Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Your notes

Computer Science
Data Storage
Contents
Primary Storage
Secondary Storage
Virtual Memory
Cloud Storage

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 Primary Storage
Your notes
Primary Storage

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Cambridge IGCSE 0478 expects you to describe RAM, ROM, and other forms of
primary storage, compare them to secondary storage, and apply your knowledge to
real-world devices. This page covers the examinable content only—clearly,
accurately, and in the language used by examiners.

Primary storage is directly accessed by the CPU

Computer systems need both primary and secondary storage to operate
Both types of storage play a crucial role in the operation of a computer system
A quick comparison of primary and secondary storage shows:

Primary Secondary

Volatile (with the exception of ROM) Non-volatile

Small capacity Large capacity

Why do you need primary storage?

A computer needs primary storage because access times are considerably faster than
secondary
This means the time taken to complete operations such as the Fetch-Execute Cycle is
dramatically reduced
Primary storage holds the data and instructions that the CPU needs to access whilst the
computer is turned on
Due to the fast access times, primary storage is used as short-term, working memory,
in hardware that is directly connected to the CPU such as RAM, and components that
reside inside the CPU such as Cache and Registers
Performance of primary storage means a much higher cost which limits the amount that
is used
For example, RAM is commonly purchased in 16 or 32 gigabytes whereas secondary
storage such as a hard drive is in terabytes

RAM

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What is RAM?
RAM (Random Access Memory) is primary storage that is directly connected to the CPU Your notes
and holds the data and instructions that are currently in use
RAM is volatile which means the contents of RAM are lost when the power is turned off
For the CPU to access the data and instructions they must be copied from secondary
storage
RAM is very fast working memory, much faster than secondary storage
RAM is read/write which means data can be read from and written to
In comparison to ROM, it has a much larger capacity

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Without the mention of current use or CPU access, you’ll lose a mark.
IGCSE may ask you to explain how RAM is used in a real product like a smart TV or
games console.
Example:
“RAM stores the current video stream or active game state, allowing smooth
performance and fast switching between tasks.”

Worked Example
A smart television allows the user to search the Internet and watch videos online.
The smart television uses RAM
Give two examples of data that the smart television could store in RAM [2]
How to answer this question
Think about the main function of a smart television, watch channels, use apps to
stream content and browse the web etc
For each function, try to think of what data would have to be in the RAM whilst you
were actually doing it (in use!)
Possible answers
Current channel being watched
Current volume
Current video/file/tv program being watched
Web browser/applications that are running
Data being downloaded/buffered

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ROM
Your notes
What is ROM?
ROM (Read Only Memory) is primary storage that holds the first instructions a computer
needs to start up (Bootstrap)
ROM contains the BIOS (Basic Input Output System)
ROM is a small memory chip located on the computers motherboard
ROM is fast memory, much faster than secondary storage but slower than RAM
ROM is non-volatile which means the contents of ROM are not lost when the power is
turned off
ROM is read only which means data can only be read from
In comparison to RAM, it has a much smaller capacity

Examiner Tips and Tricks

RAM & ROM are examples of primary storage, they can be referred to as Main Memory
or Primary Memory in the exam

Worked Example
Quinn has 512 kilobytes of ROM and 16 gigabytes of RAM in her computer
1. Describe the purpose of the ROM in Quinn's computer [2]
2. Describe the purpose of the RAM in Quinn's computer [2]
Answer
1. ROM
Store start-up instructions/bootstrap
Used to start the computer
2. RAM
Stores the parts of the OS / programs that are running
Stores data currently in use
...for access by the CPU
Guidance
Do not confuse the purpose with characteristics, describe what it does, not what
it is

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Examiner Tips and Tricks
Many students confuse RAM with secondary storage. Remember: Your notes
RAM is volatile and loses data when power is off
Secondary storage is non-volatile and holds data permanently

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 Secondary Storage
Your notes
Secondary Storage
Storage devices are non-volatile secondary storage, that retain digital data within a
computer system
They provide a means of storing, accessing, and retrieving data, which can include
software applications, documents, images, videos, and more
There are 3 types of storage:
Magnetic
Solid-state (flash memory)
Optical
Computer systems need both primary and secondary storage to operate
Both types of storage play a crucial role in the operation of a computer system
A quick comparison of primary and secondary storage shows:

Primary Secondary

Volatile (with the exception of ROM) Non-volatile

Small capacity Large capacity

Why do you need secondary storage?

A computer needs secondary storage for long term storage of programs and data that
are currently not in use
Secondary storage is needed as ROM is read only and RAM is volatile
Secondary storage holds the programs and data whilst the computer is turned off (non-
volatile)
Performance of secondary storage is slower than primary storage but capacity is much
higher which makes it perfect for backup & archive of data files

What are the characteristics of secondary storage?

Capacity - What is the maximum amount of data that can be stored?
Speed - How fast can data be read from and written to? (R/W)
Cost - How much does it cost?
Portability - How easy is it to move around? What is the physical size? Weight?
Durability - How robust is the storage?

