VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

BELGAVI, KARNATAKA-590018

SUBJECT: Computer Networks

A Report on

“TRANSPORT LAYER AND WORLD WIDE WEB”

By

NAME : NANDINI H S USN : 4GM22CS071

NIKITHA G R 4GM22CS074
RAMYA R S 4GM22CS087
SAHANA D T 4GM22CS090

Under the guidance of

Ms. Ranjitha D S
Asst. Professor

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

AND ENGINEERING

Srishyla Educational Trust (R), Bheemasamudra

GM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DAVANAGERE
Approved by AICTE| Affiliated by VTU, Belagavi | Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka
GMIT Campus, P.B. Road, Davangere – 577 006.
2023-2024
 Using Services of the Transport Layer

• A pair of processes provide services to the users of the Internet, human or programs.
• A pair of processes, however, need to use the services provided by the transport
layer for communication because there is no physical communication at the
application layer.
• There are three common transport-layer protocols in the TCP/IP suite: UDP, TCP,
and SCTP.
• Most standard applications have been designed to use the services of one of these
protocols.
• When we write a new application, we can decide which protocol we want to use.
The choice of the transport layer protocol seriously affects the capability of the
application processes.

UDP Protocol:

• UDP provides connectionless, unreliable, datagram service.

• Connectionless service means that there is no logical connection between the two
ends exchanging messages.
• Each message is an independent entity encapsulated in a datagram. UDP does not
see any relation (connection) between consequent datagrams coming from the same
source and going to the same destination.
• UDP is not a reliable protocol. Although it may check that the data is not corrupted
during the transmission, it does not ask the sender to resend the corrupted or lost
datagram.
• For some applications, UDP has an advantage: it is message-oriented. It gives
boundaries to the messages exchanged.
• An application program may be designed to use UDP if it is sending small messages
and the simplicity and speed is more important for the application than reliability.
For example, some management and multimedia applications fit in this category.

TCP Protocol:

• TCP provides connection-oriented, reliable, byte-stream service.

• TCP requires that two ends first create a logical connection between themselves by
exchanging some connection-establishment packets.
• This phase, which is sometimes called handshaking, establishes some parameters
between the two ends, including the size of the data packets to be exchanged, the
size of buffers to be used for holding the chunks of data until the whole message
arrives, and so on.
• After the handshaking process, the two ends can send chunks of data in segments
in each direction.
• By numbering the bytes exchanged, the continuity of the bytes can be checked. For
example, if some bytes are lost or corrupted, the receiver can request the resending
of those bytes, which makes TCP a reliable protocol.
• TCP also can provide flow control and congestion control. One problem with the
TCP protocol is that it is not message-oriented; it does not put boundaries on the
messages exchanged.
• Most of the standard applications that need to send long messages and require
reliability may benefit from the service of the TCP.

SCTP Protocol:

• SCTP provides a service which is a combination of the two other protocols.

• Like TCP, SCTP provides a connection-oriented, reliable service, but it is not byte
stream oriented.
• It is a message-oriented protocol like UDP. In addition, SCTP can provide multi-
stream service by providing multiple network-layer connections.
• SCTP is normally suitable for any application that needs reliability and at the same
time needs to remain connected, even if a failure occurs in one network-layer
connection.

Iterative Communication Using UDP:

• Communication between a client program and a server program can occur

iteratively or concurrently.
• Although several client programs can access the same server program at the same
time, the server program can be designed to respond iteratively or concurrently.
• An iterative server can process one client request at a time; it receives a request,
processes it, and sends the response to the requestor before handling another
request.
• When the server is handling the request from a client, the requests from other
clients, and even other requests from the same client, need to be queued at the server
site and wait for the server to be freed.
• The received and queued requests are handled in the first-in, first-out fashion. In
this section, we discuss iterative communication using UDP.

