ONE DIMENSIONAL TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION

2.7 INTRODUCTION
Transient heat conduction is one in which the heat flow and the temperature distribution at any
point of the system vary continuously with time.
ie T = f (x, y, z, t) where x, y, z are the coordinates, t is the time
Transient heat conduction is also called as unsteady state heat transfer
For one - dimensional transient conduction heat transfer T = f (x, t)
Transient heat conduction occurs in
(i) Heating or cooling of metal billets
(ii) Cooling of IC engines
(iii) Bricks burning and vulcanisation of rubber
(iv) Stopping and starting of various heat exchange units in power plants.
Change in temperature during unsteady state heat transfer may be periodic or non - periodic
(i) Periodic Variation: In this, temperature changes in repeated cycles and conditions get repeated
after some fixed time interval.
Examples:
(a) Temperature variation in IC engine cylinder. During each cycle, a definite variation of
temperature occurs with respect to the crank angle and this change continues as long as
the engine continues to operate. The profile of temperature variation with crank angle for
one cycle is called temperature wave and the duration of each temperature wave is called
period.
(b) Variation of temperature of a building during a full day of 24 hours
(c) Temperature variation in surface of earth during a period of 24 hours.
(d) Heat processing of refrigerators
(e) Heat processing of regenerators whose packages are alternately heated by fuel gases and
cooled by air.
(ii) Non - periodic variation: In this, temperature changes as some non-linear function of time.
This variation is neither according to any definite pattern nor is in repeated cycles. Such
a variation includes the processes where the medium is heated or cooled by exposing it to
another medium of given thermal state.
Examples:
(a) Heating of ingots in a furnace
(b) Cooling of bars, blanks and metal billets in steel work.
(c) Various heat treatment processes
Time dependent temperature effects occur in many industrial heating, cooling and drying
processes. An increase or decrease in temperature at any instant continues until steady
temperature distribution is attained.
2.8 ANALYSIS OF TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION
The analysis of transient or unsteady heat flow can be done by using following methods.
(1) Approximation or Lumped capacity method
(2) Analytical method
(3) Use of time - Temperature charts
One Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 245
(4) Product solution
(5) Graphical solution
(6) Numerical technique
Lumped capacity or Lumped Parameter analysis
The temperature of a solid changes with both position and time. If the physical size of the
solid is very small, the temperature gradient exists in the solid can be neglected. ie variation of
temperature with position is neglected during transient heat conduction. Hence the temperature
is a function of time only. The analysis of heat transfer under such assumptions is known as
Lumped parameter analysis.
Lumped parameter solution mainly used when there is no internal temperature gradient. ie we
consider same temperature throughout the depth of solid.
2.9 EXPRESSIONS FOR TEMPERATURE VARIATION AND HEAT FLOW
USING LUMPED PARAMETER ANALYSIS

Solid

Fluid T∞, h

Consider a solid as shown in figure

Let V = Volume of the solid
A = Surface area of the solid
K = Thermal conductivity of the solid
ρ = Density of the solid.
C = Specific heat of the solid
Ti = Uniform initial temperature of solid
T = Temperature of solid at the given time interval
If the solid is suddenly immersed in a well stirred fluid kept at uniform temperature T∞ at time
t = 0, heat transfer between solid and fluid take place by convection.
Assuming temperature is a function of time 't' only, we have
Rate of heat flow into the Rate of increase in internal energy
=
solid of volume V in the solid of volume V
dT
hA (T¥ - T ) = mC
dt
dT
hA (T¥ - T ) = rVC [ mass m = density´ volume]
dt
dT hA
= (T¥ - T)
dt rVC
-hA
= (T - T¥ )
rVC
dT -hA
= dt
 dT
hA (T¥ - T ) = mC
dt
246 dT
hA (T¥ - T ) = rVC [ mass m = density´ volume] Heat Transfer
dt
dT hA
= (T¥ - T)
dt rVC
-hA
= (T - T¥ )
rVC
dT -hA
= dt
T - T¥ rVC
Integrating the above expression
dT -hA
ò = ò dt
T - T¥ rVC
-hA
log e (T - T¥ ) = t + C1 ----(1)
rVC
Applying initial boundary condition
ie at t = 0, T = Ti
Equation (1) become
− hA
log e ( Ti − T∞ ) = × 0 + C1 ⇒ log e ( Ti − T∞ ) = C1
rVC
Substituting C1 in equation (1)
-hAt
log e (T - T¥ ) = + log e (Ti - T¥ )
rVC
-hAt
log e (T - T¥ ) - log e (Ti - T¥ ) =
rVC
æ T - T¥ ö÷ -hAt
log e çç ÷=
çè Ti - T¥ ø÷÷ rVC
-hAt
T - T¥
= e rVC ------(2)
Ti - T¥

This is temperature variation expression for 1 - dimensional transient heat conduction.
-hAt
The exponential term can be arranged as
rVC
hAt hA æç VKt ö÷
= ç ÷ [ multiplying and dividing by V, K, A ]
rVC KA çè rV 2 C ø÷÷
But V = A ´ Lc
hAt h ´ A ´ Lc çæ A 2 Kt ÷ö
\ = çç 2 2 ÷÷
rVC KA è rA Lc ÷ø
æ hL ÷öçæ K t ÷ö
= çç c ÷ç
÷ç ÷
èç K øèç rC L2c ø÷÷
 But V = A ´ Lc
hAt h ´ A ´ Lc çæ A 2 Kt ÷ö
\ Dimensional
One = çç Heat
Transient ÷
Conduction
2 2 ÷
247
rVC KA è rA Lc ÷ø
æ hL ÷öçæ K t ÷ö
= çç c ÷ç
÷ç ÷
èç K øçè rC L2c ø÷÷
æ hL ÷öçæ a t ÷ö
= çç c ÷÷çç ÷
èç K øçè L2 ÷ø÷
c

K
Where a = = Thermal diffusivity of the solid.
rC
LC = Characteristic length of the solid which is equal to the ratio of the volume of solid to its
surface area.
hLc
The term is called Biot Number (Bi)
K
at
is called Fourier Number (Fo)

L2c
hAt
= Bi Fo
rVC
Equation (2) can be written as
T - T¥
= e Bi Fo ----(3)
Ti - T¥

Instantaneous heat flow rate
The instantaneous heat flow rate is obtained by differentiating equation (2) with respect to 't'
dT
\ Qi = rVC
dt
From equation (2) we get
-hAt

T = T¥ + (Ti - T¥ ) e rVC

d éê
-hAt ù

= rVC ê T¥ + ( i ¥ ) rVC úú
T - T e
dt ëê ûú

é hAt ù
æ -hA ö÷ -rVC
= rVC êê 0 + (Ti - T¥ )çç ÷÷ e ú
ú
ç
è rVC ø÷
ëê ûú
-hAt

Qi = -hA (Ti - T¥ ) e rVC

------(4)
Qi = -hA (Ti - T¥ ) e-Bi Fo ------(5)

This is the expression for instantaneous heat flow rate
Unit of instantaneous heat flow rate is Watts
248 Heat Transfer

Total heat flow

Total heat flow (loss or gain) is obtained by integrating equation (4) over time interval 0 to t
-hAt
t t
Q t = ò o Qi dt = ò o -hA (Ti - T¥ ) e rVC
dt
t
é -
hAt ù
ê e rVC ú é -hAt -hA
´0 ù
ê
= ê-hA (Ti - T¥ ) ú = r VC ( T - T ) ê e rVC
- e rVC ú
-hA/rVC úú
i ¥ ê ú
ê ëê ûú
ë ûo
æ -hAt ö÷
= rVC (Ti - T¥ )çççe rVC -1÷÷
èç ÷ø÷

Q t = rVC (Ti - T¥ )(e-Bi Fo -1) Joules

Note: 1 Characteristic Length for different types of objects
(i) Rectangular slab
Volume V A´L
Lc = = = [Two surface areas ]
Surface area A 2A
L
=
2
(ii) Cylinder
V 4pR 2 L R
Lc = = =
A 2pRL 2
(iii)Sphere
4
pR 3
V 3 R
Lc = = 2
=
A 4pR 3
(iv) Cube
L3 L
Lc = 2
=
6L 6
Ti + T¥
2. Time required for a lumped system to reach the average temperature of
2
We know that
-hAt
T - T¥
= e rVC
Ti - T¥
Ti + T¥
When T = , the above equation become
2
Ti + T¥
- T¥ -hAt
2 = e rVC
Ti - T¥
 T - T¥
= e rVC
Ti - T¥
One Dimensional T + T¥ 249
When T Transient
= i Heat Conduction
, the above equation become
2
Ti + T¥
- T¥ -hAt
2 = e rVC
Ti - T¥
(Ti - T¥ ) -hAt

= e rVC
2 (Ti - T¥ )
-hAt
1
= e rVC
2
Taking log e on both sides
-hAt
log e 1/2 = log e e
rVC
-hAt
-0.6932 =
rVC
rVC
t = 0.6932
hA
3. Thermal time constant (tc)
rVC
The quantity has the dimensions of time and is called the thermal time constant. Its
hA
value is indicative of the rate of response to a sudden change in the environmental temperature,
how fast a body will respond to a change in the environmental temperature.

2.10 SIGNIFICANCE OF BIOT AND FOURIER NUMBERS

Biot Number
hLc
Biot numbers is given by Bi =
K
Lc
Conduction thermal resistance
= KA =
1 Covection thermal resistance
hA
ie Biot number is the ratio of internal resistance due to conduction to the surface resistance due
to convection.
When Bi = 1, effectiveness is unity, hence there is no use of fins as it will not increase heat flow.
When Bi > 1, effectiveness is less than 1, there is an adverse effect on heat flow and fin works as
insulator
When Bi < 1, effectiveness is greater than unity and is the most desirable case. This is possible by
using high conducting material for fin like aluminium or copper.
250 Heat Transfer

Fourier Number
at
Fourier Number is given by
L2c
Fourier Number is defined as the ratio of the rate of heat conduction to the rate of the thermal
energy storage in the solid.
dT dT
KA KA
L = L = KAt
ie Fo =
dT dT rA ´ Lc CLc
mC rVC
dt t
K t at
= ´ 2 = 2
rC L c L c
It signifies the degree of penetration of heating or cooling effect through a solid. Higher the
Fourier number, deeper will be the penetration of heat into the solid during a given time.
2.11 TIME CONSTANT AND RESPONSE OF TEMPERATURE MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
Measurement of temperature by a thermocouple is an important application of Lumped
capacity method.
Response of a thermocouple is defined as the time required for the thermocouple to attain the
source temperature
We know that
hAt
T - T¥ -
= e rVC
Ti - T¥
rVC
Larger the quantity of the faster the exponential term will approach zero or the more
hA ,
rapid will be the response of the temperature measuring device.
This can be achieved by increasing the value of h or by decreasing the wire diameter. Hence a
very thin wire is recommended for use in thermocouple to ensure a rapid response.
rVC
The term is called time constant
hA
rVC
Time constant = tc
hA
T - T¥
= e-t/t c
Ti - T¥
at t = t c , we get
T - T¥
= e-1 = 0.368 = 36.8%
Ti - T¥
It is defined as the time required for the temperature change to reach 36.8% of its final value in
One Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 251
response to a step change in temperature ie temperature difference would be reduced by 63.2%.
The time required by a thermocouple to reach its 63.2% of the value of initial temperature
difference is called its sensitivity.
2.12 ANALYSIS OF TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION USING HEISLER'S
AND GROBER CHARTS
Heisler charts are nothing but analytical solutions in the form of graph. These charts are prepared
To - T¥
taking dimensionless temperature versus Fourier's number for various values of Bi for
Ti - T¥
solids of different geometrical shapes such as plates, cylinders and spheres. These charts gave
the temperature history of solid at its mid plane x = 0. Temperatures at other locations are
worked out by correction factor read from charts.
The values of Biot Number and Fourier number used in the charts are evaluated on the basis of
characteristic parameter "semithickness" incase of plates and surface radius incase of cylinders
and spheres.
Heisler charts are extensively used to determine the temperature distribution and heat flow rate
when both conduction and convection resistance are almost of equal importance. These charts
mainly used to determine the temperature with in the solid as a function of time and position
without heat generation. Also Heisler charts are applicable when Bi is greater than 0.1.
2.13 TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION IN SEMI - INFINITE SOLIDS
An infinite solid is one which extends itself in all directions of space. If an infinite solid is split
in the middle by a plane, then each half is known as semi-infinite solid.
A semi-infinite solid is one in which at any instant of time there is always a point where the
effect of heating or cooling at one of its boundaries is not felt at all. At this point temperature
remains the same.
Examples: Case hardening of solids, Drainage or water pipes burried in soil.
The general criteria for an infinite body to be considered semi infinite subjected to 1-dimensional
heat conduction is
x
³ 0.5
2 at
Where x is the thickness of solid
α = thermal diffussivity
2.13.1 Expression for Temperature distribution in semi-infinity solid

