CSM 166

Lecture One

Topic:
The Fundamental Counting
Principles
 Introduction
 Counting means determining the number of different ways of

arranging objects in certain patterns or the number of ways of

carrying out a sequence of tasks.
 Example1.1,
 Suppose we want to count the number of ways of making a bit string of
length two.
 Such a problem is small enough that the possible arrangements can be
counted by brute force.
 We can simply make a list of all the possibilities: 00, 01, 10, 11.

 Therefore having an answer of four (4).

 If the problem were to determine the number of bit strings of length fifty,

the brute force counting becomes an unreasonable alternative.

 In this case, two basic principles can apply to aid in the counting.

 These are the Sum Rule and the Product Rule.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 4-2
 The Sum Rule
 The sum rule says that if the sets A and B are disjoint, then
A B = A + B
 All sets mentioned will be finite sets, and if A is a set, A will denote the number
of elements in A.

 I other words, if we can do task 1 in a ways and task 2 in b ways, where none of

the set of a ways is the same as any of the set of b ways (the tasks are

independent), then there are a + b ways to do one of the two tasks.

 Example1.2,
 “In how many different ways we can select either a queen or a six from an
ordinary deck of 52 cards?”
 That task of selecting queen can be done in 4 ways. The 2nd task of selecting a
six can be done in 4 ways. These 2 tasks are independent, hence there are 4 + 4 =
8 ways of selecting one card from a deck, and having that card to be either a
queen or a six.
 Compare this question… “In how many ways can we select either a queen
or a diamond from a deck of 52 cards?” Not 4 + 13 = 17,why?
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 4-3
 Extended sum rule
 If A1 , A2 , A3 ,  , An is a collection of pairwise disjoint sets, then
A1  A2  A3    An = A1 + A2 + A3 +  + An

 Example 1.3,
 How many ordered pairs of integers (x, y) are there such that 0 < xy ≤ 5 ?
 { }
Solution: Let E k = ( x, y ) ∈ Ζ 2 : xy = k for k = 1, ,5. Then the desired number is
E1 + E 2 + E3 + E 4 + E5 .
We can compute each of these as follows :
E1 = {(− 1,−1), (− 1, 1), (1,−1), (1, 1)}
E 2 = {(− 2,−1), (− 2, 1)(− 1,−2), (− 1, 2), (1,−2), (1, 2), (2,−1), (2, 1)}
E3 = {(− 3,−1), (− 3, 1)(− 1,−3), (− 1, 3), (1,−3), (1, 3), (3,−1), (3, 1)}
E 4 = {(− 4,−1), (− 4, 1)(− 2,−2), (− 2, 2), (− 1,−4 ), (− 1, 4 ), (1,−4 ), (1, 4 ), (2,−2 ), (2, 2 ), (4,−1), (4, 1)}
E5 = {(− 5,−1), (− 5, 1)(− 1,−5), (− 1, 5), (1,−5), (1, 5), (5,−1), (5, 1)}
The desired number is therefore 4 + 8 + 8 + 12 + 8 = 40.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 4-4

 The Product Rule
 The product rule says: A × B = A ⋅ B
 An explanation of this is that A × B consists of all ordered pairs (a, b) where a ∈ A
and b ∈ B. There are A choices for a and then B choices for b.

 Generally, let A1 , A2 , A3 ,  , An , be finite sets. Then

A1 × A2 × A3 ×  × An = A1 ⋅ A2 ⋅ A3 ⋅  ⋅ An

 If you need to accomplish some task that takes n steps, and there are a1 ways
of accomplishing the first step, a2 ways of accomplishing the second step, etc.,
and an ways of accomplishing the n th step, then there are a1 ⋅ a 2 ⋅  ⋅ a n ways of
accomplishing the task.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 4-5

 The Product Rule
 Example 1.5
 Suppose we are buying a car with five choices for the exterior color and three
choices for the interior color.
 There is a total of 3(5) = 15 possible color combinations that we can choose from.
 First task, select an exterior color. There are 5 ways to do that.
 Second task, select an interior color. There are 3 ways to do that.
 So the product rule says there are 15 ways total to do both tasks.
 Note:
 there is no requirement of independence of tasks when using the product rule.
 the number of ways of doing the second task must be the same no matter what choice is made for
doing the first task.
 Example 1.6
 How many different 2-digit numbers could we form using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, and 9?
 Task 1, fill in the left digit, There are 9 ways to do the first task. and
 Task 2, fill in the right digit. No matter how we do the first task, there are 9 ways
to do the second task as well.
 By the product rule, there are 9(9) = 81 possible such two-digit numbers.
 COMPARE: Suppose we wanted 2-digit numbers made up of those same nine digits,
but we do not want to use a digit more than once in any of the numbers.
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 4-6
 Using both the sum and product rules
 Example 1.7

Suppose we wanted to count the number of different possible bit

strings of length five that start with either three 0’s or with two 1’s.
In how many ways can we do that?

 Solution:

 There are 1 x 1 x 1 x 2 x 2 = 4 bit strings of length five starting with three 0’s.

 Using the same reasoning, there are 1 x 1 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 8 bit strings of length five

starting with two 1’s.

 A bit string cannot both start with three 0’s and also with two 1’s, (in other words,

starting with three 0’s and starting with two 1’s are independent).