Sockets Used for UDP:

• In UDP communication, the client and server use only one socket each.
• The socket created at the server site lasts forever; the socket created at the client
site is closed (destroyed) when the client process terminates.
• In other words, different clients use different sockets, but the server creates only
one socket and changes only the remote socket address each time a new client
makes a connection.
• This is logical, because the server does know its own socket address, but does not
know the socket addresses of the clients who need its services; it needs to wait for
the client to connect before filling this part of the socket address.

• There are multiple clients, but only one server. Each client is served in each iteration
of the loop in the server.
• There is no connection establishment or connection termination. Each client sends
a single datagram and receives a single datagram.
• If a client wants to send two datagrams, it is considered as two clients for the server.
The second datagram needs to wait for its turn. The diagram also shows the status
of the socket after each action.

Server Process:

• The server makes a passive open, in which it becomes ready for the communication,
but it waits until a client process makes the connection.
• It creates an empty socket. It then binds the socket to the server and the well-known
port, in which only part of the socket (the server socket address) is filled (binding
can happen at the time of creation depending on the underlying language).
• The server then issues a receive request command, which blocks until it receives a
request from a client. The server then fills the rest of the socket (the client socket
section) from the information obtained in the request.
• The request is the process and the response is sent back to the client. The server
now starts another iteration waiting for another request to arrive (an infinite loop).
that in each iteration, the socket becomes only half-filled again; the client socket
address is erased. It is totally filled only when a request arrives.

Client Process:

• The client process makes an active open.

• It starts a connection. It creates an empty socket and then issues the send command,
which fully fills the socket, and sends the request.
• The client then issues a receive command, which is blocked until a response arrives
from the server. The response is then handled and the socket is destroyed.

WORLD WIDE WEB

• The idea of the Web was first proposed by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 at CERN†, the
European Organization for Nuclear Research, to allow several researchers at
different locations throughout Europe to access each others, researches.
• The commercial Web started in the early 1990s.
• The Web today is a repository of information in which the documents, called web
pages, are distributed all over the world and related documents are linked together.
• The popularity and growth of the Web can be related to two terms in the above
statement: distributed and linked.
• Distribution allows the growth of the Web. Each web server in the world can add a
new web page to the repository and announce it to all Internet users without
overloading a few servers.
• Linking allows one web page to refer to another web page stored in another server
somewhere else in the world.
• The linking of web pages was achieved using a concept called hypertext, which was
introduced many years before the advent of the Internet.
• The idea was to use a machine that automatically retrieved another document stored
in the system when a link to it appeared in the document. The Web implemented
this idea electronically to allow the linked document to be retrieved when the link
was clicked by the user.
• Today, the term hypertext, coined to mean linked text documents, has been changed
to hypermedia, to show that a web page can be a text document, an image, an audio
file, or a video file.
• The purpose of the Web has gone beyond the simple retrieving of linked documents.
Today, the Web is used to provide electronic shopping and gaming.

Architecture:

• The WWW today is a distributed client-server service, in which a client using a

browser can access a service using a server.
• The service provided is distributed over many locations called sites. Each site holds
one or more web pages.
• Each web page, however, can contain some links to other web pages in the same or
other sites. In other words, a web page can be simple or composite.
• A simple web page has no links to other web pages; a composite web page has one
or more links to other web pages. Each web page is a file with a name and address.

Example 26.1: Assume we need to retrieve a scientific document that contains one
reference to another text file and one reference to a large image.

Web Client (Browser):

• A variety of vendors offer commercial browsers that interpret and display a web
page, and all of them use nearly the same architecture.
• Each browser usually consists of three parts: a controller, client protocols, and
interpreters.
• The controller receives input from the keyboard or the mouse and uses the client
programs to access the document.
• After the document has been accessed, the controller uses one of the interpreters to
display the document on the screen.
• The client protocol can be one of the protocols described later, such as HTTP or
FTP. The interpreter can be HTML, Java, or JavaScript, depending on the type of
document. Some commercial browsers include Internet Explorer, Netscape
Navigator, and Firefox.