To x
x

T∞
252 Heat Transfer

Consider a semi-infinite solid as shown in figure

The body extends infinitely in + x direction
Let Ti = Initial temperature of the body
The surface temperature at x = 0 is suddenly raised to Ts
The governing equation is
¶ 2 T 1 ¶T
=
¶x 2 a ¶t
¶ 2 q 1 ¶q
or = --(1) where q = T - T¥
¶x 2 a ¶t
The initial boundary conditions are
at t = 0 we get θ = T – T∞ for all x
at x = 0 and for all t > 0, we get θ = T∞ – T∞ = 0
and θ → θi as x → ∞ for all t
From equation (1)
¶ 2 q 1 ¶q
=
¶x 2 a ¶t
1 1 æ at ö
= or f çç 2 ÷÷÷ = q
x 2
at çè x ø
æ x 2 ÷÷ö
ç
or q = F çç ÷
çè at ÷÷ø
æ x ö÷
= F çç ÷
çè at ÷ø
æ x ö÷
Let h = çç ÷
çè 2 at ÷ø
x2
then h2 =
4at
x2
or t=
4ah2
\ The equation (1) become
¶ 2q
+ 2h = 0 ---- (2)
¶y 2
Transformed initial boundary conditions are
q ® q , as h ® ¥
q ® o as h = o for t ³ o
Integrating the equation (2)

dq
log e = C1 -h 2
dh
dq 2
 q ® qi as h ® ¥
q®0 as h = 0 for t ³ 0
One Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 253
Integrating the equation (2)
dq
log e = C1 -h 2
dh
dq 2
= C2 e-h
dh
Further integrating

q = C3 + C 2 ò e dh
-h

∫e–η dη can be solved analytically but it is tabulated and is called the error function
2 2 -h2
ie erf (z ) = ò e dn
p o
p
erf (h)
\ q = C3 + C 2
2
Applying initial and boundry conditions
ie q ® 0 at h = 0 yields C3 = 0
2q i
q ® qi at h = ¥ yields C2 =
p
\ q = qi erf (h)
q
or = erf (h)
qi
T - T¥ æ x ö÷
= erf çç ÷ ---(3)
Ti - T¥ èç 2 at ø÷

This is the temperature distribution equation for semi-infinite solids
Equation (3) can also be written as
T - T¥ 2 h -h2
= ò e dh ----(4)
Ti - T¥ p o
x
where h =
2 at
Instantaneous heat flow rate
The partial differentiation of equation (4) yields
2
¶T 2 -4ax t ¶ æç x ö÷
= (Ti - T¥ ) e ç ÷
¶x p ¶x çè 2 at ÷ø
2
¶T Ti - T¥ -4ax t
= e
¶x pat
The instantaneous heat flow rate is
254 Heat Transfer

¶T
Qi = -KA
¶x
-x 2
e4 at
Qi = -KA (Ti - T¥ ) ---- (5)
pat

This is the expression for instantaneous heat flow rate
Heat flow rate at the surface x = 0 (Put x = 0 in equation (5))
0
e 4 at
Qi = -KA (Ti - T¥ )
pat
-KA (Ti - T¥ )
Qi =
pat

The following graph shows the temperature distribution in a semi-infinite solid which is initially
at Ti and for t > 0 boundary surface at x = 0 is maintained at T∞

1.0

0.8
( Ti − T∞ )
( T − T∞ )

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4

x
η=
2 at
One Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 255

Problems on Transient Heat Conduction

NOTE: Heat and Mass transfer data book by C. P. Kothandaraman is used for solving problems.

1. A 40cm x40cm copper slab 5mm thick at a uniform temperature of 250oC suddenly has
its temperature lowered to 30oC. Find the time at which the slab temperature becomes
90oC. Properties of copper are ρ=9000kg/m3, C=0.38kJ/kgK, K=370W/ mK h = 90W/m2K
Data: Ti = 250oC, T∞ = 30oC, T = 90oC t=? L = 5 × 10 –3 m
V L´ B ´ H L
Characteristic length L c = = =
A 2B´ H 2
5´10-3
= 2.5´10-3 m
=
2
hL 90´ 2.5´10-3
Biot number Bi = c = = 6.1´10-4
K 370
Since Bi is less than 0.1, problem is solved using Lumped capacity method.
Also, temperature of the slab at its center line or at a depth is not asked to determine.
ie uniform temperature is considered throughout the section of the slab. It mean internal
temperature gradient is neglected. Therefore, Lumped parameter method is applied for
solving this method.
at K t
Fourier ' s Number Fo = 2
=
Lc rC L c 2
370 t
= ´
9000´ 0.38´10 (2.5´10-3 )2
3

Fo = 17.31t
We know that
T - T¥
= e-Bi Fo
Ti - T¥
90 - 30 -4
= e-6.1´10 ´17.31t
225 - 30
t = 123.06 Seconds
2. A stainless steel rod of outer diameter 1cm originally at a temperature of 320oC is
suddenly immersed in a liquid at 120oC for which the convective heat transfer coefficient
is 100W/m2K. Determine the time required for the rod to reach a temperature of 200oC
Data: Ti = 320oC, T∞ = 120oC, h = 100W/m2K, d = 1cm = 1 × 10 – 2m, t = ?, T = 200oC
From heat and mass transfer data book, Properties of stainless steel are ρ = 7800kg/m3,
C = 460 J/kgK, K = 40 W/mK
Since centre line temperature and temperature at a given depth are not mentioned,
256 Heat Transfer

internal temperature gradient is neglected. Therefore, Lumped parameter analysis is used

to solve this problem
2
p
dL
V d
Characteristic Length Lc = =4 = A s = Surface area
As pdL 4
1´10-2
= 2.5´10-3 m
=
4
hL 100´ 2.5´10-3
Biot Number Bi = c =
K 40
= 6.25´10-3
at K t
Fourier Number Fo = 2
= ´ 2
L c rC L c
40 t
= ´
7800´ 460 (2.5´10-3 )2
= 1.78t
T - T¥
Now = e-Bi Fo
Ti - T¥
200 -120 -3
= e-6.25´10 ´1.78t
320 -120
t = 82.18 Seconds
3. An aluminium sphere weighing 5.5kg and initially at a temperature of 290oC is suddenly
immersed in a fluid at 15oC. The convective heat transfer coefficient is 58W/m2K. Estimate
the time required to cool the aluminium to 95oC using lumped capacity method.
VTU Dec - 2010 (06)
Data: m = 5.5kg Ti = 290oC, T∞ = 15oC h = 58W/m2K T = 95oC t = ?
From HMT data book for aluminium
ρ = 2700 kg/m3, C = 900J/kgK, K = 205W/mK
Since centre line temperature and temperature at a give depth are not mentioned, internal
temperature qradient is neglected. Therefore, Lumped parameter analysis is used to solve
this problem.
Mass of sphere m = V × ρ
5.5 = V × 2700
V = 2.037 × 10 – 3 m3
4 4
Now V = pR 3 , 2.037 ´10-3 = ´pR 3
3 3
R = 0.0786m
One Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 257

4
pR 3
V
Characteristic length Lc = =3 2
As 4pR
R 0.0786
= = = 0.0262m
3 3
hL 58´ 0.0262
Biot Number Bi = c = = 7.412´10-3
K 205
at K t
Fourier Number Fo = 2 =
Lc rC L c 2
205 t
= ´ = 0.1229t
2700´900 0.02622
T - T¥
Now = e-Bi Fo
Ti - T¥
90 -15 -3
= e-7.412´10 ´0.1229t
290 -15
t = 1357 Seconds
4. The average heat transfer coefficient for flow of 100oC air over a flat plate is measured by
observing the temperature-time history of a 3cm thick copper slab exposed to 100oC air.
In one test run, the initial temperature of the slab was 210oC and in 5min, the temperature
is decreased by 40oC. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient for this case. Assume ρ =
9000kg/m3, C = 0.38kJ/kgK, K = 370W/mK.
VTU Feb -2002
Data: L = 3 × 10 –2 m T∞ = 100oC Ti = 210­oC t = 5min = 300 Seconds K = 370W/mK
T = 210 – 40 = 170oC, h =? ρ = 9000 kg/m3 C = 0.38 × 103 J/kgK
Since center line temperature and temperature at a given depth not mentioned this
problem is solved by using lumped parameter analysis.
V L
Characteristic length Lc ==
A 2
3´10-2
= = 0.015m
2
hL h ´ 0.015
Biot Number Bi = c =
K 370
-5
Bi = 4.054´10 h
258 Heat Transfer

at
Fourier Number Fo =
Lc 2
K t
= ´ 2
rC L c
370 300
= ´ = 144.25
9000´ 0.38´10 0.0152
3

T - T¥
Now = e-Bi Fo
Ti - T¥
170 -100 -5 -3
= e-4.054´10 h´144.25 Þ 0.636 = e-5.85´10 h
210 -100
h = 77.24 W/m 2 K
5. A 12mm diameter mild steel sphere (K=42.5 W/mK) is placed in air stream at 27oC and
the corresponding heat transfer coefficient is 114W/m2K. Calculate i. time taken to cool
sphere from 540oC to 95oC ii. Instantaneous heat transfer rate two minutes after the
commencement of cooling iii. Total energy transferred
Properties of mild steel are ρ = 7850kg/m3, C = 475J/kgK, α = 0.043m2/hr.
VTU Aug - 2001, 2008
Data: D = 12 × 10 m K = 42.5 W/mK, T∞ = 27 C
–3 o
h = 114W/m2 oC
t = ? Ti = 540 C T = 95 C
o o
Qi = ? Qtotal = ? C = 475J/kgK
α = 0.043m2/h = 1.194 × 10 –5 m2/s, ρ = 7850 kg/m3
Since center line temperature and temperature at a given depth not mentioned, this
problem is solved by lumped parameter method
V R
Characteristic length Lc = =
A 3
12´10-3
= = 0.002m
2´3
hLc 114´ 0.002 K
Bi = = a=
K 44.53 rC
K
= 5.119´10-3 1.194´10-5 =
7850´ 475
K = 44.53W/mK
at 0.043´ t
Fo = =
L2c 0.0022
Fo = 2.99t

(i) Time taken to cool sphere from 540oC to 95oC

One Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 259

T - T¥
Now = e-Bi Fo
Ti - T¥
95 - 27 -3
= e-5.119´10 ´2.99t
540 - 27
0.1325 = e-0.01552t
log e 0.1325 = -0.01552t log e e
= -0.01552t log e e
t = 130.15 Seconds
(ii) Instantaneous heat transfer after 2 minutes
Qi = -hA (Ti - T¥ ) e-Bi Fo
hLc at
- ´
K L2c
= -hA (Ti - T¥ ) e
1.194´10-5´120
-5.119´10-3´
= -114´ 4p´ 0.006 ´(540 - 27) e
2 0.0022