 Hence, 4 + 8 = 12 bit strings of length five starting with either three 0’s or two 1’s.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 4-7

 Using both the sum and product rules
 Example 1.8

Count the number of strings on license plates which either consist

of three capital English letters, followed by three digits, or consist of
two digits followed by four capital English letters.

 Solution:

 Let A be the set of strings which consist of three capital English letters followed

by three digits, and

 B be the set of strings which consist of two digits followed by four capital

English letters.

 By the product rule A = 26 3 ⋅ 10 3 and B = 10 2 ⋅ 26 4

 Since A  B = φ , by the sum rule the answer is A  B = 263 ⋅103 + 10 2 + 26 4 = 63,273,600

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 4-8

 Using both the sum and product rules
 Example 1.9
 Each user on a computer system has a password, which is six to eight
characters long, where each character is an uppercase letter or a digit. Each
password must contain at least one digit. How many possible passwords are
there?

 Solution:
 Let P be the total number of possible passwords, and let P6, P7, and P8 denote the number of
possible passwords of length 6, 7, and 8, respectively. By the sum rule, P = P6 + P7 + P8.
 To find P6 it is easier to find the number of strings of uppercase letters and digits that are six
characters long, including those with no digits, and subtract from this the number of strings
with no digits.
6
 By the product rule, the number of strings of six characters is 36 , and the number of strings
with no digits is 26 6 .
366 − 26 = 1,867,866,560.
6
 Hence, P6 =
Similarly, we have
P7 = 36 7 − 26 7 = 70,332,353,920 and
P8 = 368 − 268 = 2,612,282,842,880.
Consequently,
P = P6 + P7 + P8 = 2,684,483,063,360.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 4-9

 The Subtraction Rule and The Division Rule
 The Subtraction Rule
If a task can be done in either a1 ways or a2 ways, then the number
of ways to do the task is a1 + a2 minus the number of ways to do the
task that are common to the two different ways. Thus

A B = A + B − A B

 The Division Rule

There are n/d ways to do a task if it can be done using a procedure
that can be carried out in n ways, and for every way w, exactly d of
the n ways correspond to way w.
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 4-10
 The Subtraction Rule and The Division Rule
 Example 1.11
A computer company receives 350 applications from college graduates for a job
planning a line of new web servers. Suppose that 220 of these applicants majored in
computer science, 147 majored in business, and 51 majored both in computer
science and in business. How many of these applicants majored neither in computer
science nor in business?

 Solution:
 Finding the number of applicants who majored neither in computer science nor in business, subtract the
number of students who majored either in computer science or in business (or both) from the total number
of applicants.

 Let A be the set of students who majored in computer science and B the set of students who majored in
business. Then A ∪ B is the set of students who majored in computer science or business (or both), and

A ∩ B is the set of students who majored both in computer science and in business. By the subtraction rule
the number of students who majored either in computer science or in business (or both) equals

|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B| = 220 + 147 − 51 = 316.

 We conclude that 350 − 316 = 34 of the applicants majored neither in computer science nor in business.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 4-11

 The Subtraction Rule and The Division Rule

 Example 1.12
How many different ways are there to seat four people around a circular table, where
two seatings are considered the same when each person has the same left neighbor
or the same right neighbor?

 Solution:
 We arbitrarily select a seat at the table and label it seat 1.

 We number the rest of the seats in numerical order, proceeding clockwise around the table.

 Note that are four ways to select the person for seat 1, three ways to select the person for
seat 2, two ways to select the person for seat 3, and one way to select the person for seat 4.
Thus, there are 4! = 24 ways to order the given four people for these seats.

 However, each of the four choices for seat 1 leads to the same arrangement, as we
distinguish two arrangements only when one of the people has a different immediate left or
immediate right neighbor. Because there are four ways to choose the person for seat 1, by
the division rule there are 24 ∕4 = 6 different seating arrangements of four people around the
circular table.
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 4-12
 The Pigeonhole Principle
 If there are more items than containers, then at least one container

must contain more than one item.

 For example, if a mother has three children, at least two of them have the same

sex.
 Theorem 1.1 (The Generalized Pigeonhole Principle).
If n objects are placed into k boxes, then there is at least one box
that contains at least ⌈n/k⌉ objects.
 Proof: We will use a proof by contraposition. Assume not. Then each of the k

boxes contains no more than ⌈n/k⌉−1 objects. Notice that ⌈n/k⌉ < n/k + 1 (convince
yourself that this is always true). Thus, the total number of objects in the k boxes
is at most k (⌈n/k⌉ − 1) < k(n/k + 1 − 1) = n,

contradicting the fact that there are n objects in the boxes.

Therefore, some box contains at least ⌈n/k⌉ objects.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 4-13
 The Pigeonhole Principle
 Remark

 A common type of problem asks for the minimum number of

objects such that at least r of these objects must be in one of k

boxes when these objects are distributed among the boxes.

 When we have n objects, the generalized pigeonhole principle

tells us there must be at least r objects in one of the boxes as

long as ⌈n/k⌉ ≥ r.