Web Server:

• The web page is stored at the server. Each time a request arrives, the corresponding
document is sent to the client.
• To improve efficiency, servers normally store requested files in a cache in memory;
memory is faster to access than a disk.
• A server can also become more efficient through multithreading or multiprocessing.
In this case, a server can answer more than one request at a time. Some popular web
servers include Apache and Microsoft Internet Information Server.

Uniform Resource Locator (URL):

• A web page, as a file, needs to have a unique identifier to distinguish it from other
web pages.
• To define a web page, we need three identifiers: host, port, and path. However,
before defining the web page, we need to tell the browser what client server
application we want to use, which is called the protocol.
• This means we need four identifiers to define the web page. The first is the type of
vehicle to be used to fetch the web page; the last three make up the combination
that defines the destination object (web page).
• Protocol. The first identifier is the abbreviation for the client-server program that
we need in order to access the web page. Although most of the time the protocol is
HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol), which we will discuss shortly, we can also
use other protocols such as FTP (File Transfer Protocol).
• Host. The host identifier can be the IP address of the server or the unique name
given to the server. IP addresses can be defined in dotted decimal notation, as
described in Chapter 18 (such as 64.23.56.17); the name is normally the domain
name that uniquely defines the host, such as forouzan.com.
• Port. The port, a 16-bit integer, is normally predefined for the client-server
application. For example, if the HTTP protocol is used for accessing the web page,
the well-known port number is 80. However, if a different port is used, the number
can be explicitly given.
• Path. The path identifies the location and the name of the file in the underlying
operating system. The format of this identifier normally depends on the operating
system. In UNIX, a path is a set of directory names followed by the file name, all
separated by a slash. For example, /top/next/last/my file is a path that uniquely
defines a file named my file, stored in the directory last, which itself is part of the
directory next, which itself is under the directory top. In other words, the path lists
the directories from the top to the bottom, followed by the file name.
• To combine these four pieces together, the uniform resource locator (URL) has been
designed; it uses three different separators between the four pieces as shown below:
protocol://host/path Used most of the time
protocol://host:port/path Used when port number is needed

Web Documents:

• Static documents are fixed-content documents that are created and stored in a
server. The client can get a copy of the document only. Static documents are fixed-
content documents that are created and stored in a server.
• The client can get a copy of the document only. In other words, the contents of the
file are determined when the file is created, not when it is used. Of course, the
contents in the server can be changed, but the user cannot change them.
• When a client accesses the document, a copy of the document is sent. The user can
then use a browser to see the document. Static documents are prepared using one of
several languages: Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML), Extensible Markup
Language (XML), Extensible Style Language (XSL), and Extensible Hypertext
Markup Language (XHTML).

• A dynamic document is created by a web server whenever a browser requests the

document.
• When a request arrives, the web server runs an application program or a script that
creates the dynamic document.
• The server returns the result of the program or script as a response to the browser
that requested the document. Because a fresh document is created for each request,
the contents of a dynamic document may vary from one request to another.
• A very simple example of a dynamic document is the retrieval of the time and date
from a server.
• Time and date are kinds of information that are dynamic in that they change from
moment to moment. The client can ask the server to run a program such as the date
program in UNIX and send the result of the program to the client.
• Although the Common Gateway Interface (CGI) was used to retrieve a dynamic
document in the past, today’s options include one of the scripting languages such
as Java Server Pages (JSP), which uses the Java language for scripting, or Active
Server Pages (ASP).
• A Microsoft product that uses Visual Basic language for scripting, or ColdFusion,
which embeds queries in a Structured Query Language (SQL) database in the
HTML document.

• Active document we need a program or a script to be run at the client site. These
are called active documents.
• For example, suppose we want to run a program that creates animated graphics on
the screen or a program that interacts with the user.
• The program definitely needs to be run at the client site where the animation or
interaction takes place.
• When a browser requests an active document, the server sends a copy of the
document or a script.
• The document is then run at the client (browser) site. One way to create an active
document is to use Java applets, a program written in Java on the server.
• It is compiled and ready to be run. The document is in bytecode (binary) format.
Another way is to use Java Scripts but download and run the script at the client site.