1268 Chapter 15 Vector Analysis

38. Evaluate 兰C (3x 2y  e y) dx  (x 3  xe y  2y) dy, where C 42. Let

is the curve of Exercise 37. y z
39. Let F(x, y, z)  j k
(y 2  z 2)2 (y 2  z 2)2
kQ a. Show that curl F  0.
E(x, y, z)  r
冟 r 冟3 b. Is F conservative? Explain.
where k is a constant, and let r  xi  yj  zk be the elec- In Exercises 43–48, determine whether the statement is true or
tric field induced by a charge Q located at the origin. (See false. If it is true, explain why. If it is false, explain why or give
Example 4 in Section 15.1.) Find the work done by E in an example that shows it is false.
moving a charge of q coulombs from the point A(1, 3, 2)
along any path to the point B(2, 4, 1). 43. The region R  {(x, y) 冟 0  x 2  y 2  1} is simply-
connected.
40. Find the work that is done by the force field
F(x, y, z)  y 2zi  2xyz j  xy 2k on a particle moving along 44. If F is a nonconservative vector field, then 兰C F ⴢ dr  0
a path from P(1, 1, 1) to Q(2, 1, 3) . whenever C is a closed path.
41. Let 45. If F has continuous first-order partial derivatives in space
and C is any smooth curve, then 兰C §f ⴢ dr depends only
y x on the endpoints of C.
F(x, y)  i j
x  y2
2
x 2  y2 46. If F  Pi  Q j is in an open connected region R and
Q P Q P
a. Show that  .  for all (x, y) in R, then 兰C F ⴢ dr  0 for any
x y x y
b. Show that 兰C F ⴢ dr is not independent of path by com- smooth curve C in R.
puting 兰C1 F ⴢ dr and 兰C2 F ⴢ dr, where C1 and C2 are 47. If F(x, y) is continuous and C is a smooth curve, then
the upper and lower semicircles of radius 1, centered at 兰C F ⴢ dr   兰C F ⴢ dr.
the origin, from (1, 0) to (1, 0). 48. If F has first-order partial derivatives in a simply-connected
c. Do your results contradict Theorem 5? Explain. region R, then 兰C F ⴢ dr  0 for every closed path in R.

15.5 Green’s Theorem

y
Green’s Theorem for Simple Regions
Green’s Theorem, named after the English mathematical physicist George Green (1793–
R C 1841), relates a line integral around a simple closed plane curve C to a double integral
over the plane region R bounded by C. (See Figure 1.)
Before stating Green’s Theorem, however, we need to explain what is meant by the
orientation of a simple closed curve. Suppose that C is defined by the vector function
r(t), where a t b. Then C is traversed in the positive or counterclockwise direc-
0 x
tion if the region R is always on the left as the terminal point of r(t) traces the bound-
FIGURE 1 ary curve C. (See Figure 2.)
A plane region R bounded by a simple
closed plane curve C
y THEOREM 1 Green’s Theorem
C Let C be a piecewise-smooth, simple closed curve that bounds a region R in the
plane. If P and Q have continuous partial derivatives on an open set that con-
R tains R, then
Q P
r(t) 冯 P dx  Q dy  冮冮 c x  y d dA
C
(1)
0 x R

FIGURE 2 where the line integral over C is taken in the positive (counterclockwise) direc-
The curve C traversed in the positive or tion.
counterclockwise direction
 15.5 Green’s Theorem 1269