 The smallest integer n with n/k > r − 1, namely, n = k(r − 1) + 1,

is the smallest integer satisfying the inequality ⌈n/k⌉ ≥ r.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 4-14

 The Pigeonhole Principle
 Example 1.13

 What is the minimum number of students required in a discrete mathematics

class to be sure that at least six will receive the same grade, if there are five
possible grades, A, B, C, D, and F?

 Solution:
 Remember n = k(r − 1) + 1, is the smallest integer satisfying the inequality ⌈n/k⌉ ≥ r.

 The minimum number of students needed to ensure that at least six students

receive the same grade is the smallest integer n such that ⌈n/5⌉ = 6. The smallest
such integer is n = 5 ⋅ 5 + 1 = 26.

 If you have only 25 students, it is possible for there to be five who have received

each grade so that no six students have received the same grade.

 Thus, 26 is the minimum number of students needed to ensure that at least six

students will receive the same grade.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 4-15
 The Pigeonhole Principle
 Example1.14

 A drawer contains an infinite supply of white, black, and blue

socks. What is the smallest number of socks you must take from
the drawer in order to be guaranteed that you have a matching
pair?
 Solution:

 Clearly I could grab one of each color, so three is not enough.

But according the Pigeonhole Principle, if I take 4 socks, then I

will get at least ⌈n/3⌉ ≥ 2 of the same color (the colors correspond
to the boxes). Thus n = k(r − 1) + 1 = 3 ⋅ 1 + 1 = 4

 So 4 socks will guarantee a matched pair.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 4-16
 The Pigeonhole Principle
 Example1.15
 How many cards must be selected from a standard deck of 52 cards to
guarantee that at least three cards of the same suit are selected?
 Solution:
 Using the generalized pigeonhole principle, we see that if n cards are
selected, there is at least one box containing at least ⌈n/4⌉ cards.
 Consequently, we know that at least three cards of one suit are selected
if ⌈n/4⌉ ≥ 3.
 The smallest integer n such that ⌈n/4⌉ ≥ 3 is n = 2 ⋅ 4 + 1 = 9, so nine
cards suffice.
 Note that
 if eight cards are selected, it is possible to have two cards of each suit, so more
than eight cards are needed.
 Consequently, nine cards must be selected to guarantee that at least three cards
of one suit are chosen.
 One good way to think about this is to note that after the eighth card is chosen,
there is no way to avoid having a third card of some suit.
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 4-17
 The Pigeonhole Principle
 Example1.16

 How many must be selected from a standard deck of 52 cards to

guarantee that at least three hearts are selected?

 Solution:

 We do not use the generalized pigeonhole principle to answer this

question, because we want to make sure that there are three hearts, not
just three cards of one suit.

 Note that in the worst case, we can select all the clubs, diamonds, and

spades, 39 cards in all, before we select a single heart.

 The next three cards will be all hearts, so we may need to select 42

cards to get three

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 4-18

 Exercise 1
1. To meet the science requirement a student must take one of the following
courses: a choice of 5 biology courses, 4 physics courses, or 6 chemistry
courses. In how many ways can the one course be selected?

2. A multiple choice test contains 10 questions. There are four possible answers for
each question.
(a) How many ways can a student complete the test if every question must be
answered?
(b) How many ways can a student complete the test if questions can be left
unanswered?

3. How many license plates can be made using either three digits followed by three
uppercase English letters or three uppercase English letters followed by three
digits?

4. In how many ways can a photographer at a wedding arrange 6 people in a row

from a group of 10 people, where the bride and the groom are among these 10
people, if
(a) the bride must be in the picture?
(b) both the bride and groom must be in the picture?
(c) exactly one of the bride and the groom is in the picture?
Emmanuel Kpeglo-KNUST 4-19
 Exercise 1
5. Every student in a discrete mathematics class is either a computer science or a
mathematics major or is a joint major in these two subjects. How many students
are in the class if there are 38 computer science majors (including joint majors),
23 mathematics majors (including joint majors), and 7 joint majors?

6. A bowl contains 10 red balls and 10 blue balls. A woman selects balls at random
without looking at them.

(a) How many balls must she select to be sure of having at least three balls of the
same color?

(b) How many balls must she

7. There are six professors teaching the introductory discrete mathematics class at a
university. The same final exam is given by all six professors. If the lowest
possible score on the final is 0 and the highest possible score is 100, how many
students must there be to guarantee that there are two students with the same
professor who earned the same final examination score?
Emmanuel Kpeglo-KNUST 4-20
 CSM 166
Lecture TWO

Topic:
The Fundamental Counting
Principles
 Permutations and Combinations
 A permutation of a set of distinct objects is an ordered

arrangement of these objects.

 We are interested in ordered arrangements of some of the elements of

a set.

 An ordered arrangement of r elements of a set is called an r-

permutation.

 For example, there are six possible permutations of the set

A = {a, b, c}. They are … abc, acb, bac, bca, cab,cba.

 Product rule explains these:
 there are 3 choices for the first letter, 2 choices for the second letter, and finally 1
choice for the last letter. So the total number of permutations is 3 • 2 • 1 = 6.