Qi = -4.229W
"–" Sign indicates that the sphere gives out heat to fluid
(iii) Total energy transferred
Qtotal = ρVC (Ti – T∞) (e –BiFo – 1)
4
( )
-3
= 7850´ p´ 0.0063 ´ 475 (540 - 27)´ e-5.119´10 ´2.99´130.15 -1
3
= -1494.61 Joules.
6. A steel ball of 50mm diameter and 900oC temperature is placed in still air of temperature
30oC. Calculate the initial rate of cooling of the ball in oC/min. ρ = 7800kg/m3,
C=2kJ/kgK, h=30W/m2K, K=43.3W/mK VTU Aug 2002 (98)
-3
Data: D = 50´10-3 m , r = 50´10 = 25´10-3 m
2
Ti = 900oC, T∞ = 30oC t = 1min = 60seconds
ρ = 7800kg/m3 C = 2 × 103 J/kgK, h = 30W/m2K, K = 43.3 W/mK
Since center line temperature and temperature at a given depth are not mentioned this
problem is solved by Lumped parameter method.
V R
Characteristic length Lc = =
A 3
25´10-3
= = 8.33´10-3 m
3
hLc 30´8.33´10-3
Biot Number Bi = =
K 43.3
-3
Bi = 5.77 ´10
at K t
Fourier Number Fo = 2
= ´ 2
L rC L
 25´10
= = 8.33´10-3 m
3
260 hL 30´8.33´10-3 Heat Transfer
Biot Number Bi = c =
K 43.3
-3
Bi = 5.77 ´10
at K t
Fourier Number Fo = 2
= ´ 2
L c rC L c
43.3 60
= ´
7800´ 2´10 (8.33´10-3 )2
3

Fo = 2.40
We have
T - T¥
= e-Bi Fo
Ti - T¥
T - 30 -3
= e-5.77´10 ´2.4
900 - 30
T = 888.035o C
Cooling rate = Ti – T
= 900 – 888.0.36
=11.96 oC/min
7. A 5cm thick iron plate (K = 60W/mK, C = 460J/kgK, ρ = 7350kg/m3) is initially at 225oC.
Suddenly the plate is immersed in a fluid medium maintained at a uniform temperature
of 25oC with a surface heat transfer coefficient of 500W/m2K. Calculate i. the temperature
at the centre of the plate 2min after the start of the cooling. ii. temperature at a depth of
1cm from the plate surface after the start of cooling. iii. energy removed from the plate/
m2 during this time. VTU Aug 2004
Data: L = 0.05m Ti = 225oC, T∞ = 25oC, t = 2 × 60 = 120 sec
h = 500W/m2K To = ? Tx/L= ? Q = ?
K = 60W/mK, C = 460J/kgoC, ρ = 7350kg/m3
Since, centre line temperature and temperature at a given depth are asked to determine,
internal temperature gradient cannot be neglected.
Therefore, this problem is solved by using Heisler's charts.
hLc
Biot Number Bi = For Plate
K
500´ 0.025 L 0.05
= Lc = =
60 2 2
= 0.21 = 0.025m
at K t
Fourier Number Fo = 2 = ´ 2
L c rC L c
60 120
= ´ = 3.4
7350´ 460 0.0252
(i) Temperature at the centre of plate
 141 C is the temperature
One Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 261
From Heisler's chart (Infinite plate – time temperature history at mid plane) at Bi = 0.1
& Fo = 3.4, we get

at centre of the plate

To - T¥
0 58
0 58

Bi = 0.21 = 0.54
Ti - T¥
0.54
To - 25
225 25
T 25

= 0.54
T¥
T¥

225 - 25
T
T

To = 133o C is the temperature

T

at centre of the plate

FO 3.4
(ii) Temperature at a depth of 1cm from the plate surface
1cm
x = Lc -1´10-2
x LC
= 0.025 -1´10-2 = 1.5´10-2 m
x 1.5´10-2
= = 0.4
Lc 0.025
From Heisler's chart (Infinite plate - Temperature - Time History at any position x)
x Tx/Lc - T¥
at Bi = 0.21 and = 0.4 , We get = 0.98
Lc To - T¥
Tx/Lc - 25
= 0.98
133 - 25
Tx/Lc = 130.84o C
0.98

x / LC = 0.4
Tx / LC − T∞
To − T∞

0.21
Bi
(iii) Energy removed/m2
Bi2Fo = 0.212 × 3.4 = 0.15
From Heirler's chart (Heat flow - infinite plate) at Bi2Fo = 0.15 and Bi = 0.21 We get
Q
= 0.5
Qo
262 Heat Transfer

But Q0 = mC(Ti – T∞)

= ρVC (Ti – T∞)
\ Q = 0.5 × ρVC (Ti – T∞)
Bi = 0.21
= 0.5 × 7850 × 1 × 0.05 × 460 (225 – 25)
0.5 = 16.1 ×106 J \
[ V = A × L = 1 × 0.05m3]
Q / Q0

Bi2 FO 0.15
8. A long solid cylinder (α = 0.05m2/hr, K = 50W/mK) of 5cm diameter is initially at
200oC. Suddenly it is immersed in water at 20oC. The surface heat transfer coefficient
is 200W/m2K. Determine i. centre temperature after 10min have elapsed ii. The surface
temperature after 10min have elapsed (iii). Energy removed/m length. Assume ρ =
7450kg/m3 C = 460 J/kgK VTU Jan - 2006
Data: α = 0.05m2/h = 1.389 × 10 –5 m2/s
K = 50W/mK, D = 0.05m R = 0.025m
Ti = 200oC, T∞ = 20oC, h = 200W/m2K
t = 10min = 600sec To = ? Tr / R = ? Q =?
In this problem it is required to determine temperature at centre plane as well as at
surface in the given time. It shows that internal temperature gradient is to be considered.
Therefore, solution is obtained using Heisler's charts.
For cylinder
hR 200´ 0.025
Bi = = = 0.1
K 50
at 1.389´10-5 ´ 600
Fo = 2 = = 13.33
R 0.0252
(i) Centre temperature of the cylinder
From Heisler's chart (Long cylinder - Temperature - Time history at centre line)
at Bi = 0.1 and Fo = 13.33, We get
To - T¥
= 0.13
Ti - T¥
To - 20
= 0.13
200 - 20

To = 43.4o C
 To = 141o C is the temperat
One Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 263

at centre of the plate

= 0.58
= 0.58
Bi = 0.1

225 - 25
To - 25
To - T¥
Ti - T¥
0.13

FO 13.33
(ii) Surface temperature of the cylinder
r 0.025
r = R = 0.025m; = =1
R 0.025
From Heisler's chart (Long Cylinder - Temperature - Time History at any radius r)
r
at =1 and Bi = 0.1 we get
R

Tr/R - T¥
= 0.96
r/R=1 To - T¥
Tr / R − T∞

Tr/R - 20
To − T∞

= 0.96
43.4 - 20
Tr/R = 42.46o C

0.1 Bi
(iii) Energy removed/m Length of the cylinder
Bi2Fo = 0.12 × 13.33 = 0.133
From Heisler's chart (Heat flow - long cylinder) at Bi2Fo = 0.133 and Bi = 0.1 We get
Q
= 0.87

Qo

Bi = 0.1
0.87 Q = 0.87Qo
= 0.87 × mC (Ti – T∞)
Q / Q0 = 0.87 × ρVC (Ti – T∞)
=0.87 × 7450 × π/4 × 0.052 × 1
× 460 (200 – 20)
= 1.06 MJ

Bi2 FO 0.133
264 Heat Transfer

9. An iron sphere (K=60W/moC, C=460J/kgK, ρ=7850kg/m3) of diameter 5cm is

initially at a uniform temperature Ti = 225oC. Suddenly the surface of the sphere
is exposed to an ambient at 25oC with heat transfer coefficient h = 500W/m2K.
Calculate i. the centre temperature at t = 2min after start of the cooling ii. Temperature
at a depth 1cm from the surface at time t = 2min after start of cooling iii. Energy removed
from the sphere during this time period.  VTU Jan 2008
Data: K = 60W/moC, C = 460J/kgK, ρ = 7850kg/m3 α = 1.6 × 10 –5 m2/s
D = 0.05m, R = 0.025m, Ti = 225oC, T∞ = 25oC, h = 500W/m2 oC,
t = 2min = 120Sec To = ? Tr/R = ? Q=?
In this problem, it is required to determine temperature at centre plane as well as at a
depth in the given time. It shows that internal temperature gradient (temperature change
w.r.t to radius) is to be considered. Therefore, this problem is solved using Heisler's charts.
For sphere
hR 500´ 0.025
Bi = = = 0.21
K 60
at 1.6´10-5 ´120
Fo = 2 = = 3.072 » 3.1
R 0.0252
(i) Centre temperature of the sphere
To = 141o C is the temperature

From Heisler's chart (Sphere – temperature – time history at centre)

at Bi = 0.21 and Fo = 3.1 we get
To - T¥
= 0.26
Ti - T¥
at centre of the plate

To - 25
= 0.26 To - T¥
= 0.58
= 0.58

225 - 25 = 0.26
Ti - T¥
To = 77 o C
To - 25
225 - 25
To - 25
To - T¥

= 0.26
Ti - T¥

Bi = 0.21 225 - 25
0.26
To = 77 o C

FO 3.1
(ii) Temperature at a depth of 1cm from the surface
r = R – 1 = 2.5 – 1 = 1.5cm = 1.5 × 10 –2m
r 1.5´10-2
1cm = = 0.6
R 0.025
r From Heisler's chart (Sphere temperature – time – History
R
at any radius r)
r
at = 0.6 and Bi = 0.21, we get
R
One Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 265

Tr/R - T¥
= 0.95
To - T¥
Tr/R - T¥
Tr/R - 25 = 0.95
= 0.95 To - T¥
61- 25
0.95 Tr/R - 25
Tr/R = 59.2o C r/R=1 = 0.95
77 - 25
Tr / R − T∞

Tr/R = 74.4o C
To − T∞

0.21 Bi
(iii) Energy removed
Bi2Fo = 0.212 × 3.1 = 0.137 ≈ 0.14
From Heisler's chart (Heat flow – sphere)
Q
at Bi2Fo = 0.14 and Bi = 0.21 we get = 0.88
Qo

0.88 Q = 0.88Qo
= 0.88mC (Ti – T∞)
Q / Q0 = 0.88 × ρVC (Ti – T∞)
.21 4
=0 = 0.88 × 7850 × × π × 0.0253 × 460 (225 – 25)
Bi 3
= 41595.73 Joules

Bi2 FO 0.14
10. A ball of 60mm diameter at 600oC is suddenly immersed in controlled medium at 100oC.
Calculate the time required for the ball to obtain a temperature of 150oC. Assume K =
40W/mK, ρ = 8000kg/m3, C=500J/kgK for the ball h = 20W/m2K
VTU May-2007
Data: D = 0.06m Ti = 600oC T∞ = 100oC t = ? T = 150oC K = 40W/mK, ρ = 8000kg/m3
C = 500J/kgK h = 20W/m2K
Since centre line temperature and temperature at a given depth not mentioned internal
temperature gradient is neglected.
This problem is solved by Lumped capacity method
R 0.03
Lc = = = 0.01m
3 3
hL 20´ 0.01
Bi = c = = 0.005
K 40
at K t 40 t
Fo = 2 = ´ 2 = ´ = 1t
Lc rC Lc 800 ´500 0.012
T-T -B F
 R 0.03
Lc = = = 0.01m
3 3
hL 20´ 0.01
266
Bi = c = = 0.005 Heat Transfer
K 40
at K t 40 t
Fo = 2 = ´ 2 = ´ = 0.1t
Lc rC L c 8000 ´500 0.012
T - T¥
= e-Bi Fo
Ti - T¥
150 -100
= e-0.005´0.1´t
600 -100
t = 4605.2 seconds
11. A load of peas at a uniform temperature of 25oC is to be cooled down in a room at a
constant air temperature of 1oC i. how long the peas will require to cool down to 2oC,
when the surface heat transfer coefficient of the peas is 5.81W/ m2 oC ii. What is the
temperature of the peas after a lapse of 10min iii. What air temperature must be used
if the peas were to be cooled down to 5oC in 30min. The peas are supposed to have an
average diameter of 8mm. Their density is 750kg/m3, specific heat is 3.35kJ/kgK.
Data: Ti = 25oC, T∞ = 1oC, T = 2oC, h = 5.81W/m2 oC D = 8 × 10 –3 m R = 0.004m
ρ = 750kg/m 3
C = 3.35 × 10 J/kgK
3

Since temperature at centre and at a depth are not mentioned internal temperature
gradient is neglected. Problem is solved by Lumped capacity method.
(i) Time required to cool down the peas from 25 to 2o C
-hAt
T - T¥
= e-Bi Fo = e rVC
Ti - T¥
-h 4 pR 2´t
4
r´ pR 3 C
- =e 3