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 Reliability - What is the probability that the device will consistently perform its function?

Your notes

Worked Example
A games console has secondary storage.
State, using an example, why the games console needs secondary storage [2]
How to answer this question
They keyword is 'why', why does a games console need secondary storage? give
an example, do not just describe what secondary storage is!
Answer
To store data once the power is turned off / permanently // for non-volatile
storage
Examples could include:
Storing games
Save games
User data/profiles
Downloaded content/applications/updates

Magnetic Storage
What is magnetic storage?
Magnetic storage is a type of non-volatile media that uses magnets (polarity) to store
binary 0s and 1s
A magnetic hard disk is made up of several metal discs coated with a magnetic material
These are called platters
Iron particles on each platter are magnetised to represent a 0 or 1

Each platter is divided by concentric circles creating several tracks and wedge shaped
sectors

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 Where they intersect is a track sector

Your notes

The hard drive spins the metal disk(s) at a high speed (typically around 5400-7200 RPM)
using a motor
A read/write arm, controlled by an actuator, moves the head over the surface of the
disc to the location of the data
The data is read/written using electromagnets

Advantages Disadvantages

Capacity - High storage Durability - Moving parts can get damaged if dropped

Cost - Low per gigabyte Portability - Heavy & bulky making them less
convenient for transport

Speed - Moderate read/write Reliability - Prone to mechanical failure

access

Noise - Loud (spinning disks)

Solid-state (Flash Memory)

What is solid state (flash memory)?

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 Solid-state (flash memory) storage is a type of non-volatile media that uses electronic
circuits to store binary 0s and 1s
Your notes
Examples of solid state storage devices include:
Solid state drives (SSD) - replacing magnetic hard drives as a computers primary
secondary storage device as capacity increases and cost decreases
USB flash memory - most common form of portable storage device
It uses NAND and NOR gates in electrical circuits to persistently control the flow of
electrons

Solid-state (flash memory) is memory made up of tiny cells that can contain one bit of
data (1 or 0)
Each cell contains a transistor that acts as a switch that can be turned on or off
The transistor contains two main parts:
Control gate - top layer of transistor, connects to circuit and controls if current can
flow through the transistor
Floating gate - can hold a charge (like a tiny rechargeable battery) and is
sandwiched between two layers of insulating material (Oxide)
To store data a charge is placed on the floating gate
A high voltage is applied to the control gate, which allows electrons to be pushed
through the oxide layer and onto the floating gate
To remove data, a high voltage charge is applied in the opposite direction, pulling the
electrons off the floating gate

Advantages Disadvantages

Capacity - Medium/high storage Cost - Very high per gigabyte

Speed - Very fast read/write access Reliability - Limited read/write cycles

Durability - No moving parts

Portability - Small and no moving parts

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Noise - Silent
Your notes
Optical Storage
What is optical storage?
Optical storage is a type of non-volatile media that uses lasers to burn the surface of a
disk, creating pits and lands suitable for storing binary 0s and 1s
Examples of optical storage include:
Blu-rays have the largest capacity
CDs have the lowest capacity
CD-R are read-only (you cannot save data on to them)
CD-RW can be written to and read from
DVD-RW can be written to and read from

All optical devices work by shining a laser at the disk and processing the reflection
An arm moves the laser across the surface of the disk
In CD-Rs a laser burns the data, permanently on to the disk, by creating pits and lands
The laser is also used to read the data from the pits and lands
When the laser light hits the point where the pit changes into a land or vice versa the
light scatters and is not reflected back as well.
This is captured by a sensor and can be interpreted as a change in the binary value

Advantages Disadvantages

Cost - Very low per gigabyte Capacity - Very low

Durability - No moving parts Speed - Very slow read/write access

Portability - Small and no moving parts Reliability - Prone to scratches

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Noise - Silent
Your notes

Worked Example
Zarmeen has purchased a new tablet computer. The tablet has an internal secondary
storage device.
The storage device is a solid state device.
1. Give three benefits of the tablet having a solid state device instead of a magnetic
device [3]
2. Give two drawbacks of the tablet having a solid state device instead of a
magnetic device [2]
Answers
Benefits
Faster access / read/write speeds
Smaller in physical size
More durable // no moving parts
Drawbacks
More expensive (per gigabyte)
Smaller capacity (usually)
Limited number of read/write cycles
Guidance
Portable is not enough on it's own
No moving parts is not enough on it's own

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 Virtual Memory
Your notes
Virtual Memory
What is virtual memory?

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Cambridge IGCSE 0478 requires you to explain what virtual memory is, when it is
used, and how it affects performance. This page is written using the structure and
phrasing examiners expect in 2–4 mark answers.