 We have shown that a

 3-set has 3 • 2 • 1 = 6 permutations. Considering all 3.
 Generally, n-set has n • (n − 1) • (n − 2) • • • 2 • 1 = n! permutations.
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 2
 Permutations and Combinations
 THEOREM 2.1: If n is a positive integer and r is an integer

with 1 ≤ r ≤ n, then there are

P(n, r) = n(n − 1)(n − 2)⋯(n − r + 1)

r-permutations of a set with n distinct elements.

P (n, r ) = n(n − 1) ⋅  ⋅ (n − r + 1)
n(n − 1) ⋅  ⋅ (n − r + 1)(n − r )(n − r − 1) ⋅  ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
=
(n − r )(n − r − 1) ⋅  ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
n!
=
(n − r )!
NB: Here, the permutation is without replacement

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 3

 Permutations and Combinations

 Example 2.1: Suppose that a saleswoman has to visit eight

different cities. She must begin her trip in a specified city,

but she can visit the other seven cities in any order she
wishes. How many possible orders can the saleswoman
use when visiting these cities?

Solution 2.1:
 Since the first city is fixed, the remaining seven can be ordered

arbitrarily. Consequently, there are 7! = 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = 5040

ways for the saleswoman to choose her tour.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 4

 Permutations and Combinations

 Example 2.2: In how many ways can we select a president,

vice-president, secretary, and treasurer from a group of 20

people assuming no person can hold more than one office.

Solution 2.2: Because no team can occupy more than

one position, it is a permutation without replacement.

20! 20 ⋅ 19 ⋅ 18 ⋅ 17 ⋅ 16!
P(20,4) = = = 116280
(20 − 4)! 16!

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 5

 Permutations and Combinations
 Example 2.3: Suppose that there are eight runners in a race. The winner
receives a gold medal, the second place finisher receives a silver medal,
and the third-place finisher receives a bronze medal. How many different
ways are there to award these medals, if all possible outcomes of the
race can occur and there are no ties?
8! 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5!
Solution 2.3: P(8,3) = = = 336
(8 − 3)! 5!

 Combinations: If n and r are integers, such that 1 ≤ r ≤ n,

then the number of ways to make unordered selections of r

objects from a set of n distinct objects but without
repetition (i.e., combination without replacement) is as
follows: n n!
C (n, r ) =   =
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST  r  r!(n − r )! 6
 Permutations and Combinations
 Example 2.4: There are 22 players on a soccer team. The

starting lineup consists of only 11 players. How many

possible starting lineups are there, assuming what
positions they play is of no concern?

 Solution 2.4: Because the order of the selection of the

players is immaterial and no player can be selected more

than once, it is a combination without replacement.

22!
C (22,11) = = 705,432
11!(22 − 11)!
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 7
 Permutations and Combinations
 Example 2.5: Suppose that there are 9 faculty members in

the mathematics department and 11 in the computer

science department. How many ways are there to select a
committee to develop a discrete mathematics course at a
school if the committee is to consist of three faculty
members from the mathematics department and four from
the computer science department?

 Solution 2.5:
9! 11!
C (9,3) ⋅C (11,4) = ⋅ = 84 ⋅ 330 = 27,720
3!6! 4!7!
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 8
 Permutations and Combinations
 NB:

 If n and k are integers, such that 0 ≤ k and 1 ≤ n, then the

number of ways to make ordered arrangements of k

objects from a set of n objects, when repetition of objects
allowed (i.e., permutation with replacement) is as follows:
n × n ×  × n = nk
 If n and k are integers, such that 0 ≤ k and 1 ≤ n, then the

number of ways to make unordered selections of k objects

from a set of n objects, when repetition of objects allowed
(i.e., combination with replacement) is as follows:
 n + k − 1 (n + k − 1)!
  =
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST  k  k!(n − 1)! 9
 Permutations and Combinations
 Example 2.6: How many solutions does the equation

x1 + x2 + x3 = 11 have, where x1, x2, and x3 are nonnegative

integers?

 Solution 2.6:

 In solving this, we note that a solution corresponds to a way of

selecting 11 items from a set with three elements so that x1 items of

type one, x2 items of type two, and x3 items of type three are chosen.

 Hence, the number of solutions is equal to the number of 11-

combinations with repetition.

 n + k − 1 (n + k − 1)!  3 + 11 − 1 (3 + 11 − 1)! 13!

  = therefore   = = = 78
 k  k!(n − 1)!  11  11!(3 − 1)! 11!2!
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 10
 Permutations and Combinations
 Example 2.7: How many four-letter passwords from the

capital letters A to Z inclusive can be made, noting that a

letter can be repeated in a password?

 Solution 2.7:

 This is a permutation with replacement, as the order of capital letters

in a password matters and a capital letter can be used in a password

more than once.

 Noting that n = 26 and k = 4, the number of passwords is thus

n × n ×  × n = 26 4 = 456,976

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 11

 Permutations and Combinations
 Example 2.8: How many different strings can be made by

reordering the letters of the word SUCCESS?

 Solution 2.8:

 Since the letters in SUCCESS are all not same, the answer is not given

by the number of permutations of seven letters.

 This word contains three Ss, two Cs, one U, and one E.

 Note that the three Ss can be placed among the seven positions in

C(7, 3) different ways, then the two Cs can be placed in C(4, 2) ways,
then U can be placed in C(2, 1) ways, then E in C(1, 1) way.