Note The notation

Historical Biography
GEORGE GREEN
(1793–1841)
冯 P dx  Q dy
C
or 冯C
P dx  Q dy

Born a miller’s son in Nottingham, George is sometimes used to indicate that the line integral over a simple closed curved C is
Green worked in his father’s grain mill for taken in the positive, or counterclockwise, direction.
most of the first forty years of his life. He
did receive some formal schooling when he Since it is not easy to prove Green’s Theorem for general regions, we will prove it
was 8 to 9 years old, but Nottingham had only for the special case in which the region R is both a y-simple and an x-simple
limited educational resources, and Green
region. (See Section 14.2.) Such regions are called simple or elementary regions.
quickly surpassed the education that was
available there. He studied on his own,
though it is not quite clear how he got PROOF OF GREEN’S THEOREM FOR SIMPLE REGIONS Let R be a simple region with
access to the current mathematical works. boundary C as shown in Figure 3. Since
However, in 1828 Green published “An Essay
on the Application of Mathematical Analy-
sis to the Theories of Electricity and Mag- 冯 P dx  Q dy  冯 P dx  冯 Q dy
C C C
netism.” This work included the theorem
that is now known as Green’s Theorem. The we can consider each integral on the right separately. Since R is a y-simple region, it
essay was sold to only 51 people, many of can be described as
whom are believed to have been friends of
Green’s, who probably did not understand R  {(x, y) 冟 a x b, f1 (x) y f2 (x)}
the importance of the work. Eventually,
Green’s talents were recognized by where f1 and f2 are continuous on [a, b]. Observe that the boundary C of R consists of
acquaintances who were more connected the curves C1 and C2 that are the graphs of the functions f1 and f2 as shown in the fig-
to academia, and he enrolled as an under- ure. Therefore,
graduate at Cambridge in 1833 at the age

冯 P dx  冮 冮
of 40. Green graduated in 1837 with the
fourth highest scores in his class. He P dx  P dx
C C1 C2
stayed on at Caius College, Cambridge and
was elected a fellow in 1839. During his where C1 and C2 are oriented as shown in Figure 3.
time at Cambridge he made significant
Observe that the point (x, f1 (x)) traces C1 as x increases from a to b, whereas the
contributions to areas such as optics,
acoustics, and hydrodynamics. Green’s point (x, f2 (x)) traces C2 as x decreases from b to a. Therefore,
health was poor, and he died in Notting-
ham in1841. Because of the limited contact
he had with his scientific contemporaries,
冯 P dx  冯
C C1
P dx  冯C2
P dx
most of Green’s work was not appreciated b a
during his lifetime.  冮
a
P(x, f1 (x)) dx  冮
b
P(x, f2 (x)) dx
b b

y
C2
 冮
a
P(x, f1 (x)) dx  冮
a
P(x, f2 (x)) dx

y  f 2(x) b

R
 冮
a
[P(x, f1 (x))  P(x, f2(x))] dx (2)

Next, we find
b f2(x)
P P
C1
y  f 1(x) 冮冮 y
dA  冮冮
a f1(x) y
(x, y) dy dx
R
0 a b x
b

FIGURE 3  冮a
[P(x, f2 (x))  P(x, f1 (x))] dx (3)
The simple region R viewed as a
y-simple region where the last equality is obtained with the aid of the Fundamental Theorem of Cal-
culus. Comparing Equation (3) with Equation (2), we see that
P
冯 P dx  冮冮 y dA
C
(4)
R
1270 Chapter 15 Vector Analysis

y By viewing R as an x-simple region (Figure 4),

d
x  g1(y) x  g2(y) R  {(x, y) 冟 c y d, t1 (y) x t2 (y)}
R you can show in a similar manner that
C1 C2
Q
c 冯 Q dy  冮冮 x dA
C
(5)
R
0 x

FIGURE 4 (See Exercise 48.) Adding Equation (4) and Equation (5), we obtain Equation (1), the
The simple region R viewed as an conclusion of Green’s Theorem for the case of a simple region.
x-simple region

EXAMPLE 1 Evaluate 养C x 2 dx  (xy  y 2) dy, where C is the boundary of the

region R bounded by the graphs of y  x and y  x 2 and is oriented in a positive di-
rection.

y Solution The region R is shown in Figure 5. Observe that R is simple. Using Green’s
Theorem with P(x, y)  x 2 and Q(x, y)  xy  y 2, we have
1 (1, 1)
Q P
1 x

yx
C
冯x
C
2
dx  (xy  y 2) dy  冮冮 c x  y d dA  冮 冮 (y  0) dy dx 0 x2
y  x2 R
R 1 yx 1

冮 c y2d 冮
1 1
 dx  (x 2  x 4) dx
0 2 yx2 2 0
0 1 x
1 1 3 1 5 1
a x  x b` 
1
FIGURE 5 
2 3 5 0 15
The curve C is the boundary of
the region R.
EXAMPLE 2 Evaluate 养C (y 2  tan x) dx  (x 3  2xy  1y) dy, where C is the
circle x 2  y 2  4 and is oriented in a positive direction.