Virtual memory is an extension of primary storage (RAM) located on secondary storage

In situations where RAM is close to being full, virtual memory can be used so that the
computer remains operational
Programs and data not currently being executed are transferred to virtual memory
Programs and data are transferred back to RAM when they are needed
Programs are stored as pages of data
Pages of data are transferred between RAM and virtual memory when needed
Virtual memory is much slower than RAM and its use will impact negatively on system
performance
To avoid the use of virtual memory, increase the size of the RAM

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Virtual memory does not increase the actual size of RAM. It creates temporary
space on secondary storage. It makes the system usable, not faster.

Example

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 Your notes

In the example above, the computer is turned on and the elements of the operating
system are loaded into RAM
The user opens some spreadsheet and video editing software but RAM is full
The program not currently being used (video editing) is transferred to virtual memory
When the user wants to use the video editing software again, it is transferred back from
virtual memory to RAM

Case Study
A student uses software to create 3D models.
3D modelling often means processing large amounts of data
This takes up a large amount of RAM
If there is not enough physical RAM, virtual memory is used to:
Extend the RAMs capacity
Ensure the software does not freeze/crash when RAM gets full

Worked Example
A computer only has 4GB of RAM, Fynn says that virtual memory can be used instead
of adding more RAM.
1. Explain how virtual memory can compensate for the lack of RAM in Fynn's
computer [3]
2. Explain why it would be beneficial for Fynn to get more RAM instead of relying on
virtual memory [2]
How to answer these questions

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 1. What is the definition of virtual memory? how does it work?
2. What is the downside of using virtual memory? turn this into an advantage of
adding more RAM Your notes
Answers
How can Virtual Memory compensate
Virtual Memory is used when RAM is full
...part of the secondary storage used as (temporary) RAM
Data from RAM is moved to the secondary storage/Virtual Memory (to make
space in RAM)
RAM can then be filled with new data
When data in Virtual Memory is needed it is moved back to RAM
Benefit of more RAM
More RAM will improve the performance of the computer // More RAM will
speed up the access to data
Virtual Memory is slower to access than RAM direct (because it has to go back
to RAM first)
Moving data between RAM and VM takes processor time

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 Cloud Storage
Your notes
Cloud Storage
What is cloud storage?
Cloud storage is a term to describe long-term (secondary) storage of data that resides
in a remote location, accessible only via a wide area network (Internet)
Data is stored on remote servers, typically using magnetic storage (HDD), but
increasingly using solid state (SSD)

Advantages Disadvantages

Reliability - Access data anywhere, any time, from Cost - Typically a monthly/yearly
any device subscription plan

Security - Automatic backups Availability - No access without an

internet connection

Capacity - Endless storage space (cost

permitting), uses less space on own device

Collaboration - Multiple people can access the

same file at the same time

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 Your notes

Advantages of Cloud Storage

Cloud storage offers several advantages over storing data on a local secondary storage
device

Benefit Explanation

Accessibility Data can be accessed from anywhere

Data can be accessed by anyone with the relevant permissions,
making it quick to share files and collaborate with others
Data can be accessed on any device with an internet connection

Scalability Cloud storage providers allow customers to increase or decrease their

storage capacity as needed

Reliability Cloud storage providers often use multiple servers to store and
backup data, reducing the risk of data loss due to hardware failure

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Security Cloud storage providers offer advanced security features, such as
data encryption and multi-factor authentication multi-factor
Your notes
authentication, to protect user data from unauthorised access
There is no need to hire specialist staff as IT services being provided
by the cloud storage provider

You also do not need to purchase local secondary storage devices

One cloud storage centre is more environmentally friendly than millions of individual
servers
There are some drawbacks to using cloud storage
If the user has a slow or unreliable internet connection they would have problems
accessing their files
If you are storing a lot of data it can be expensive
You have to pay the cloud storage provider
You may need to commit to an annual subscription
You may have to pay for high download and upload data transfer limits
Data being sent over the internet has the potential to be intercepted
Security is managed by the cloud storage provider which means the user does not
have complete control over it but is still legally responsible for ensuring any
personal and sensitive data is secure

Worked Example
A school currently stores all of their data on local servers. They are considering
upgrading their system to utilise cloud storage.
Explain two disadvantages to the school of storing their data in the cloud.
[4]
You need a constant internet connection [1]
if the internet connection failed, teachers would not be able to access lesson files
[1]
if the internet connection failed, teachers would not be able to access student
data/take electronic registers [1]
if the internet connection failed, students would not be able to access their
work/coursework [1]
Reliant on third party to carry out security procedures [1]
but the school is still legally responsible if data is accessed by unauthorised
people [1]
Data stored on the cloud could be hacked or intercepted [1]

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Explain two advantages to the school of storing their data in the cloud.
[4] Your notes
Additional storage can be purchased if needed [1]
The cloud hosting company provides back up [1]
The cloud hosting company provides security [1]
Data can be accessed from anywhere and from any device provided there is an
internet connection [1]
So teachers would be able to access data from home [1]
So students would be able to access work from home [1]

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