 Therefore…
7! 4! 2! 1! 7!
C (7,3)C (4,2)C (2,1)C (1,1) = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ = = 420
3!4! 2!2! 1!1! 1!0! 3!2!1!1!
 This solution leads to the following theorem…
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 12
 Permutations and Combinations
Theorem 2.2 (Permutations with Indistinguishable Objects):

 The number of different permutations of n objects, where

there are n1 indistinguishable objects of type 1, n2

indistinguishable objects of type 2,…, and nk
n!
indistinguishable objects of type k, is .
n1!n2 ! nk !
Example 2.9
 How many permutations of the letters from MASSACHUSETTS contain MASS?

 Solution: We can consider MASS as one block along with the remaining 9 letters
A, C, H, U, S, E, T, T, S. Thus, we are permuting 10 ‘letters’.

 There are 2 S’s, 2 T’s, and others 1and so the total number of permutations
sought is
n! 10!
= = 907,200
n1!n2! nk ! 2!⋅2!⋅1!1!
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 13
 Permutations and Combinations
Theorem 2.2 (Permutations with Indistinguishable Objects):

 The number of different permutations of n objects, where

there are n1 indistinguishable objects of type 1, n2

indistinguishable objects of type 2,…, and nk
n!
indistinguishable objects of type k, is .
n1!n2 ! nk !
Example 2.9
 How many permutations of the letters from MASSACHUSETTS contain MASS?

 Solution: We can consider MASS as one block along with the remaining 9 letters
A, C, H, U, S, E, T, T, S. Thus, we are permuting 10 ‘letters’.

 There are 2 S’s, 2 T’s, and others 1and so the total number of permutations
sought is
n! 10!
= = 907,200
n1!n2! nk ! 2!⋅2!⋅1!1!
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 14
 Binomial Coefficients and Identities
The Binomial Theorem
 It is well known (a + b) 2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2.
 Multiplying this last equality by a + b one obtains

(a + b)3 = (a + b) 2 (a + b) = a 3 + 3a 2b + 3ab 2 + b3

 Again, multiplying (a + b)3 = a 3 + 3a 2b + 3ab 2 + b3 by a + b one obtains

(a + b) 4 = (a + b)3 (a + b) = a 4 + 4a 3b + 6a 2b 2 + 4ab3 + b 4
 This generalizes, as we see in the next theorem.

Theorem 2.3 (The Binomial Theorem):

Let x and y be variables and n be a nonnegative integer.

n
 n  n −i i
Then ( x + y ) = ∑  x y
n

i =0  i 

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 15

 Binomial Coefficients and Identities
Example 2.11: Expand (4 x + 5) 3, simplifying as much as possible.

Solution 2.11:
 3  3  3  3
(4 x + 5)3 =  (4 x)3 50 +  (4 x) 2 51 +  (4 x)1 52 +  (4 x) 0 53
 0  1  2  3
= (4 x) 3 + 3(4 x) 2 (5) + 3(4 x)(5) 2 + 53
= 64 x 3 + 240 x 2 + 300 x + 125

Example 2.12: In the following, i = − 1, so that i 2 = −1, evaluate (2 + i )5

Solution 2.12:
5  5 5  5 5  5
(2 + i )5 =  (2)5 i 0 +  (2) 4 i1 +  (2)3 i 2 +  (2) 2 i 3 +  (2)1 i 4 +  (2)0 i 5
 0 1  2  3  4  5
= 32 + 80i − 80 − 40i + 10 + i
= −38 + 39i

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 16

 Binomial Coefficients and Identities
Example 2.13:
12 13
What is the coefficient of x y in the expansion of ( x + 2) 25 ?

Solution 2.13:
 25  25!
  = = 5,200,300
 13  13!12!

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 17

 Inclusion-Exclusion
 The Sum Rule gives us the cardinality for unions of finite sets that are
mutually disjoint.

 In this section we will drop the disjointness requirement and obtain a

formula for the cardinality of unions of general finite sets.

Theorem 2.4 (Inclusion-Exclusion for Two Sets).

 Let A and B be sets. Then |A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B|

Proof:

 Clearly there are |A∩B| elements that are in both A and B.

Therefore, |A|+|B| is the number of element in A and B, where

the elements in |A∩B| are counted twice.

 From this it is clear that |A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B|.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 18

 Inclusion-Exclusion
 Example 2.14:

Consider the set A that are multiples of 2 no greater than 114.

That is, A = {2, 4, 6, . . . , 114}.

(a) How many elements are there in A?

(b) How many are divisible by 3?

(c) How many are divisible by 5?

(d) How many are divisible by 15?

(e) How many are divisible by either 3, 5 or both?

(f) How many are neither divisible by 3 nor 5?

(g) How many are divisible by exactly one of 3 or 5?

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 19

 Inclusion-Exclusion
 Solution 2.14:

Let Ak ⊂ A be the set of those integers divisible by k.

(a) How many elements are there in A?

Notice that the elements are 2 = 2(1), 4 = 2(2), . . . , 114 = 2(57).

Thus |A| = 57.

(b) How many are divisible by 3?

Notice that A3 = {6, 12, 18, . . . , 114} = {1 · 6, 2 · 6, 3 · 6, . . . , 19 · 6},

so |A3| = 19.