-3ht

=e rRC

t
-3´5.81´1800
2 -1
= e 750´0.004´3.35´10
3

25 -1
t = 1832.4 seconds
peaspeas
(ii) Temperature of the afterafter
10 min
10min
T - T¥
= e-hAt/rVC
Ti - T¥
-3ht
T -1
= e rRC
25 -1
-3´5.81´600

= e 750´0.004´3.35´10
3

T = 9.45o C
(iii) Air temperature if T = 5o C and t = 30min (1800sec)
-3ht
T - T¥
=e rRC
 T -1
= e rRC
25 -1
-3´5.81´600
One Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 267
= e 750´0.004´3.35´10
3

T = 9.45o C
(iii) Air temperature if T = 5o C and t = 30min (1800sec)
-3ht
T - T¥
= e rRC
Ti - T¥
-3´5.81´1800
5 - T¥
= e 750´0.004´3.35´10
3

25 - T¥
5 - T¥
= e-3.12
25 - T¥
= 0.0441
5 - T¥ = 1.102 - 0.0441T¥
0.9559 T¥ = 3.898
T¥ = 4.08o C
12. A steel tube of length 20cm with internal and external diameter of 10cm and 12cm is
quenched from 500oC to 30oC in a large reservoir of water at 10oC. Below 100oC the heat
transfer coefficient is 1.5kW/m2K. Above 100oC, it is less owing to a film vapour being
produced at the surface and an effective mean value between 500oC and 100oC is 0.5kW/
m2K. The density of steel is 7800kg/m3, C = 0.47kJ/kgK. Determine the quenching time.
Data: Di = 0.1m Do = 0.12m L = 0.2m T∞ = 10oC ρ = 7800 kg/m3
C = 0.47 × 10 J/kgK Ti = 500oC, t = ?
3

Surface area of the tube

A = π(Do + Di)L = π(0.12 + 0.1) × 0.2
= 0.1382m2
Volume of the tube
pé 2
V= ê
ë Do - Di2 ùúû L
4
p
= éêë 0.122 - 0.12 ùúû ´ 0.2
4
V = 0.000691m3
(i) Time required to cool the tube from 500o C to 100o C
h = 0.5´103 W/m 2 K
-hAt
T - T¥
= e rVC
Ti - T¥
-500´0.1382´t
100 -10 1

= e 7800´470´0.000691
500 -10
t1 = 62.12 seconds
(ii) Time required to cool the tube from 100o C to 30o C
h = 1.5´103 W/m 2 K
 i ¥
500´0.1382´t
100 -10 1

= e 7800´470´0.000691
500 -10
268 Heat Transfer
t1 = 62.12 seconds
(ii) Time required to cool the tube from 100o C to 30o C
h = 1.5´103 W/m 2 K
-1500´0.1382´t
30 -10 2

= e 7800´470´0.000691
100 -10
t2 = 18.38 Seconds
Total quenching time
t = t1 + t2 = 62.12 + 18.38 = 80.5 seconds
13. An average human body modeled as a 30cm dia, 170cm long cylinder has 72%.water
by mass, so that its properties may be taken as those of water at room temperature ρ =
1000kg/m3, C = 4180J/kgK, K = 0.608W/mK. A person is found dead at 5am in a room
the temperature of which is 20oC. The temperature of the body is measured to be 25oC
when found and the heat transfer coefficient is estimated to be 8W/m2K. Assuming the
body temperature of a living man as 37oC, estimate the time of death of the above person.
Data: L = 1.7m T∞ = 20oC, Ti = 37oC D = 0.3m T = 25oC
t=? h = 8W/m K 2

Problem is solved by Lumped parameter method

V
Characteristic Length L c =
A
pR 2 L
=
2pRL + 2pR 2
(Surface area = Lateral surface area + Area of two circular faces)
p´ 0.152 ´1.7 0.120
\ Lc = 2
=
2p´ 0.15´1.7 + 2p´ 0.15 1.744
Lc = 0.0689m
hLc 8´ 0.0689
Bi = = = 0.92
K 0.608
Since Bi > 0.1 the lumped system is not applicable. However for rough estimate still it can
be used.
-hAt
T - T¥
= e rVC
Ti - T¥
-8´1.744t
25 - 20
=e 1000´0.12´4180
37 - 20
t = 44057 seconds = 12.24hrs
Time of death is 12.24hrs before the body was found ie at 4.30pm of previous day
14. A short cylinder (K = 60W/mK, α = 1.6x10–5 m2/s) of diameter 5cm and height 4cm is
initially at a uniform temperature of 225oC. Suddenly the boundary surfaces are exposed
to an ambient fluid at 25oC with a heat transfer coefficient of 500W/m2K. Calculate the
center line temperature at 2min after the start of cooling
One Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 269
Data: D = 5cm = 0.05m R = 0.025m 2L = 4cm L= 0.02m Ti = 225oC
T∞ = 25 C
o
t = 120sec To = ? K = 60W/mK, α = 1.6 × 10 –5 m2/s, h = 500W/m2K
As the above problem is given on short cylinder, the centre line temperature is calculated
for a long cylinder of dia 5cm and for a slab of thickness 2L = 4cm
For the cylinder dia of D = 5cm
hR 500´ 0.025
Bi = = = 0.208  0.21
K 60
at 1.6´10-5 ´120
Fo = 2 = = 3.1
R 0.0252
From Heisler's chart (long cylinder – Temperature – time history at centre) at Bi = 0.2
and Fo = 3.1 we get
æ T - T¥ ö÷
çç ÷ = 0.31
çè T - T ø÷÷
i ¥ cyl

For the slab of thickness 2L = 4cm

hLc 500´ 0.02 æ ö
ççL c = 4 = 2cm = 0.02m÷÷
Bi = = = 0.167 ÷
K 60 çè 2 ø
at 1.6´10-5 ´120
Fo = =æ ö2 = 4.8
çç To -0T.¥02÷÷ = 0.45
L2 c
çè T - T ÷÷ø
From Heisler's i chart¥(Infinite
slab plate – temperature – time history at centre plane)
at Bi = 0.167For
& short
Fo = 4.8 we get
cylinder
æ To - T¥ ö÷
çç ÷ To= -0T.¥45 æç To - T¥ ö÷ æ T - T¥ ö÷
çè Ti - T¥ ø÷÷slab = çç ÷÷ ´çç o ÷
Ti - T¥ è Ti - T¥ ø÷cyl èç Ti - T¥ ø÷÷slab
For short cylinder
= 0.31´ 0.45 - 0.14
To - T¥ æçTTo- T¥ ö÷
-25 æ To - T¥ ö÷
çç
= çç o ÷÷= 0´.14 ÷
Ti - T¥ è225 Ti - T ÷
ø èç T - T ø÷÷
- 25¥ cyl i ¥ slab
o
= 0.31´ 0.T 45
o - = 053
.14 C
To - 25
= 0.14
225 - 25
To = 53o C
15. A long cylindrical bar of radius 7.5cm comes out of an oven at 815oC throughout and
is cooled by quenching it in a large bath of 38oC coolant. If the surface coefficient of
heat transfer between the bar surface and the coolant is 175W/m2K, calculate the time
it takes for the shaft centre to reach 116oC. Assume K = 17.5W/mK and α = 0.0185m2/h,
what would be the temperature of the shaft when its centre temperature is 116oC. Also
calculate the temperature gradient at the outside surface at the same instant of time.
270 Heat Transfer

Data: R = 0.075m Ti = 815oC, T∞ = 38oC h = 175W/m2K To = 116oC

K = 17.5W/m C α = 0.0185m /h
o 2

Since surface temperature and centre line temperature are mentioned, the internal
temperature gradient is to be considered. Therefore, this problem is solved by Heisler's chart
hR 175´ 7.5´10-2
Bi = = = 0.75
K 17.5
To - T¥ 176 - 38
= = 0.1
Toi - T¥ 815 - 38
Time taken by the cylinder to reach centre temperature of 116oC
From Heisler's chart (long cylinder Temperature time history at centre plane)
To - T¥
at Bi = 0.75 and = 0.1 we get
Toi - T¥
Fo = 1.92
0.0185´ t
at
Fo = 2 , 1.92 = 3600 2
R (0.075)
t = 2102 Seconds
Temperature at the cylinder surface (at r = R)
r R
= = 1
R R
From Herisler's chart (long cylinder Temperature time history at any radius)
r
at = 1 and Bi = 0.75 we get
R
Tr/R - T¥
= 0.7
To - T¥
Tr/R - 38
= 0.7
116 - 38
Tr/R = 92.6o C
Temperature gradient at outside surface
dT
K 2pRL
We have K2 = h (2pRL)(Tr/R - T¥ )
dr
dT h
= (Tr/R - T¥ )
dr K
17.5
= (92.6 - 38)
17.5
dT
= 546o C/m
dr
 dT
K 2pRL = h (2pRL)(Tr/R - T¥ )
dr
dT h
= (Transient
One Dimensional ) Conduction
Tr/R - T¥Heat 271
dr K
17.5
175
= (92.6 - 38)
17.5
dT
= 546o C/m
dr
16. A 3.6cm diameter egg approximately spherical in shape is initially at 25oC. To boil it to
the consumers taste, it needs to be placed for 225 seconds in a sauce pan of boiling water
at 100oC. For how long should a similar egg for the same consumer, be boiled when taken
from a refrigerator at a temperature of 5oC. Thermophysical properties of egg are K =
2.5W/mK, ρ = 1250kg/m3, C = 2200J/kgK, the heat transfer coefficient for the shell water
interface may be taken as 280W/m2K. Compare the centre temperature attained with
that computed by treating the egg as a lumped heat capacity system.
Data: D = 0.036m Ti = 25oC t = 225sec, T∞ = 100oC
Case (i): Heisler's charts
hR 280´ 0.018
Bi = = = 2.016
K 2.5
at K t 2.5 225
Fo = 2 = ´ 2 = ´ = 0.63
R rC R 1250´ 2200 (0.018)2
From Heisler's chart (Sphere – temrerature – time history at centre)
at Bi = 2.016 & Fo = 0.63 we get
To - T¥
= 0.22
Ti - T¥
To -100
= 0.22 Þ To = 83.5o C
25 -100
When the egg is taken out from the refrigerator
To - T¥ 83.5 -100
= = 0.174
Ti - T¥ 5 -100
From Heisler's chart (Temperature – time history at centre)
To - T¥
at Bi = 2.016 & = 0.174 we get
Ti - T¥
Fo = 0.71
at K t 2.5 t
Fo = = ´ 2= ´
R 2
rC R 1250´ 2200 (0.018)2
t = 253 sec
Case (ii ) : Lumped Parameter analysis
V R 0.018
Lc = = = = 0.006m
A 3 3
hL 280´ 0.006
Bi = c = = 0.672
K 2.5
at K t 2.5 225
 at K t 2.5 t
Fo = 2
= ´ 2= ´
R rC R 1250´ 2200 0.182
272
t = 253 sec Heat Transfer