y Solution The simple region R bounded by C is the disk R  {(x, y) 冟 x 2  y 2 4}

shown in Figure 6. Using Green’s Theorem with P(x, y)  y 2  tan x and Q(x, y) 
x2  y2  4
x 3  2xy  1y, we find
R
Q  3 P  2
 (x  2xy  1y)  3x 2  2y and  (y  tan x)  2y
2 0 2 x x x y y
C and so
Q P
FIGURE 6 冯 (y
C
2
 tan x) dx  (x 3  2xy  1y) dy  冮冮 c x  y d dA  冮冮 3x 2
dA
The region R is the disk bounded R R
by the circle x 2  y 2 4. 2p 2
3 冮 冮0 0
(r cos u)2r dr du
Use polar
coordinates.

2p 2
3 冮 冮0 0
r 3 cos2 u dr du
2p r2

冮 c r 4 cos2 ud
1
3 du
0 4 r0
 15.5 Green’s Theorem 1271

2p
 12 冮 0
cos2 u du
2p
6 冮0
(1  cos 2u) du

2p
1
 6cu  sin 2ud  12p
2 0

The results obtained in Examples 1 and 2 can be verified by evaluating the given
line integrals directly without the benefit of Green’s Theorem, but this entails much
more work than evaluating the corresponding double integrals. In certain situations,
however, the opposite is true; that is, it is easier to evaluate a line integral than it is to
evaluate the corresponding double integral. This fact is exploited in the following for-
mulas based on Green’s Theorem for finding the area of a plane region.

THEOREM 2 Finding Area Using Line Integrals

Let R be a plane region bounded by a piecewise-smooth simple closed curve C.
Then the area of R is given by

冯 x dy   冯 y dx  2 冯 x dy  y dx
1
A (6)
C C C

PROOF Taking P(x, y)  0 and Q(x, y)  x, Green’s Theorem gives

Q P
冯 x dy  冮冮 c x  y d dA  冮冮 1 dA  A
C
R R

Similarly, by taking P(x, y)  y and Q(x, y)  0, we have

Q P
冯 y dx  冮冮 c x  y d dA  冮冮 1 dA  A
C
R R

Finally, with P(x, y)  12 y and Q(x, y)  1

2 x, we have
Q P
冯 冯 P dx  Q dy  冮冮 c x  y d dA  冮冮 a 2  2 b dA  A
1 1 1 1
 y dx  x dy 
C 2 2 C
R R

x2 y2
EXAMPLE 3 Find the area enclosed by the ellipse   1.
a2 b2
Solution The ellipse C can be represented by the parametric equations x  a cos t
and y  b sin t, where 0 t 2p. Also observe that the ellipse is traced in the coun-
terclockwise direction as t increases from 0 to 2p. Using Equation (6), we have
2p

冯 冮
1 1
A x dy  y dx  (a cos t)(b cos t) dt  (b sin t)(a sin t) dt
2 C 2 0
2p

冮
ab
 dt  pab
2 0
1272 Chapter 15 Vector Analysis

Green’s Theorem for More General Regions

y So far, we have proved Green’s Theorem for the case in which R is a simple region,
C1
but the theorem can be extended to the case in which the region R is a finite union of
R1 simple regions. For example, the region R shown in Figure 7 is not simple, but it can
C3 be written as R  R1 傼 R2, where R1 and R2 are both simple. The boundary of R1 is
C1 傼 C3, and the boundary of R2 is C2 傼 C4, where C3 and C4 are paths along the
C4
crosscut traversed in the indicated directions.
R2
Applying Green’s Theorem to each of the regions R1 and R2 gives
C2
Q P
0 x 冯 P dx  Q dy  冮冮 c x  y d dA
C1 傼C3 R1
FIGURE 7
The region R is the union of two simple and
Q P
regions R1 and R2.
冯 P dx  Q dy  冮冮 c x  y d dA
C2 傼C4 R2
y
Adding these two equations and observing that the line integrals along C3 and C4 can-
R3
cel each other, we obtain
Q P
R1
冯 P dx  Q dy  冯 P dx  Q dy  冯 P dx  Q dy  冮冮 c x  y d dA
R2 C1 傼C3 C2 傼C4 C1 傼C2 R

which is Green’s Theorem for the region R  R1 傼 R2 with boundary C  C1 傼 C2.