(c) How many are divisible by 5?

Notice that A5 = {10, 20, 30, . . . , 110} = {1 · 10, 2 · 10, 3 · 10, . . . ,

11 · 10}, so |A5| = 11.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 20
 Inclusion-Exclusion
 Solution 2.14:

Let Ak ⊂ A be the set of those integers divisible by k.

(d) How many are divisible by 15?

Notice that A15 = {30, 60, 90}, so |A15| = 3.

(e) How many are divisible by either 3, 5 or both?

First notice that A3∩A5 = A15. Then it is clear that the

answer is |A3∪A5| = |A3| + |A5| − |A15| = 19 + 11 − 3 = 27.

(f) How many are neither divisible by 3 nor 5?

|A \ (A3 ∪ A5)| = |A| − |A3 ∪ A5| = 57 − 27 = 30.

(g) How many are divisible by exactly one of 3 or 5?

|(A3 ∪ A5) \ (A3 ∩ A5)| = |(A3 ∪ A5)| − |A3 ∩ A5| = 27 − 3 = 24.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 21
 Inclusion-Exclusion
Theorem 2.5 (Inclusion-Exclusion for Three Sets).

Let A, B, and C be sets. Then

|A ∪ B ∪ C| = |A| + |B| + |C| −|A ∩ B| − |B ∩ C| − |C ∩ A| +|A ∩ B ∩ C|

 Proof: Using the associativity and distributivity of unions of

sets, we see that

|A ∪ B ∪ C|

= |A ∪ (B ∪ C)| = |A| + |B ∪ C| − |A ∩ (B ∪ C)|

= |A| + |B ∪ C| − |(A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)|

= |A| + |B| + |C| − |B ∩ C| − |A ∩ B| − |A ∩ C| + |(A ∩ B) ∩ (A ∩ C)|

= |A| + |B| + |C| − |B ∩ C| − (|A ∩ B| + |A ∩ C| − |A ∩ B ∩ C|)

= |A| + |B| + |C| − |A ∩ B| − |B ∩ C| − |C ∩ A| + |A ∩ B ∩ C|.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 22
 Inclusion-Exclusion
Example 2.15:
At Prempeh College, there are forty students. Amongst them, fourteen like

mathematics, sixteen like theology, and eleven like accounting. It is also known that
seven like mathematics and theology, eight like theology and accounting and five like
mathematics and accounting. All three subjects are favored by four students. How many
students like neither mathematics, nor theology, nor accounting?

Solution 2.15:
Let A be the set of students liking mathematics, B the set of students liking theology, and C
be the set of students liking accounting. We are given that

|A| = 14, |B| = 16, |C| = 11, |A ∩ B| = 7, |B ∩ C| = 8, |A ∩ C| = 5, and |A ∩ B ∩ C| = 4.

Therefore

A  B C = A B C
= |U| − |A ∪ B ∪ C|

= |U| − |A| − |B| − |C| + |A ∩ B| + |A ∩ C| + |B ∩ C| − |A ∩ B ∩ C|

= 40 − 14 − 16 − 11 + 7 + 5 + 8 − 4

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST

= 15. 23
 Counting Using Recurrence Relations
 Recurrence Relations

 Recursive definition of a sequence specifies one or more initial terms

and a rule for determining subsequent terms from those that precede
them.

 A rule of the latter sort (whether or not it is part of a recursive

definition) is called a recurrence relation.

 A sequence is called a solution of a recurrence relation if its terms

satisfy the recurrence relation.

 Example 2.16

Let’s use an to denote the number of bit strings of length n

with no adjacent 0’s. Here are a few sample cases for small
values of n.
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 24
 Counting Using Recurrence Relations
Example 2.16…

 n=0: Just one good bit string of length zero, and that is l,
the empty bit string. So a0 = 1.

 n=1: There are two good bit strings of length one. Namely 0

and 1. So a1 = 2.

 n=2: There are three good bit strings of length two.

Namely, 01, 10 and 11. (Of course, 00 is a bad bit string.)

That means a2 = 3.

 n=3: Things start to get confusing now. But here is the list

of good bit strings of length three: 010, 011, 101, 110, and
111. So a3 = 5.
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 25
 Counting Using Recurrence Relations
Example 2.16…

 n=4: A little scratch work produces the good bit strings

0101, 0111, 1011,1101, 1111, 0110, 1010, and 1110, for a
total of eight. That means a4 = 8.

 List so far looks like 1, 2, 3, 5, 8.

 Trying a bit more, it turns out the list continues 13, 21, 34.

 The solution to the counting problem can be expressed

recursively as a0 = 1, a1 = 2, and for 2 ≤ n, an = an-1 + an-2

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 26

 Exercise 2.1
1. An auto insurance company has 10, 000 policyholders. Each policy holder is

classified as

• young or old,

• male or female, and

• married or single.

Of these policyholders, 3000 are young, 4600 are male, and 7000 are married. The

policyholders can also be classified as 1320 young males, 3010 married males, and

1400 young married persons. Finally, 600 of the policyholders are young married

males.

How many of the company’s policyholders are young, female, and single?