Case (ii ) : Lumped Parameter analysis

V R 0.018
Lc = = = = 0.006m
A 3 3
hL 280´ 0.006
Bi = c = = 0.672
K 2.5
at K t 2.5 225
Fo = 2 = ´ 2 = ´ = 5.68
Lc rC Lc 1250´ 2200 (0.006)2
To - T¥
= e-Bi Fo
Ti - T¥
To -100
= e-0.672´5.68
25 -100
To = 98.3o C
The lumped heat capacity method is based on the assumption of uniform temperature
throughout the egg. The difference between the values of the temperature at the centre of
the egg (83.5 & 98.3oC) is mainly due to this assumption.
17. A steel ball bearing (K = 50W/mK, α = 1.3 × 10 –5 m2/s), 40mm in diameter is heated to a
temperature of 650oC. It is then quenched in an oil bath at 50oC, where the heat transfer
coefficient is estimated to be 300W/m2K, calculate
(i) the time required for bearing to reach 200oC
(ii) the total amount of heat removed from a bearing during this time
(iii) the instantaneous heat transfer rate from the bearing when they are first immersed
in oil bath and when they reach 200oC?
Data: D = 0.040m R = 0.02m K = 50W/mK α = 1.3 × 10 –5 m2/s Ti = 650oC
T∞ = 50oC h = 300W/m2K T = 200oC t=? Qtotal = ? Qi = ?
Since centre temperature and temperature at a given depth are not mentioned the internal
temperature gradient is neglected. Therefore, this problem is solved by Lumped parameter
method.
R 0.02
Characteristic length L c = = = 6.67 ´10-3 m
3 3
hL c 300 ´6.67 ´10-3
Bi = = = 0.04
K 50
(i) Time requird for bearing to reach 200o C
T - T¥
= e-Bi Fo
Ti - T¥
200 - 50
= e-0.04´Fo
650 - 50
Fo = 34.66
at 1.3´10-5 t
Fo = Þ 34 .66 = 2
L2c (6.67´10-3 )
 T - T¥
= e-Bi Fo
Ti - T¥
200 - 50 Transient
One Dimensional 273
= e-0.04´FHeat
o Conduction
650 - 50
Fo = 34.66
at 1.3´10-5 t
Fo = Þ 34 .66 = 2
L2c (6.67´10-3 )
t = 118.61 seconds
(ii) Total heat removed
Q total = rVC (Ti - T¥ )(e-Bi Fo -1)
K 4 K K
= ´ pR 3 (Ti - T¥ )(e-Bi Fo -1) a= Þ rC =
a 3 rC a
50 4
= -5
´ p´0.023 ´(650 - 50)(e-0.04´34.66 -1)
1.3´10 3
Q total = -58000 Joules
-ve sign indicates decrease in internal energy of the system
(iii) Instantaneous heat flow rate
Qi = -hA (Ti - T¥ ) e-B F i o

at t = 0 Fo = 0
\ Qi = -hA (Ti - T¥ ) eo = -hA (Ti - T¥ )
= -300 ´4p´ 0.022 (650 - 50)
Qi = -904.7W
at t = 118.5 seconds or when temperature of bearing reaches to 200oC
Qi = –300 × 4π × 0.022 × (650 – 50) e –0.04 × 34.66
Qi = 226.16W
18. A 12cm dia. long bar initially at a uniform temperature of 40oC is placed in a medium at
650oC with h = 22W/m2K. Calculate the time required for the bar to reach 225oC. Take K
= 20W/mK, ρ = 580kg/m3, C = 1050J/kgK. Jan 2010 (06)
Data: D = 12cm R = 0.06m Ti = 40 C T∞ = 650oC
o
h = 22W/m2K
t = ? T = 225 C, K = 20W/mK ρ = 580kg/m
o 3
C = 1050J/kgK
No centre line and surface temperature are mentioned. Problem is solved by Lumped
capacity method.
Characteristic length
R 0.06
Lc = = = 0.03m
2 2
hL 22 ´0.03
Bi = c = = 0.033
K 20
T - T¥
= e-Bi Fo
Ti - T¥
 R 0 06
L = = = 0 03m
2 2
hL 22 ´0 03
274
B = = = 0 033 Heat Transfer
K 20
T T¥ Bi Fo

T T¥
225 650 -0 033´F

40 650
F 10 95
t K t
F = 2
, Þ 10.95 = ´ 2
L c C Lc
20 t
10 95 = ´
580´1050 0 03
t 300 08 seconds
19. An aluminium plate (K = 160W/mK, ρ = 2790kg/m2, C = 0.88kJ/kgoC) of thickness
L = 3cm and at a uniform temperature of 225oC is suddenly immersed at time t = 0
in a well stirred fluid maintained at a temperature of 25oC, h = 320W/m2K. Determine
the time required for the centre of the plate to reach 50oC.
VTU Jan - 2010 (02)
Data: K = 160W/mK, ρ = 2790kg/m3, C = 0.88 × 103J/kg oC L = 0.03m
Ti = 225oC T∞ = 25oC To = 50oC h = 320W/m2K t =?
Since centre line temperature is given this problem is solved by using Heisler's chart.
hLc 320 0.03 æ Lö
Bi = = ´ = 0.03 çèççL c = ø÷÷÷
K 160 2 2
T - T¥ 50 - 25
= = 0.125
Ti - T¥ 225 - 25
From Heisler's chart (Infinite plate – Temperature –time history at centre plane)
To - T¥
at Bi = 0.03 and = 0.125 we get
Ti - T¥
Fo = 70
at
Fo =
L2c
K t 160 t
70 = ´ 2 = ´
rC L c 2790´ 0.88´10 0.032
3

t = 966.74 seconds
20. A thermocouple junction which may be approximated as a sphere is to be used for
temperature measurement in gas stream. The convection coefficient is 400W/m2K and
the junction thermophysical properties are K = 20W/mK, C = 400J/kgK, ρ = 8500kg/m3.
Determine the junction diameter needed for the thermocouple of a time constant 1s. If
the junction is at 25oC, and is placed in a gas stream that is at 200oC, how long will it take
One Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 275
for the junction to reach 199oC. VTU June - 2010 (06)
Data: h = 400w/m2K, K = 20W/mK C = 400J/kgK, ρ = 8500kg/m3 D=?
tc = time constant = 1sec, T1 = 25oC T∞ = 200oC t=? T = 199oC
rVC
Time constant t c =
hA
4
r´ pR 3C
= 3
h ´pR 2
rRC
tc =
3h
8500 ´R ´ 400
l=
3´ 400
R = 3.53´10-4 m
Junction diameter D = 2´3.53´10-4
= 7.06´10-4 m
D = 0.706mm
Time taken to reach 199oC
Since centre line temperature and temperature at a given radius are not mentioned,
internal temperature gradient is neglected. Therefore, this problem is solved using Lumped
capacity method.
R 3.53´10-4
Lc = = = 1.176´10-4 m
3 3
hL 400 ´1.176´10-4
Bi = c = = 0.00235
K 20
T - T¥
= e-Bi Fo
Ti - T¥
199 - 200
= e-0.00235´Fo
25 - 200
Fo = 1902.83
at K t
Fo = 2
= ´ 2
Lc rC L c
20 t
1902.83 = ´
8500´ 400 (1.176´10-4 )2

t = 4.47 seconds
276 Heat Transfer

21. A thermocouple junction is in the form of 8mm diameter sphere. Properties of material
are C = 420J/kgoC, ρ = 8000kg/m3, K = 40W/moC. This junction is initially at 40oC and
inserted in a stream of hot air at 300oC. Find time constant of the thermocouple. The
thermocouple is taken out from the hot air after 10s and kept in still air 30oC. Assuming
h = 40W/m2 oC, find the temperature attained by the junction 20sec after removing from
hot air.
Data: D = 0.008m R = 0.004m C = 420J/kgoC ρ = 8000kg/m3 K = 40W/mK
h = 40W/m2oC hair = 10 W/m2oC Ti = 40oC tc = ? T = ?
Problem is solved by lumped parameter method
(i) Time constant
4
r´ p R 3 C
rVC 3 rRC
tc = = 2
=
hA h´4 p R 3h
8000´ 0.004´ 420
= = 112Seconds
3´ 40
(ii) Temperature attained by the junction
-h A t -t
T - T¥
= e r VC = e t c
Ti - T¥
-10
T - 300
= e 112
40 - 300
T = 62.2o C
Temperature attained by the junction during cooling in air in 20 seconds.
-t
T - T¥
= e tc
Ti - T¥
r RC
But t e =
3h air
8000´ 0.004´ 420
=
3´10
= 448 seconds
-20
T - 30
\ = e 448
62.2 - 30
T = 60.79o C
22. A thermocouple is used to measure the temperature in a gas stream. The
junction is approximated as a sphere with thermal conductivity of 25W/mK,
ρ = 9000kg/m3,C=0.35kJ/kgK, h=250W/m2K, calculate the diameter of the junction if
thermocouple measures 95% of the applied temperature difference in 3 sec.
Data: C = 0.35×103J/kgK, h = 250W/m2K, K = 25W/mK, ρ = 9000kg/m3
One Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 277
T – T∞=(1-0.95) (Ti – T∞) = 0.05 (Ti – T∞), t = 3 sec
D R
Characteristic length L c = =
6 3
hAT ht
T - T¥
- -
r Lc C
=e rVC
=e
Ti - T¥
Ti – T∞ = Applied initial temperature difference
T – T∞ = Difference in thermocouple measurement
= 0.05 (Ti – T∞)
-250´3
0.05 (Ti - T¥ ) D
9000´ ´0.35´103
\ =e 6
Ti - T¥
D = 0.4768 mm
23. The temperature of a gas stream is measured by a thermocouple whose junction can
be approximated a 1mm diameter sphere. Properties are K=35W/mK, ρ=8500kg/m3,
C=320J/kgK, h=210W/m2K. Calculate how long will it take for the thermocouple to
approach the temperature within 1% of the initial temperature difference.
Data: D = 1mm = 1×10–3 m, K = 35W/mK, ρ = 8500 kg/m3, C = 320J/kgK,
h = 210W/mK, T – T∞ = 0.01 (Ti – T∞), t = ?
D 1´10-3
Characteristic length L c = = = 1.67 ´10-4 m
6 6
h Lc 210´1.67 ´10 -4
Bi = = = 0.001
K 35
T - T¥
= e-Bi Fo
Ti - T¥
0.01(Ti - T¥ )
= e-0.001´Fo
Ti - T¥
Fo = 4605.17
at K t
Fo = 2
= ´ 2
Lc rC L c
35 t
4605.17 = ´
8500´320 (1.67 ´10-4 )2

t = 9.98seconds
24. Consider a steel pipe line of 1m in diameter and has a wall thickness of 40mm. The pipe
is heavily insulated on the outside and before the initiation of flow, the wall of the pipe
is at uniform temperature of –20oC. Suddenly the hot oil at 60oC flows through the pipe
278 Heat Transfer

creating convective surface condition corresponding h = 500W/m2K at the inner surface

of the pipe.
(i) What is the appropriate Biot and Fourier numbers, 8 minutes after the initiation of
flow?
(ii) At t = 8 minute, what is the temperature of the interior pipe surface covered by the
insulation?
(iii) What is the heat flux to the pipe from the oil at t = 8 minute?
(iv) How much energy per meter pipe length has been transferred from the oil to the pipe
during the period of 8 minutes?
The thermo physical properties of steel
K = 63.9 W/mK, ρ = 7823 kg/m3, C = 434J/kgK, α = 18.8×10–6 m2/s.
Data: L = 0.04m D = 1m, K = 63.9W/mK Ti= –20oC T∞ = 60oC
t = 8×60=480 sec, ρ = 7823 kg/m 3
C = 434J/kgK h = 500W/m2K
α = 18.8×10–6 m2/s Bi= ? Fo= ? Tx/2=? q = ? Qtotal= ?
Since the pipe diameter is too large as compared to its thickness, pipe is treated as a
plane wall of thickness 40mm for 1/2 of the pipe.
Since center line and temperature at the given depth not mentioned, it is required to
determine Bi to select the method of solving for this problem.
(i) Biot and Fourier numbers
h Lc 500´ 0.04
Bi = = = 0.313
K 63.9
Since Bi > 0.1 this problem is solved by Heisler's charts
at 18.8´10-6 ´ 480
Fo = = 2
Lc 2 (0.04)
= 5.64
(ii) Surface temperature
From Heisler's chart (plane- temperature - time history at center line)
at Bi = 0.313 and Fo = 5.64 we get
To - T¥
= 0.22
Ti - T¥
To - 60
= 0.22
-20 - 60
To = 42o Cis the center line temperature
x
Again =1
L
From Heisler's chart (plane - temperature - time history at any depth)
x
at = 1 and Bi = 0.313 we get
L
One Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 279