A similar argument enables us to establish Green’s Theorem for the general case
0 x in which R is the union of any finite number of nonoverlapping, except perhaps for the
common boundaries, simple regions (see Figure 8).
FIGURE 8
The region R is a union of three simple
regions R1, R2, and R3. EXAMPLE 4 Evaluate 养C (ex  y 2) dx  (x 2  3xy) dy, where C is the positively ori-
ented closed curve lying on the boundary of the semiannular region R bounded by the
upper semicircles x 2  y 2  1 and x 2  y 2  9 and the x-axis as shown in Figure 9.
y
x2  y2  9
Solution The region R is not simple, but it can be divided into two simple regions by
means of the crosscut that is the intersection of R and the y-axis. Also notice that in
polar coordinates,
R
R  {(r, u) 冟 1 r 3, 0 u p}
Using Green’s Theorem with P(x, y)  ex  y 2 and Q(x, y)  x 2  3xy, we have
3 1 0 1 3 x
x2  y2  1
Q  2 P  x
 (x  3xy)  2x  3y and  (e  y 2)  2y
FIGURE 9 x x y y
The region R is divided into two
and so
simple regions by the crosscut that
Q P
冯 (e 冮冮 c x  y d dA  冮冮 (2x  y) dA
lies on the y-axis. x
 y 2) dx  (x 2  3xy) dy 
C
R R
p 3
 冮 冮 (2r cos u  r sin u)r dr du
0 1
Use polar
coordinates.

p 3

冮 (2 cos u  sin u) c r 3 d du
1

0 3 1

C2 sin u  cos uD 0 
26 p 52

3 3
 15.5 Green’s Theorem 1273

y Green’s Theorem can be extended to even more general regions. Recall that a region
R1 R is simply-connected if for every simple closed curve C that lies in R, the region
bounded by C is also in R. Thus, as was noted earlier, a simply-connected region “has
R no holes.” For example, a rectangle is simply-connected, but an annulus (a ring bounded
by two concentric circles) is not. Also, multiply-connected regions may have one or
C2
R2 more holes in them and also may have boundaries that consist of two or more simple
C1 closed curves. For example, the annular region R shown in Figure 10 has a boundary
C consisting of two simple closed curves C1 and C2. Observe that C is traversed in the
0 x positive direction provided that C1 is traversed in the counterclockwise direction and
C2 is traversed in the clockwise direction (so that the region R always lies to the left
FIGURE 10
The annular region R can be divided
as the curve is traced).
into two simple regions using two The region R can be divided into two simple regions, R1 and R2, by means of two
crosscuts. crosscuts, as shown in Figure 10. Applying Green’s Theorem to each of these subre-
gions of R, we obtain
Q P Q P Q P
冮冮 c x  y d dA  冮冮 c x  y d dA  冮冮 c x  y d dA
R R1 R2

 冮冮 P dx  Q dy  冮冮 P dx  Q dy
R1 R2

where R1 and R2 denote the boundaries of R1 and R2, respectively. Since the line
integrals along the crosscuts are traversed in opposite directions, they cancel out, and
we have
Q P
冮冮 c x  y d dA  冯 C1
P dx  Q dy  冯
C2
P dx  Q dy  冯 P dx  Q dy
C
R

which is Green’s Theorem for the region R. Observe that the second line integral above
is traversed in the clockwise direction.