2. Expand and simplify the following: (2i + 3) 4 − (2i − 3i ) 4

3. What is the coefficient of x 6 y 9 in (3x − 2 y )15
4 6
What is the coefficient of x y in ( x 2 − y )
10
4.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 27

Graph Theory - Lecture 1 (of 2)
 Graph Theory

Click here for a movable graph

Graph Theory
Graph Theory
Graph Theory
Graph Theory
Graph Theory
a e1
e2 c
b e4
d e3 e5
e6 e e8
e7
G f g

Definition (Graph)
A graph G is an ordered pair (V , E ), where
V = V (G ) is a non-empty set of vertices – The vertex set of G ;
E = E (G ) is a set of edges the edge set of G ; and the two sets are
related through a function

fG : E → {{u, v } : u, v ∈ V }

called the incidence function, assigning to each edge the unordered

pair of its end-points. 1/20
Graph Theory - Example

za e1
e2 c
b e4
d e3 e5
e6 e e8
e7
G f g

The drawing above represents a graph with vertex set

V = {a, b, c, d, e, f , g }, edge set E = {e1 , e2 , · · · , e8 }, and incidence
function defined by
f (e1 ) = {a, b} f (e2 ) = {b, c}
f (e3 ) = {b, d} f (e4 ) = {b, e}
f (e5 ) = {c, e} f (e6 ) = {d, f }
f (e7 ) = {e, f } f (e8 ) = {c, g }

2/20
Graph Theory - Loop and Parallel Edges

Definition
An edge e in a graph G is called a
loop if fG (e) = {u} for some vertex u ∈ V (G ) (that is, if its
endpoints coincide)
link if fG (e) = {u, v }for distinct vertices u, v ∈ V (G ).
Distinct edges e1 and e2 in a graph G are called parallel or multiple
if fG (e1 ) = fG (e2 ),that is, if they have the same endpoints. 3/20
Graph Theory - Loop and Parallel Edges

In this example, edges e1 ande7 are loops,

and all other edges are links.
Edges e3 , e4 , and e5 are pairwise parallel.

4/20
Graph Theory - Loop and Parallel Edges

In this example, edges e1 ande7 are loops,

and all other edges are links.
Edges e3 , e4 , and e5 are pairwise parallel.

Definition (Simple Graph)

A simple graph is a graph without loops and without multiple edges.
4/20
Graph Theory - Directed Graph

Definition
A directed graph (or digraph) D is an ordered pair (V , A), where
V = V (D) is a non-empty set of vertices – the vertex set of D;
A = A(D) is a set of arcs or directed edges the arc set of D; and
the two sets are related via an incidence function fD :→ V × V ,
assigning to each arc the ordered pair of its endpoints.
5/20
Graph Theory - Directed Graph Example

We have a digraph with vertex set V = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } and arc set

A = {a1 , a2 , ..., a9 }. The incidence function returns

fD (a1 ) = (v1 , v1 ) fD (a2 ) = (v1 , v2 )

fD (a3 ) = (v3 , v2 ) fD (a4 ) = (v2 , v3 )
fD (a5 ) = (v2 , v3 ) fD (a6 ) = (v2 , v4 )
fD (a7 ) = (v3 , v3 ) fD (a8 ) = (v3 , v4 )
fD (a9 ) = (v4 , v3 )
6/20
Graph Theory - Directed Graph Example

If a ∈ A(D) and u, v ∈ V (D) are such that fD (a) = (u, v ), then u is called
the initial and v is called the terminal vertex of the arc a.

7/20
Graph Terminology
Graph Theory - Graph Terminology

Adjacent: Let G = (V , E ) be a graph. Vertices u, v ∈ V are called

adjacent or neighbours in G if uv is an edge of G .

8/20
Graph Theory - Graph Terminology

Adjacent: Let G = (V , E ) be a graph. Vertices u, v ∈ V are called

adjacent or neighbours in G if uv is an edge of G .
Incident An edge uv is said to be incident with each of its end points
u and v .

8/20
Graph Theory - Graph Terminology

Adjacent: Let G = (V , E ) be a graph. Vertices u, v ∈ V are called

adjacent or neighbours in G if uv is an edge of G .
Incident An edge uv is said to be incident with each of its end points
u and v .
Degree The degree of a vertex u ∈ V , denoted by degG (u), is the
number of edges of G incident with vertex u, each loop counting
twice.

8/20
Graph Theory - Graph Terminology

Adjacent: Let G = (V , E ) be a graph. Vertices u, v ∈ V are called

adjacent or neighbours in G if uv is an edge of G .
Incident An edge uv is said to be incident with each of its end points
u and v .
Degree The degree of a vertex u ∈ V , denoted by degG (u), is the
number of edges of G incident with vertex u, each loop counting
twice.
– A vertex of degree 0 is called isolated, and a vertex of degree 1 is
called pendant (or a leaf in the context of trees).
8/20
Some Useful Graphs
Graph Theory - Complete Graph

9/20
Graph Theory - Complete Graph

Complete Graph
A complete graph Kn (for n ≥ 1) is a simple graph with n vertices in
which every pair of distinct vertices are adjacent. More formally