Tx / LTx-/ LT- T
¥ ¥
= 0.86
= 0.86
To - ToT- T
¥ ¥

Tx / LTx-/ L60
- 60
= 0.86
= 0.86
42 - 4260 - 60
o
Tx / LTx=/ L 45
=o45C C is the
is the surface
surface temperature
temperature
iii) Heat flux to the pipe from the oil
q = h (T¥ - Tx / L )
= 500 (60 - 45) = 7500W / m 2
iv) Energy transferred from the oil to the pipe per m length
Bi2Fo = 0.3132 ×5.64 = 0.55
From Heisler's chart (plane heat flow)
Q
at Bi2Fo = 0.55 and Bi = 0.313, We get = 0.78
Q0
Q = 0.78 Q0 = 0.78 ρVC (Ti – T∞)
p 2
= 0.78´ 7823´
4
(1 - 0.962 )´1´ 434 (-20 - 60)
= 26.61´106 J / m
25. A large plane wall 40cm thick and 8m2 area is heated from one side and the temperature
distribution at a certain time constant is approximately prescribed by the relation T =
80 – 60x + 12x2 + 25x3 – 20x4, where T is in oC and x is in m. Find (i) Heat energy stored
in the wall in unit time
(ii) Rate of change of temperature at 20cm distance from the side being heated
(iii) Location where the rate of heating and cooling is maximum. For the material K =
6 W/mK, α = 0.02 m2/h
Data: L = 0.4m A = 8m2 K = 6W/mk
α = 0.02 m /h = 5.56 × 10-6 m2/s
2

T = 80 - 60x + 12x 2 + 25x 3 - 20x 4

¶T
= -60 + 24x + 75x 2 - 80x 3
¶x
¶ 2T
2
= 24 + 150x - 240x 2
¶x
¶ 3T
= 150 - 480x
¶x 3
(i) Heat energy stored in the wall
Heat entering the wall
280 Heat Transfer

¶T
¶ T
Q
Qinin =
=--KA
KA ¶x =
=- -66´ ´((-
´88´ -60 +0
60 + +0
0+ 0)) =
= 2880w
2880w
W
¶x xx==00
Heat leaving
Heat leaving the
the face
face i.e.,
i.e., xx = 0.4m
= 0.4m
¶T
Q
Qout = -KA ¶T =
=--66´ ´((-
´88´ -60 + 24
60 + 24´´ 0.4 + 75
0.4 + 75´´ 0.4
2
0.42 -- 80
80´ 0.43 )) =
´ 0.4
3
= 2088.96w
W
out = -KA ¶x 2088.96w
x 0.4
¶x x=0.4
=
Heat energy
Heat energy stored
stored in
in the
the wall
wall
=Q
= Qin -
-QQout = 2880 -
= 2880 2088.96 =
- 2088.96 791.04w
= 791.04wW
in out
(ii) Rate of change of temperature at 0.2m distance
¶ 2T q G 1 ¶T
We know that 2
+ = But q G = 0
¶x K a ¶t
¶ 2 T 1 ¶T
=
¶x 2 a ¶t
¶T ¶ 2T
=a 2
¶t ¶x
= 5.56´10-6 (24 + 150´ 0.2 - 240´ 0.22 )
= 2.47 ´10-4 o C / s
(iii) Location where the cooling or heating is maximum
cooling or heating is maximum when
¶ æç ¶T ö÷
ç ÷= 0
¶x çè ¶t ø÷
¶T ¶ 2T
But =a 2
¶t ¶x
¶ æç ¶ T ÷ö
2
\ ça ÷= 0
¶x çè ¶x 2 ÷÷ø
¶ 3T
a 3 =0
¶x
a (150 - 480x ) = 0
5.56´10-6 (150 - 480x ) = 0
480x = 150
x = 0.3125m
26. At a certain instant, the temperature distribution in a cylindrical fire tube of ri= 30cm ro
= 50cm is given by T = 800 + 1000 r – 5000 r2
Where T is in oC, r is in m. Take K = 58 W/mK, α = 0.0004 m2/h.
Find (i) Rate of heat flow at the inside and outside surfaces/m length
(ii) Rate of heat storage per m length
One Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 281
(iii) Rate of change of temperature with time at the inner and outer surfaces
Data:- ri = 0.3m r0 = 0.5m α = 0.0004m2/h
dT
Qin = ? Qout = ? Qstored = ? =?
dt
T = 800 + 1000r - 5000r 2
¶T
= 1000 -10000r
¶r
¶ 2T
= -10000
¶r 2
¶ 3T
=0
¶r 3
(i) Heat flow at the inside and outside surface
¶T
Qin = -KA
¶r r=xi
= K2pri L (1000 -10000´ 0.3)
= -58´ 2p´ 0.3´1(1000 -10000´ 0.3)
Qin = 0.219MW
¶T
Qout = -KA
¶r r=x 0
= K2pro L (1000 -10000´ 0.5)
= -58´ 2p´ 0.5´1(1000 - 5000) = 0.43MW
(ii) Rate of heat storage
Qstored = Qin – Qout = 0.219 – 0.437 = – 0.218MW
(iii) Rate of change of temperature
at inside
¶ 2 T 1 ¶T
=
¶ r 2 a ¶t
¶T ¶ 2T
=a 2
¶t ¶r r = r
i
= 0.0004´(-10000) = -4o C / s
at outside
¶T ¶ 2T
=a 2
¶t ¶r r = r
o
= 0.0004´(-10000) = -4o C / s
282 Heat Transfer

27. The temperature of a gas stream is measured with a thermocouple. The junction may
be approximated as a sphere of diameter 1 mm, K=25 W/m 0C, ρ=8400 kg/m3 and C=0.4
kJ/kg0 C. The heat transfer coefficient between the junction and the gas stream is h=560
W/m2 0C. How long will it take for the thermocouple to record 99% of the applied
temperature difference? VTU June 2014
Data: D = 1 × 10 −3 m, K = 25 W / m 0 C, r = 8400 kg / m3 , C = 0.4 × 103 J / kg 0 C t = ?
h = 560 W / m 2 0 C, T − Tw = (100 − 99%) ( Ti − T∞ ) = 0.01( Ti − T∞ )
−3
V D 1 × 10
Characteristic length L= c = = = 1.67 × 10 −4 m
D = 1 × 10 m, k = 25 W / mAC, r6= 84006kg / m3 , C = 0.4 × 103 J / kg 0 C t = ?
−3 0

hLW / 560
m 2 0×C,1.67
T −×T10
−4
= (100
hB=i 560
= = c
w= × 10)(−3Ti − T∞ ) = 0.01( Ti − T∞ )
− 99%
3.74
k 25
T − T∞ V D 1 × 10−3
Characteristic − Bi F0length L= = = = 1.67 × 10−4 m
=e c
A 6 6
Ti − T∞
hLc 560 × 1.67 × 10−4
B
=0.01
i ( T=
ki
− T∞ ) −25
= 3.74 × 10−3
3.74 ×10−3 F0
=e
T −( TTi ∞− T∞ )− Bi F0
=e
Ti − T∞ −3.74 ×10−3 F0
0.01 = e
log ( Ti −=
0.010.01 T− ) ×−3.74
∞ 3.74 −3 −3 2
e = e 10×10 FF00 × log e
( Ti − T∞ log) e 0.01
F0 = −3 −3 e
0.01 =−3.74e −3.74××1010F0 × log e
log = 1231.33
−3.74 × 10−3 F0 × log e 2
e 0.01 =
at K t
F =⇒ log e 0.01 =×
1231.33
F00 = L2 rC Lc 2
−3.74
c × 10−3 × log e e
25 t
= = 1231.33
1231.33 ×
( )
3 2
8400 × 0.4 × 10 −4
at k t 1.67 × 10
F0 =⇒ 1231.33 =× 2
t = 4.615
L2 c seconds rC Lc
25 t
1231.33
= ×
8400 × 0.4 × 10 (1.67 × 10−4 )2
3

t = 4.615 sec onds

28. Aluminium rod of 5 cm diameter and l meter long at 2000 C is suddenly exposed to a
convection environment at 700C. Calculate the temperature at a radius of 1 cm and heat
lost per meter length of the rod 1 minute after the cylinder is exposed to the environment.
Properties of Al, ρ = 2700 kg/m3, Cp = 900 J/kg-K, K=215 W/m-K, h=500 W/m2 - K, α =
8.5 x 10-5 m2/S. (10 Marks)
Data : D = 5×10 m, L=1m, Ti =200 C, T∞ =70 C, ρ = 2700 kg/m , Cp = 900 kJ/kg 0K, K =215
-2 0 0 3

W/m K, h=500 W/m2 K, α=8.5 × 10-5 m2/s

Since temperature at a given radius of the rod need to be calculated, this problem is solved
by using Heisler’s charts
 One Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 283

hR 500 × 2.5 ×10 −2

Now, =
Bi = = 0.058
K 215
at K t
Fo =
= 2
× 2
R rC R
215 60
= × = 13.3
(
2700 × 900 2 × 10 −2 2 )
From Heiler chart (Temperature − time history at certain plane)
1 1
= = 17.24= & F0 13.3
Bi 0.058
T0 − T∞
we get = 0.26
Ti − T∞
T0 − 70
= 0.26 ⇒ T0 = 103.80 C
200 − 70
Temperature of cylinder rod at 1 cm radius
r 1
= = 0.4
R 2.5
From Heisler chart (Temperature - time history at any radius )
r
at F0 13.3
= = & 0.4 we get
R
Tr / R − T∞
= 0.98
T0 − T∞ r
Tr / R − 70
= 0.98 R
103.8 − 70
Tr / R = 183.120 C
Heat Lost/m length
2 2
Bii 2 F00 = 0.0582 ×13.3 = 0.045
From Heisler chart ( heatloss chart )
=at Bii 0.058
= and Bii 22 F00 0.045, we get
Q
= 0.65
Q00
=Q
Q 0.65Q
0.65Q
= 00 0.65mCpp ( T
0.65mC Tii − TT∞∞ )
π 22
0.65 r × π D
= 0.65 LCpp ( T
D LC T∞∞ )
Tii − T
44
π 0.05 22 × 1 × 900 200 − 70
= 0.65 ×
= 0.65 2700 ×
× 2700 × ( 0.05 ) × 1 × 900 ( 200 − 70)
44
403.17 kJ
= 403.17 kJ
284 Heat Transfer

29. A steel ball of 5 cm diameter at 450°C is suddenly placed in a controlled environment

of 100°C. Considering the following data, find the time required for the ball to attain a
temperature of 150°C.
Cp = 450 J/kg-K, K = 35 W/m-K, h - 10 W/m2 - K, ρ = 8000 kg/m3. VTU June/July 2015
Ans. d = 5 × 10−2 m,Ti =
450o ,T∞ =
100o C, t =
?,T =150o C
Since centre line temperature or temperature at a given depth is not mentioned, this problem
can be solved using lumphed capacity method.
r 2.5
LC= = = 0.8333mm= 0.8333 × 10 −2 m
3 3
hLc 10 × 0.8333 × 10 −2
Bi =
= = 0.00238
K 35
K 35
×t
at rC c 8000 × 450 × t
F0 =
= =
L2c L2c (
0.8333 × 10 −2)
= 0.14 t
T − T∞
= e − Bi Fo
Ti − T∞
150 − 100
= e −0.00238× 0.14 t
450 − 100
=t 5850sec
= 1.625hr
30. A long 15 cm diameter cylindrical shaft made of SS 314 (K = 14.9 W/m-K, ρ = 7900 kg/m3)
allowed to cool slowly in a chamber of 150°C with an average heat transfer coefficient of
85 W/m - K. Determine :
i) Temperature of the centre of the shaft 25 minutes after the start of cooling process.
ii) Surface temperature at that time
iii) Heat transfer/unit length of shaft during this time period. VTU June/July 2015
Ans. d = 0.15m, K = 14.9 W/mK, ρ = 7900 kg/m3 , T∞ = 150o C , h = 85 W/m2 K
T0 = ?,Tr = ?,Q = ?, t = 25 × 60 = 1500sec
Assume initial temperature Ti = 450o C. Since centre temperature and temperature at the
surface are need to be calculated, this problem can be solved by using Heisler’s charts
hR 85 × 0.075
Bi =
= = 0.425
K 14.9
at K t
F0 =
= 2
× 2
R rC R
14.9 1500
= × = 1.053
7900 × 530 0.0252
Centre temperature of theshaft
From Heisler 's chart
= at Bi 0.425&
= F0 1.053
T0 − T∞ T − 150
we get = 0.49 ⇒ 0 = 0.49 ⇒ T0 = 297 o C
Ti − T∞ 450 − 150
Temperature at thesurface
 Centre temperature of theshaft
From Heisler 's chart
= at Bi 0.425&
= F0 1.053
T −T T − 150
we get 0 Transient
One Dimensional ∞
= 0.49
Heat 0
= 0.49 ⇒ T0 = 297 o C
⇒ Conduction 285
Ti − T∞ 450 − 150
Temperature at thesurface
r 0.075
= = 1
R 0.075
r
From Heisler 's chart
= at Bi 0.425&
= 1, we get
R
Tr / R − T∞ Tr / R − 150
= 0.76 = ⇒ Tr = 261.72o C
T0 − T∞ 297 − 150 R