EXAMPLE 5 Let C be a smooth, simple, closed curve that does not pass through the
origin. Show that
冯
y x
 2 dx  2 dy
C x y 2
x  y2
is equal to zero if C does not enclose the origin but is equal to 2p if C encloses the
origin.

y Solution Suppose that C does not enclose the origin. (See Figure 11.) Using Green’s
Theorem with P(x, y)  y>(x 2  y 2) and Q(x, y)  x>(x 2  y 2) so that

R Q (x 2  y 2)(1)  x(2x) y2  x 2
 
x (x 2  y 2)2 (x 2  y 2)2
C and
P (x 2  y 2)(1)  (y)(2y) y2  x 2 Q
  
y (x  y )
2 2 2
(x  y )
2 2 2 x
0 x we obtain
FIGURE 11
Q P
冯 x 冮冮 c x  y d dA  冮冮 0 dA  0
y x
C does not enclose the origin. dx  dy 
C
2
y 2
x y 2 2
R R

Here, R denotes the region enclosed by C.

1274 Chapter 15 Vector Analysis

y Next, suppose that C encloses the origin. Since P and Q are not continuous in the
region enclosed by C, Green’s Theorem is not directly applicable. Let C¿ be a coun-
terclockwise-oriented circle with center at the origin and radius a chosen small enough
so that C¿ lies inside C. (See Figure 12.) Then both P and Q have continuous partial
a
derivatives in the annular region bounded by C and C¿. Applying Green’s Theorem to
0 R x the multiply-connected region R with its positively oriented boundary C 傼 (C¿), we
C obtain
C
Q P
FIGURE 12
冯 P dx  Q dy  冯
C C¿
P dx  Q dy  冮冮 c x  y d dA  冮冮 0 dA  0
R R
C encloses the origin.
or, upon reversing the direction of traversal of the second line integral,

冯 P dx  Q dy  冯
C C¿
P dx  Q dy  0

Therefore,

冯 P dx  Q dy  冯
C C¿
P dx  Q dy

Up to this point, we have shown that the required line integral is equal to the line
integral taken over the circle C¿ in the counterclockwise direction. To evaluate this inte-
gral, we represent the circle by the parametric equations x  a cos t and y  a sin t,
where 0 t 2p. We obtain
2p

冯 冮
y x (a sin t)(a sin t) (a cos t)(a cos t)
 dx  dy   dt  dt
C¿ x y
2 2
x y
2 2
0 (a cos t)  (a sin t)
2 2
(a cos t)2  (a sin t)2
2p
 冮
0
1 dt  2p

Therefore,

冯 x
y x
dx  dy  2p
C
2
y 2
x  y2
2

Vector Form of Green’s Theorem

The vector form of Green’s Theorem has two useful versions: one involving the curl
of a vector field and another involving the divergence of a vector field.
Suppose that the curve C, the plane region R, and the functions P and Q satisfy the
hypothesis of Green’s Theorem. Let F  Pi  Qj be a vector field. Then

冯 F ⴢ T ds  冯 P dx  Q dy
C C

Recalling that P and Q are functions of x and y, we have

i j k
   Q P
F∞ ∞a bk
Remember that P and Q are
curl F  § 
x y z x y functions of x and y.

P Q 0
 15.5 Green’s Theorem 1275

so
Q P Q P
(curl F) ⴢ k  a  bk ⴢ k  
x y x y
Therefore, Green’s Theorem can be written in the vector form

冯 F ⴢ T ds  冮冮curl F ⴢ k dA
C
(7)
R

Equation (7) states that the line integral of the tangential component of F around
a closed curve C is equal to the double integral of the normal component to R of
curl F over the region R enclosed by C.
Next, let the curve C be represented by the vector equation r(t)  x(t)i  y(t)j,
a t b. Then the outer unit normal vector to C is
y¿(t) x¿(t)
n(t)  i j
冟 r¿(t) 冟 冟 r¿(t) 冟

which you can verify by showing that n(t) ⴢ T(t)  0, where

x¿(t) y¿(t)
T(t)  i j
冟 r¿(t) 冟 冟 r¿(t) 冟

y is the unit tangent vector to C. (See Figure 13.) We have

T(t) n(t) b

冯C
F ⴢ n ds  冮
a
(F ⴢ n)(t) 冟 r¿(t) 冟 dt
R b

冮 c d 冟 r¿(t) 冟 dt
P(x(t), y(t))y¿(t) Q(x(t), y(t))x¿(t)
 
a
冟 r¿(t) 冟 冟 r¿(t) 冟
b b

冮 冮
r(t) C
 P(x(t), y(t))y¿(t) dt  Q(x(t), y(t))x¿(t) dt
0 x a a

FIGURE 13
n(t) is the outer normal vector to C.  冯 P dy  Q dx
C

But by Green’s Theorem,

 
冯 P dy  Q dx  冮冮 c x (P)  y (Q)d dA
C
R

P Q
 冮冮 a x  y b dA
R

Observing that the integrand of the last integral is just the divergence of F, we obtain
the second vector form of Green’s Theorem:

