The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
o The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.

The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

o Simplex mode
o Half-duplex mode
o Full-duplex mode

Simplex mode

o In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in

one direction.
o A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the
data but cannot send the data.
o The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the listeners
but never allows them to transmit back.
o Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard
can only accept the data from the user and monitor can only be used to
display the data on the screen.

Advantage of Simplex mode:

o In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the
communication channel, so that more data can be transmitted at a time.

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Disadvantage of Simplex mode:

o Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication between

devices.

Half-Duplex mode

o In a Half-duplex channel, Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the
same time.
o The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one
direction at a time.
o In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any
error occurs, then the receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
o A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode.

Advantage of Half-duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data and
also can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication channel during
the transmission of data.

Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then another has
to wait, this causes the delay in sending the data at the right time.

Full-duplex mode

o In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in
both the directions.
o Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.

The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network.

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Advantage of Full-duplex mode:

o Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.

Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:

o If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the capacity
of the communication channel is divided into two parts.

Transmission media:

o Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information

from the sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted through the
electromagnetic signals.
o It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data
communication.
o The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference
model, i.e., Physical layer.

Transmission media can be divided into two categories:

1.Guided media 2.unguided media

Guided Media

It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is
also known as Bounded media.

Types Of Guided media:

1.Twisted pair:

Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each
otherThe frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.

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A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral
pattern.

The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns

per foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot decreases noise interference.

Types of Twisted pair:

Unshielded Twisted Pair(UTP):

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the

categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:

o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-
distance communication.
o Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.

Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Disadvantage:

o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.

Shielded Twisted Pair(STP)

A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that
allows the higher transmission rate.

Ex:telephone conversations.

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Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:

o An installation of STP is easy.

o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.

o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.

Disadvantages

o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

o It has a higher attenuation rate.

2.Coaxial Cable

o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV

wire is usually a coaxial cable.

o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to

each other.

o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.

o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the
outer conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of
non-conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from the outer
conductor.

o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper
mesh prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single

signal at high speed.

2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple

signals simultaneously.

Coaxial Cable Standards:

Coaxial cables are categorized by their Radio Government(RG) ratings. Each
RG number denotes a unique set of physical specifications.

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Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

o The data can be transmitted at high speed.

o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

3.Fibre Optic

Thin glass or plastic threads used to transmit data using light waves are called optical
fibre. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) or Laser Diodes (LDs) emit light waves at
the source, which is read by a detector at the other end. Optical fibre cable has a
bundle of such threads or fibres bundled together in a protective covering. Each

fibre is made up of these three layers, starting with the innermost layer −

• Core made of high quality silica glass or plastic

• Cladding made of high quality silica glass or plastic, with a lower refractive
index than the core
• Protective outer covering called buffer

Propagation Modes of Fiber Optic Cable

Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:

o Greater Bandwidth
o Faster speed
o Longer distances

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 o Better reliabilityThinner and Sturdier

UnGuided Media:

o An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using

any physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.

o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic

energy can flow easily.

1.Satellite Communication

A satellite is a smaller object that revolves around a larger object in space. For
example, moon is a natural satellite of earth.

If the communication takes place between any two earth stations through a
satellite, then it is called as satellite communication. In this communication,
electromagnetic waves are used as carrier signals. These signals carry the
information such as voice, audio, video or any other data between ground
and space and vice-versa.

two kinds of propagation are used earlier for communication up to some distance.

• Ground wave propagation − Ground wave propagation is suitable for

frequencies up to 30MHz. This method of communication makes use of the
troposphere conditions of the earth.

• Sky wave propagation − The suitable bandwidth for this type of

communication is broadly between 30–40 MHz and it makes use of the
ionosphere properties of the earth.

How a Satellite Works

A satellite is a body that moves around another body in a particular path. A

communication satellite is nothing but a microwave repeater station in space. It is
helpful in telecommunications, radio and television along with internet applications.

A repeater is a circuit, which increases the strength of the received signal and then
transmits it. But, this repeater works as a transponder. That means, it changes the
frequency band of the transmitted signal from the received one.

The frequency with which, the signal is sent into the space is called as Uplink
frequency. Similarly, the frequency with which, the signal is sent by the transponder is
called as Downlink frequency. The following figure illustrates this concept clearly.

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The transmission of signal from first earth station to satellite through a channel is
called as uplink. Similarly, the transmission of signal from satellite to second earth
station through a channel is called as downlink.

Applications of Satellite Communication

Following are the applications of satellite communication −

• Radio broadcasting and voice communications

• TV broadcasting such as Direct To Home (DTH)

• Internet applications such as providing Internet connection for data transfer,

GPS applications, Internet surfing, etc.

• Military applications and navigations

• Remote sensing applications

• Weather condition monitoring & Forecasting

Cellular Telephony:

Cellular telephony is designed to provide connections between twp moving devices

or between one mobile unit and one land unit.A service provider must locate and
track the caller, assign channel to the call, and transfer the signal from channel to
channel as the caller moves out of the range of one channel and into the range of
another.Each cellular service area is divided into small regions called cells. Each cell
contains an antenna and is controlled by a switching office called a mobile
telephone switching office (MTSO).
The MTSO coordinates communications between all the cell offices and the
telephone central office. It is computerized and responsible for connecting cells,
recording call information, and billing.The typical radius of a cell is 1 to 12 miles.