Heat transfer / unit length

B2i Fo = 0.4252 × 1.053 = 0.19, From Heiseler 's chart at Bi2 Fo = 0.19& Bi = 0.425, we get
Q π
= 0.55 ⇒ Q= 0.55rVC ( Ti − T∞ )= 0.55 × × 0.152 × 7900 × 530 ( 450 − 150)
Q0 4
= 1.099 × 104 kJ
31. A 15mm diameter Mild Steel Sphere (K = 42W/m °C) is exposed to cooling air flow at
20°C resulting in the convective coefficient ‘h’ = 120 W/m2 °C. Determine the following :
i) Time required to cool the sphere from 550°C to 90°C.
ii) Instantaneous heat transfer rate 2 minutes after start of cooling.
iii) Total energy transferred from the sphere during the first 2 minutes.
For Mild steel take : r = 7850 kg/m3, Cp = 475 J/kg °C and a = 0.045 m2/hr.
VTU Dec 2015 / Jan 2016
D = 15 × 10–3m, K = 42 W/m2 oC, T∞ = 20oC, h = 120 W/m2 oC, t = ?, Ti = 550oC, T = 90oC,
Qi = ?, Qtotal = ?, d = 7850 kg/m3, Cp = 475 J/kg oC, a = 0.045 m2/h
Since center line temperature and temperature at a given depth not mentioned, this problem
is solved by lumped parameter method.
Characteristic length
V R 7.5 × 10−3
L= C = = = 2.5 × 10−3 m
A 3 3
hLC 120 × 2.5 × 10−3
= Bi = = 7.14 × 10−3
K 42
()i Time taken by the sphere to cool from 550o to 90o C
at 0.045 × t
F0
= = = 7200 t
L2c ( 2.50 × 10 )−3 2

T − T∞
Now = e − BiF0
Ti = T∞
90 − 20 −3
= e −7.14×10 ×7200 t
550 − 20
0.132 = e −51.41 t
log e 0.132 = −51.41 t log e e
− 2.025 =
−51.41 t × 1
=t 0.03051
= hr 141.81Sec
( ii ) Instantneous heat transfer after 2min of cooling
− BiFo
 0.132 = e −51.41 t
log e 0.132 = −51.41 t log e e
286
− 2.025 =
−51.41 t × 1 Heat Transfer
= tt =0.03051
=
0.03939 hrhr =141.81Sec
141.81 Sec
( ii ) Instantneous heat transfer after 2min of cooling
− hA ( Ti − T∞ ) e − BiFo
Qi =
a 2 0.045 2
But F0 = × = × = 240
Lc 60 ( 2.5 × 10 ) 60
2 −3 2

Qi = −120 × 4 × π × ( 7.5 × 10−3 ) ( 550 − 20 ) e −7.14×10

2 −3
× 240
= 249.45W
( iii ) Total energy transfered
rVC ( Ti − T∞ ) ( e − BiFo − 1)
Q total =
4
( )
=7850 × π ( 7.5 × 10−3 ) × 475 ( 550 − 20 ) e −7.14×10 ×7200×0.03939 − 1 =−4.04 × 105 Joules
3
3 −3

32. A long cylindrical shaft 20cm in diameter is made of steel K = 14.9 W/mK, r = 7900 kg/
m3, c = 477 J/kg K, a = 3.95 × 10–6 m2/s. It comes out an over at a uniform temperature
of 600oC. The shaft is then allowed to cool slowly in an environment at 200oC with an
average heat transfer coefficient of 80 W/m2K. Calculate the temperature at the centre of
the shaft 45min after the start of cooling process. Also calculate the heat transfered per
unit length of the shaft during this period. (VTU Jan 2018)
Data :D = 0.2m, Ti = 600 C, T∞ = 200 C, h = 80W/m K, t = 45min = 2700sec, T0 = ?
o o 2

Since, centre line temperature need to be calculated, the problem is solved by Heisler's
charts.
hR 80 × 0.1
Bi =
= = 0.537
K 14.9
at 3.95 × 10−6 × 2700
=F0 = = 1.0665
R2 0.12
From Heisler chart ( centre line temperature for cylinder )
=at Bi 0.537
= and F0 1.0665, We get
T0 − T∞ T − 200
= 0.405 ⇒ 0 = 0.405 ⇒ T=
0 362 o C
Ti − T∞ 600 − 200
Heat transfered
Bi 2 F0 = 0.537 2 × 1.0665 =
0.3075
From Heisler chart ( Heat flow long cylinder )
at Bi 2 F0 0.3075
= = and Bi 0.537 we get
Q
= 0.62 ⇒ Q= 0.62 Qi= 0.62mC ( Ti − T∞ )
Qi
π
Q 0.62 × rVC ( Ti − T=
= ∞) 0.62 × r × D 2 L × C ( Ti − T∞ )
4
π
= 0.62 × 7900 × × 0.22 × 1 × 477 × ( 600 − 200=
Q ) 29.36 MJ
4
One Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 287
33. An aluminium wire, 1mm in diameter at 200oC is suddenly exposed to an environment
at 30oC with h = 85.5 W/m2K. Estimate the time required to cool the wire to 90oC, if
the same wire were to place in air stream of h = 11.65 W/m2 K, What would be the time
required to reach it to 90oC.
Assume thermophysical properties C = 900 J/kg K, r = 2700 kg/m3, K = 20 W/m K
 VTU Jan 2018
Data : d = 1 × 10–3­m, h = 85.5 W/m2 K, t = ? T∞ = 30oC. Ti = 200oC, T = 90oC
Since, centre line temperature and surface temperature are not mentioned, this problem is
solved by lumped parameter method.
V r 0.5 × 10−3
LC= = = = 2.5 × 10−3 m
A 2 2
hLC 85.5 × 2.5 × 10−3
Bi = = = 1.047 × 10−4 < 0.1
K 20
− hAt − ht
T − T∞
= e=rVC
e rCLC
Ti − T∞
85.5× t
900 − 300 −
= e 2700×900×2.5×10
−3

200 − 30
t = 7.4sec
For air environment
− ht
T − T∞
= e rCLC
Ti − T∞
11.65× t
900 − 300 −
= e 2700×900×2.5×10
−4

200 − 30
t = 54.3sec
34. A hot mild steel sphere (K = 43 W/mK) having 10 mm diameter is planned to be cooled
by an air flow at 25°. The convection heat transfer coefficient is 115 W/m2K. Calculate
the following (i) time required to cool the sphere from 600°C to 100°C (ii) Instantaneous
heat transfer rate 1.5 min after the start of cooling (iii) total energy transferred from the
sphere during the first 1.5 min. [VTU June/July 2016]
Data : K = 43W/mK, D = 10 × 10 m, T∞ = 25 C, h = 115 W/m K, t = ?, Ti = 600oC, T = 100oC,
–3 o 2

Qi at t = 1.8min = ?, Qtotal = ?
From HMT data book for mild steel r = 7850 kg/m3, Cp = 474 J/kgK,
a = 1.22 × 10-5 m2/s.
R 5 × 10−3
L=C = = 1.67 × 10−3 m
3 3
hLC 115 × 1.67 × 10−3
=Bi = = 4.47 × 10−3
K 43
at 1.22 × 10−5 × L
=F0 = = 4.374 t
L2C (1.67 × 10−3 )2

T − T∞
= e − Bi F0
Ti − T∞
 Bi
= = C
= 4.47 × 10−3
K 43
at 1.22 × 10−5 × L
F
= =
288 = 4.374 t Heat Transfer
L2C (1.67 × 10−3 )2
0

T − T∞
= e − Bi F0
Ti − T∞
100 − 25 −3
= e −4.47×10 ×4.374 t
600 − 25
t = 109sec
Instantaneous heat transfer rate
− hAS ( Ti − T∞ ) e − Bi F0
Qi =
at
− Bi ×
=− h × 4πR ( Ti − T∞ ) e
2 Lc 2

1.22×10−5 ×90
−4.47×10−3 ×
(1.67×10 )
2

= 115 × 4π × ( 5 × 10−3 ) ( 600 − 25 ) e

2 −3

= −3.57W
Total heat transfered
(
rVC ( Ti − T∞ ) e − Bi F0 − 1
Q total = )
4
(
= 7850 × π × ( 5 × 10−3 ) × 474 ( 600 − 25 ) e −4.47×10 ×4.374×90 − 1
3
3 −3

)
= 927.78Joules
35. An Aluminium sphere weighting 6 kg and initially at a temperature of 420 C is suddenly
immersed in a fluid at 18°C. The convective heat transfer coefficient is 45W/m2 K.
Estimate the time required to cool the sphere to 120°C. Also find the total heat flow from
the sphere to the surroundings when it cools from 300°C to 120°C. (For Aluminium, r =
2700 kg/m3, C = 900 J/kg K , K = 200W/m K).  [VTU Jan 2017]
Data : m = 6kg, Ti = 420 C, T∞ = 18 C, h = 45 W/m K, t = ?, T = 120 C, Qtotal = ?
o o 2 o

r = 2700 kg/m3, C = 900 J/kgK, K = 200 W/mK

Mass of sphere m = Volume × Density
5.5 = V × 2700
V = 2.04 × 10–3m3
4 3 4
V= πR ⇒ 2.04 × 10−3= π × R3
3 3
R = 0.0788m
V R 0.0788
L=C = = = 0.0263m
AS 3 3
hLC 45 × 0.0263
Bi
= = = 4.913 × 10−3
K 200
Bi is less than 0.1. Therefore, Lumped parameter method is applied to solve this problem.
(i) Time required to cool the sphere from 420oC to 120oC
One Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 289

at K t 200 t
F0
= = = ×
Lc 2 rC L2c 2700 × 900 0.02632
Ft = 0.11899t
T − T∞ 120 − 18 −3
e − Bi F0 ⇒
= e −5.913×10 ×0.11899t
=
Ti − T∞ 420 − 18
t =1831.79 sec onds
(ii) Total heat transfered from sphere when it is cooled from 300oC to 120oC
Time required to cool from 300oC to 120oC
at K t
=F0 = 2
= 0.11899t
Lc rC Lc 2
T − T∞ 120 − 18 −3
e − Bi F0 ⇒
= e −5.913×10 ×0.11899t
=
Ti − T∞ 300 − 18
t =1445.36 sec
( )
rVC ( Ti − T∞ ) e − Bi F0 − 1
Q total =
4
( )
= 2700 × π × ( 0.0788 ) × 900 × ( 300 − 120 ) e −4.913×10 ×0.11899×1445.36 − 1
3
3 −3

= − 426.14 Joules
290 Heat Transfer

Problems on Semi Infinite Solids

1. A large steel ingot which has been uniformly heated to 750 oC is hardened by quenching
it in an oil bath that is maintained at 25oC. What length of time is required for the
temperature to reach 600o C at a depth of 1cm? Thermal diffusivity of steel ingot is 1.2
× 10-5 m2/s. The ingot may be approximated as a flat plate
Data:- Ti = 750o C, T∞ = 25oC, T = 600oC, t=?
α = 1.2 × 10 m /s
-5 2
x = 0.01 m
Temperature distribution at a plane parallel to the surface is given by
T - T¥ æ x ö÷
= erf çç ÷
Ti - T¥ çè 2 at ÷ø
600 - 25 æ x ö÷
= erf çç ÷
750 - 25 èç 2 at ø÷
æ x ö÷
erf çç ÷ = 0.793
çè 2 at ÷ø
From the table ( Heat & mass transfer data book by C. P. Kondandaraman)
æ x ö÷
at erf çç ÷ = erf (z) = 0.798 we get z = 0.9
çè 2 at ÷ø
x
But z = = 0.9
2 at
0.01
= 0.9
2 1.2´10-5 ´ t
t = 2.55 seconds