冯 F ⴢ n ds  冮冮 div F dA
C
(8)
R

Equation (8) states that the line integral of the normal component of F around a closed
curve C is equal to the double integral of the divergence of F over R.
1276 Chapter 15 Vector Analysis

15.5 CONCEPT QUESTIONS

1. State Green’s Theorem. 2. Write three line integrals that give the area of a region
bounded by a piecewise smooth curve C.

15.5 EXERCISES

冯
In Exercises 1–4, evaluate the line integral (a) directly and
(b) by using Green’s Theorem, where C is positively oriented. 11. (x 2  y) dx  21  y 2 dy, where C is the astroid
C

冯 2xy dx  3xy  y 2>3  a 2>3

2>3
2 x
1. dy, where C is the square with vertices

冯 6xy dx  (3x
C
(0, 0), (1 , 0), (1, 1), and (0, 1) 12. 2
 ln(1  y)) dy, where C is the cardioid
C

2. 冯x 2
dx  xy dy, where C is the triangle with vertices
r  1  cos u

冯
C
(0, 0), (1, 0), and (0, 1) 13. (x  ex sin y) dx  (x  ex cos y) dy, where C is the
C
x2 y2
 1
3. 冯y
C
2
dx  (x 2  2xy) dy, where C is the boundary of the
ellipse
9 4

冯
region bounded by the graphs of y  x and y  x 3 lying in y
14. dx  (x  tan1 x) dy, where C is the right-hand
the first quadrant 1  x2
C
loop of the lemniscate r 2  cos 2u
4. 冯 2x dx  3y dy, where C is the circle x 2
 y2  a2
C 15. 冯 C
(y dx  x dy), where C is the boundary of the annular

In Exercises 5–16, use Green’s Theorem to evaluate the line region formed by circles x 2  y 2  1 and x 2  y 2  4
integral along the positively oriented closed curve C.
16. 冯 3x y dx  (x
2
 x) dy, where C is the boundary of
3

5. 冯C
x dx  xy dy, where C is the triangle with vertices
3 C
the region lying between the ellipse
x2

y2
 1 and the
4 9
(0, 0), (1 , 1), and (0, 1) circle x 2  y 2  1
17. Use Green’s Theorem to find the work done by the force
6. 冯C
(x 2  y 2) dx  2xy dy, where C is the square with F(x, y)  (x 2  y 2)i  2xyj in moving a particle in the pos-
itive direction once around the triangle with vertices (0, 0),
vertices ( 1, 1) (1, 0), and (0, 1).

7. 冯C
(x 2y  x 3) dx  2xy dy, where C is the boundary of the 18. Use Green’s Theorem to find the work done by the force
F(x, y)  3yi  2xj in moving a particle once around the
region bounded by the graphs of y  x and y  x 2 x2 y2
ellipse   1 in the clockwise direction.
4 9
8. 冯C
2
(y 3  cos x) dx  e y dy, where C is the boundary of
In Exercises 19–22, use one of the formulas on page 1271 to find
the region bounded by the parabolas y  x 2 and x  y 2
the area of the indicated region.

9. 冯C
(y 2  cos x) dx  (x  tan1 y) dy, where C is the 19. The region enclosed by the astroid x 2>3  y 2>3  a 2>3
20. The region bounded by an arc of the cycloid
boundary of the region bounded by the graphs of x  a(t  sin t), y  a(1  cos t), and the x-axis
y  4  x 2 and y  0
21. The region enclosed by the curve x  a sin t and
10. 冯C
x 2y dx  y 3 dy, where C consists of the line segment y  b sin 2t
22. The region enclosed by the curve x  cos t and y  4 sin3 t,
from (1, 0) to (1, 0) and the upper half of the circle where 0 t 2p
x 2  y2  1

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