Transmitting:

To place a call from a mobile phone, the caller enters a code of 9 digits and pressed
a send buttons.The mobile phone scans the band, seeking a setup channel.It sends
the phone number to the closest cell office using that channel.The cell office relays
the data to the MTSO.The MTSO sends the data to the telephone central office. IF
the called party is available, a connection is made and the result is relayed to the
MTSO.The MTSO assigns an unused voice channel to the call and a connection is
established.The mobile phone automatically adjust its tuning to the new channel an
voice communication can begin.

Receiving:

When a land phone places a call to a mobile phone, the telephone office sends the
number to the MTSO.The MTSO searches for the location of the mobile phone by
sending query signals to each cell in a process called paging.One the mobile phone

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is found, the MTSO transmits a ringing signal.When the mobile phone is answered,
assigns a voice channel to the call, allowing voice communication to begin.

Handoff:
During the conversation, the mobile phone may move from one cell to another.
When it does, the signal may become weak.To solve this problem, the MTSO,
monitors the level of the signal every few seconds.If the strength of the signal is
diminished, the MTSO seeks a new cell that can accommodate the communication
better.

Computer Network Types:

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the
computer to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data,
and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly

of four types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a
small area such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network
adapters, and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.

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 o Local Area Network provides higher security.

PAN(Personal Area Network)

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person,
typically within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of
personal use is known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the
Personal Area Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area
network are the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

o Wired Personal Area Network

o Wireless Personal Area Network

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by

simply using wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the
USB.

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic
area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private
industries.

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 o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone
exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN,
OC-3, ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical
area such as states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

Advantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical

area. Suppose if the branch of our office is in a different city then we can
connect with them through WAN. The internet provides a leased line through
which we can connect with another branch.
o Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we
do not need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
o Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the
programmers get the updated files within seconds.
o Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The
web application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate
with friends.
o Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software
and other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
o Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.

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 o High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the
high bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in
turn increases the productivity of our co

Modem and it’s working:

Computers understand the language of 0’s and 1’s i.e. digital form. The modem will
modulate the signal into a sine wave. So, this modulated digital signal can easily run
over the telephone lines. Then the signal will reach the IP hub. After this the
demodulation of the signal will take place into digital form. Then you will be
connected to the internet. All these processes are performed by modem at extremely
high speeds. The speed of the modem depends upon the number of the available
access lines and the technology of the modem.

Modem features and standards

A modem may also include some or all of the features and specifications listed

below.

• Auto-answer - A modem's ability to automatically answer the phone after the

phone rings a set amount of time.
• Data/Voice - Modems with voice capability that switch between a voice
and data communication.
• Fax - Fax modems can send and receive a fax with the proper software.
• V.90 - The standard that the modem uses also allows it to communicate at an
optimal speed. When first introduced, there were multiple standards, but
nearly all 56 K modems use the V.90 standard.

Computer Protocols:

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 There are various types of protocols that support a major and compassionate role in
communicating with different devices across the network. These are:

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

2. Internet Protocol (IP)
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
4. Post office Protocol (POP)
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP)
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
9. Telnet

Let's discuss each of them briefly:

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a popular communication protocol

which is used for communicating over a network. It divides any message into series
of packets that are sent from source to destination and there it gets reassembled at
the destination.
2. Internet Protocol (IP): IP is designed explicitly as addressing protocol. It is mostly used
with TCP. The IP addresses in packets help in routing them through different nodes in
a network until it reaches the destination system. TCP/IP is the most popular protocol
connecting the networks.
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is a substitute communication protocol to
Transmission Control Protocol implemented primarily for creating loss-tolerating and
low-latency linking between different applications.
4. Post office Protocol (POP): POP3 is designed for receiving incoming E-mails.
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP): SMTP is designed to send and distribute
outgoing E-Mail.
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): FTP allows users to transfer files from one machine to
another. Types of files may include program files, multimedia files, text files, and
documents, etc.
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP is designed for transferring a hypertext
among two or more systems. HTML tags are used for creating links. These links may
be in any form like text or images. HTTP is designed on Client-server principles which
allow a client system for establishing a connection with the server machine for
making a request. The server acknowledges the request initiated by the client and
responds accordingly.
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): HTTPS is abbreviated as Hyper Text
Transfer Protocol Secure is a standard protocol to secure the communication
among two computers one using the browser and other fetching data from web
server. HTTP is used for transferring data between the client browser (request) and
the web server (response) in the hypertext format, same in case of HTTPS except
that the transferring of data is done in an encrypted format. So it can be said that
https thwart hackers from interpretation or modification of data throughout the
transfer of packets.
9. Telnet: Telnet is a set of rules designed for connecting one system with another. The
connecting process here is termed as remote login. The system which requests for
connection is the local computer, and the system which accepts the connection is
the remote computer.

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