2. Water pipes are to be buried underground in a wet soil (α = 2.78 × 10-5m2/h) which is
initially at 4.5oC. The soil surface temperature suddenly drops to -5oC and remains at
this value for 10hrs. Calculate the minimum depth at which the pipes are laid if the
surrounding soil temperature is to be maintained above 0oC. The soil may be considered
as semi-infinite solid.
Data:- α = 2.78 × 10-5 m2/h Ti = 4.5o C T∞ = -5oC, t = 10h, T = 0oC, x = ?
T - T¥ æ x ÷ö
= erf çç ÷
Ti - T¥ èç 2 at ø÷
0 - (-5) æ x ö÷
= erf çç ÷ Atm, air at –5oC
4.5 - (-5) çè 2 at ÷ø
x
æ x ö÷
erf çç ÷ = 0.526 Soil
çè 2 at ÷ø 4.5oC
Pipe
One Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 291

æ x ö÷
From the table at erf çç ÷ = erf (z) = 0.526
0.798we get
çè 2 at ÷ø
z = 0.5
x
z=
2 at
x
0.5 =
2 2.78´10-5 ´10
x = 0.0167m
3. A water line is buried underground in dry soil that has an assumed initial temperature of
4.5o C. The pipe may have no flow through it for long period of time. yet it will not be
drained. In order to that no freezing occurs, the pipe must be kept at a temperature not
lower than 0oC. The pipe is to be designed for a 36h period at the beginning of which
the soil surface temperature drops to –17.8oC. Work out the minimum earth covering
needed above the water pipe so as to prevent the possibility of freezing during 36h cold
spell. The soil in which the pipe is buried has the following properties. ρ = 640kg/m3, C
= 1843J/kgoC, K = 0.345W/moC.
Data:- T = 0oC, T∞ = –17.8oC, Ti = 4.5oC, x=?
ρ = 640kg/m3, C = 1843J/kgoC, K = 0.345W/moC,
t = 36h = 36 × 3600 = 129600 seconds
T - T¥ æ x ÷ö
= erf çç ÷
Ti - T¥ èç 2 at ø÷
0 - (-17.8) æ x ÷ö
= erf çç ÷
4.5 - (-17.8) çè 2 at ÷ø
æ x ö÷
erf çç ÷ = 0.798
çè 2 at ÷ø
æ x ö÷
From the table at erf çç ÷ = erf (z) = 0.798 we get z = 0.90
ç è 2 at ÷ø
x x K 0.345
z= z=
Now Where, a = = = 2.92 ´10-–772m
m2//ss
2 a2t at rC 640 ´1843
x
0.90 =
2 2.92´10-7 ´129600
x = 0.3505m
4. A mild steel plate 5cm thick and initially at 40oC is suddenly exposed on one side to a
fluid which causes the surface temperature to increase and remain at 90oC. Calculate (i)
Maximum time that the slab be treated as a semi-infinite body.
(ii) Temperature at the centre of the slab one minute after the change in surface
temperature. For steel α = 1.25 × 10-5m2/s.
292 Heat Transfer

Data:- T∞ = 90oC, Ti = 40oC, T = 1min = 60seconds,

T = ? Tmax = ? α = 1.25 × 10-5m2/s L = 0.05m
(i) Condition for maximum time that the slab be treated as a semi-infinite body is
L
³ 0.5
2 at
L
i.e., = 0.5
2 at max
0.05
= 0.5
2 1.25´10-5 ´ t max
t max = 200sec onds
(ii) Temperature at the centre of the slab
0.05
x= = 0.025m
2
T - T¥ æ x ÷ö
= erf çç ÷
Ti - T¥ èç 2 at ø÷
æ 0.025 ö÷
= erf ççç ÷÷
èç 2 1.25´10-5 ´ 60 ø÷
= erf (0.456)
i.e., z = 0.456
From the table at z = 0.456 we get erf (z) = 0.48
T - T¥ T - T¥
Now = erf (z) = erf (z)
Ti - T¥ Ti - T¥
T - T¥ T - T¥
= 0.48 = 0.48
Ti - T¥ Ti - T¥
T - 90 T - 90
= 0.48 = 0.48
40 - 90 40 - 90
o
T = 66o CT = 66 C
5. A thick concrete wall of a jet engine test cell is initially at a constant temperature
of 21o C when there occurs a combination of exhaust gases from the turbo jet
and the spray of cooling water, the surface temperature of the wall rises to
315oC. Calculate the temperature at a point 7.5cm from the surface after 7.5hr.
Also workout the instantaneous heat flow rate at the specified plane and at the
surface itself at this instant. Use the solution for semi-infinite solid and take
α = 1.58 ×10-3m2/h, K = 0.937 W/moC for concrete.
Data:- Ti = 21oC, T∞ = 315oC, x = 0.075m t = 7.5h
One Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 293
T = ? Qi = ? α = 1.58 ×10-3m2/h, K = 0.937 W/moC
(i) Temperature of the concrete wall at x = 0.075 m
T - T¥ æ x ö÷
= erf çç ÷
Ti - T¥ çè 2 at ÷ø
T - T¥
= erf (z)
Ti - T¥
x 0.075
i.e., z = = = 0.3447
2 at 2 1.58´10-2 ´ 7.5
From the table at z = 0.3447, we get erf(z) = 0.36936
T - T¥
= erf (z)
Ti - T¥
T - 315
= 0.36936
21- 315
T = 206.92o C
(ii) Instantaneous heat flow
2
-x 2 -x
e e 4 at 4 at
Qi Q (Ti (-TiT-¥ T) ¥ ) pat
-KA
=KA
=i -
pat
2
-0.075
-0.075 2

0.937 1(-
21315 )e )e
- 315
-3
=-=- ´1´
4´1.58
-´ 107.5 ´7.5
0.937 (21 4´1.58´10 3´

2
Qi Q = 1265.6
=i1265.6 W /W m/2 m
at surface
at surface i.e.,i.e.,
x =x0= 0
-0 -0
e e 4 at 4 at
Qi Q -KA
=KA
=i - (Ti (-TiT-¥ T) ¥ ) pat
pat
-KA (Ti (-iT¥ ) ¥ ) ´1
-KA T - T
= = ´1
p p at at
-0.937
-0.937 ´1´ 1(-
(21 21315 ) ) = 1427.75W
- 315
= = 3 = 1427.75W
p´p´
1.581.58
´10 ´-10 3 -
´ 7.5´ 7.5
6. A thick steel slab is initially at a uniform temperature of 25oC. When the slab is exposed
to hot flue gases, the surface temperature suddenly changes to 450oC. Make calculations
for the temperature in a plane 250mm from the slab, 5hrs after the operation of change
in surface temperature. Find also the heat flowing into 2m2 of this plane and the total
energy flowing through the surface during the 5hr period. It may be presumed that for
steel K = 46.67 W/mK, ρ = 8000kg/m3, C = 0.504kJ/kgK.
294 Heat Transfer

Data:- Ti = 25oC, T∞ = 450oC, x = 0.25m t = 5h

A = 2m T = ?
2
Qi = ? Qtotal = ?
K = 46.67 W/mK, ρ = 8000kg/m3, C = 0.504kJ/kgK.
K 46.67
a= = 3
= 1.157 ´10-5 m 2 / s = 0.04167m 2 / h
rC 8000´ 0.504´10
(i) Temperature at the given depth
T - T¥ æ x ÷ö
= erf çç ÷
Ti - T¥ èç 2 at ø÷
= erf (z)
x 0.250
i.e., z = = = 0.274
2 at 2 0.04167 ´5
From the table at z = 0.274 we get erf(z) = 0.30
T - T¥
Now = erf (z)
Ti - T¥
T - 450
= 0.30
25 - 450
T = 322.5o C
(ii) Instantaneous heat flow
-x 2
e 4 at
Qi = -KA (Ti - T¥ )
pat
-0.252
e4´0.04167´5
=- 46.67 ´ 2 (25 - 450)
p´ 0.0416´5
Qi = 163749.6kJ / h
(iii) Total heat flow
2t
Q total = -KA (Ti - T¥ )
pa
2´5
= -46.6´ 2´(25 - 450)
p´ 0.416
Q total = 1766948.4kJ
7. A thick concrete wall (α = 7 × 10-7m2/s) is initially at a uniform temperature
Ti = 25oC. Suddenly one of its surfaces is raised to 125oC and maintained at that
temperature. By treating the wall as semi-infinite solid, calculate temperature at 5, 10
and 15cm from the hot surface 30min after rising of the temperature.
VTU June - 2009 (02)
One Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 295
Data:- α = 7 × 10-7m2/s Ti = 25oC, T∞ = 125oC, t = 30min = 1800 seconds T = ?
(i) Temperature of wall at x = 0.05m
T - T¥ æ x ÷ö
= erf çç ÷
Ti - T¥ èç 2 at ø÷
= erf (z)
x 0.05
where z = = = 0.704
2 at 2 7 ´10-7 ´1800
From the table at z = 0.704, we get erf(z) = 0.67780
T - T¥
Now = erf (z) = 0.67780
Ti - T¥
T -125
= 0.67780
25 -125
T = 57.22o C
(ii) Temperature of wall at x = 0.1m
0.1
z= = 1.4086
2 7 ´10-7 ´1800
From the table at z = 1.4086 we get erf(z) = 0.95385
T - T¥
Now = 0.95385
Ti - T¥
T -125
= 0.95385
25 -125
T = 29.538o C
(iii) Temperature of wall at x = 0.15m
0.15
z= = 2.113
2 7 ´10-7 ´1800
From table at z = 2.113 we get erf(z) = 0.997020
T - T¥
= 0.997020
Ti - T¥
T -125
= 0.997020
25 -125
T = 25.3o C
8. A large mass of a material is initially at uniform temperature of 100oC Its surface is
suddenly lowered and maintained at 2oC. The thermal diffusivity of the material is
0.41m2/h. Calculate the time required for the temperature gradient at the surface to
reach 3.5oC/cm.
296 Heat Transfer

Data:- Ti = 100oC, T∞ = 2oC, α = 0.41m2/h =1.139 × 10-4m2/s t=?

¶T
= -3.5o C / cm
¶x
¶T
= -3.5´100o C / m = 350o C / m
¶x
Heat flow rate at the surface (at x = 0)
KA (Ti - T¥ ) —— (1)
Qi =
pat
¶T —— (2)
But Q = -KA
¶x
Comparing (1) & (2) we get
¶T Ti - T¥
- =
¶x pat
100 - 2
-(-3.5)´100 =
p´1.139´10-4 ´ t
t = 219sec onds
9. A motor car of mass 1600kg travelling at 90km/h is brought to rest with in a period of
9seconds when the brakes are applied. The braking system consists of 4 brakes with
each brake band of 360cm2 area, these press against steel drums of equivalent area.
The brake lining and the drum surface (K = 54W/moC, α = 1.25 × 10-5m2/s) are at the
same temperature and the heat generated during the stoppage action dissipates by
flowing across drums. If the drums surface is treated as semi-infinite plane calculate
the maximum temperature rise.
Data:- m = 1600kg, v = 90 km/h, t = 9 sec, A = 360×10-4m2­/brake = 4 × 360 × 10-4 = 0.144m2
(No. of brakes = 4) K = 54W/moC , α = 1.25 × 10-5m2/s
Heat generated by the braking system = Kinetic energy of the vehicle
2
1 1 æ 90´1000 ÷ö
Q g = mv 2 = ´1600´çç ÷
2 2 çè 60´ 60 ÷ø
= 5´105 Joules
5 5
5´105 5´510
HeatQflow ´10 5´105
= rate Q== =
time 2time 9
5
=5
= 0.555´10 W 0.555 ´ 10 W
Now, Heat flow rate at the surface (x = 0)
-KA (Ti - T¥ )
Qi =
pat
-54´ 0.144 (Ti - T¥ )
0.555´105 =
p´1.25´10-5 ´9
Ti - T¥ = 134.3o C is the temperature rise