V (Kn ) = {u1 , u2 , · · · , un }
E (Kn ) = {xy : x, y ∈ V , x 6= y }

9/20
Graph Theory - Complete Bi-partite Graph

10/20
Graph Theory - Complete Bi-partite Graph

Complete Bi-partite Graph

A complete bipartite graph Km,n (for m, n ≥ 1) is a simple graph with
m + n vertices. The vertex set partitions into sets X and Y of cardinalities
m and n, and each pair of vertices from distinct parts are adjacent. That
is:

V (Km,n ) = {x1 , x2 , · · · , xm } ∪ {y1 , y2 , · · · , yn }

E (Km,n ) = {xi yj : xi ∈ X , yj ∈ Y }
10/20
Graph Theory - Bipartite Graph

11/20
Graph Theory - Bipartite Graph

Bipartite Graph
A bipartite graph Km,n (for m, n ≥ 1) is a simple graph with m + n
vertices. The vertex set partitions into sets X and Y of cardinalities m and
n. And edges are only of the form xy , where x ∈ X , y ∈ Y :

V (Km,n ) = {x1 , x2 , · · · , xm } ∪ {y1 , y2 , · · · , yn }

E (Km,n )⊆{xi yj : xi ∈ X , yj ∈ Y }
11/20
Graph Theory - Cycle

12/20
Graph Theory - Cycle

13/20
Graph Theory - Cycle

Cycle
A cycle Cn (of length n ≥ 1) is a graph with n vertices that are linked in a
circular way, creating n edges. That is,

V (Cn ) = {u1 , u2 , · · · , un }
E (Cn ) = {u1 u2 , u2 u3 , u3 u4 , · · · , un−1 un , un u1 }

13/20
Graph Theory - Cycle

Cycle
A cycle Cn (of length n ≥ 1) is a graph with n vertices that are linked in a
circular way, creating n edges. That is,

V (Cn ) = {u1 , u2 , · · · , un }
E (Cn ) = {u1 u2 , u2 u3 , u3 u4 , · · · , un−1 un , un u1 }

Note that any cycle Cn for n ≥ 3 is a simple graph, while for n = 2, the
edge set E (Cn ) consists of a pair of parallel edges.
13/20
Graph Theory - Path

14/20
Graph Theory - Path

15/20
Graph Theory - Path

Path
A path Pn (of length n ≥ 0) is a graph with n + 1 vertices that are linked
in a linear way. More precisely,

V (Pn ) = {u1 , u2 , · · · , un }
E (Pn ) = {u1 u2 , u2 u3 , u3 u4 , · · · , un−1 un }

15/20
Graph Theory - Subgraph

b c h

d e i j

G f g H k

Subgraph
Let G and H be simple graphs. We say that H is a subgraph of G if
V (H) ⊆ V (G ) and E (H) ⊆ E (G ).

But is it induced subgraph? What is that by the way?

16/20
Graph Theory - Subgraph

b c h

d e i j

G f g H k

Subgraph
Let G and H be simple graphs. We say that H is a subgraph of G if
V (H) ⊆ V (G ) and E (H) ⊆ E (G ).

But is it induced subgraph? What is that by the way?

16/20
Matrix Representation of Graphs
Matrix Representation of Graphs
Graph Theory - Incident Matrix Representation

Incident Matrix Representation

Let G be a graph with V (G ) = {u1 , u2 , · · · , un },
E (G ) = {e1 , e2 , · · · , em },and incidence function fG . We define:
the incidence matrix of G : an n × m matrix M = [mij ] such that

2, if fG (ej ) = {vj }

mij = 1, if fG (ej ) = {ui , uk } for some k 6= i (1)

0 otherwise.

17/20
Graph Theory - Adjacency Matrix Representation

Adjacency Matrix Representation

Let G be a graph with V (G ) = {u1 , u2 , · · · , un },
E (G ) = {e1 , e2 , · · · , em },and incidence function fG . We define:
the adjacency matrix of G : an n × n matrix A = [aij ] such that

aij = |{ek : fG (ek ) = {ui , uj }}|

= number of edges with end points ui and uj .
18/20
Graph Theory - Adjacency Matrix Representation

19/20
Thank you for your attention!!

20/20
Graph Theory - Lecture 2 (of 2)
 Graph Theory

Click here for a movable graph

Graph Theory

a e1
e2 c
b e4
d e3 e5
e6 e e8
e7
G f g

1/25
Graph Theory

a e1
e2 c
b e4
d e3 e5
e6 e e8
e7
G f g

Degree Sequence
deg(a)=

1/25
Graph Theory

a e1
e2 c
b e4
d e3 e5
e6 e e8
e7
G f g

Degree Sequence
deg(a)=1,

1/25
Graph Theory

a e1
e2 c
b e4
d e3 e5
e6 e e8
e7
G f g

Degree Sequence
deg(a)=1, deg(b)=

1/25
Graph Theory

a e1
e2 c
b e4
d e3 e5
e6 e e8
e7
G f g

Degree Sequence
deg(a)=1, deg(b)=4,

1/25
Graph Theory

a e1
e2 c
b e4
d e3 e5
e6 e e8
e7
G f g

Degree Sequence
deg(a)=1, deg(b)=4, deg(c)=

1/25
Graph Theory

a e1
e2 c
b e4
d e3 e5
e6 e e8
e7
G f g

Degree Sequence
deg(a)=1, deg(b)=4, deg(c)=3,

1/25
Graph Theory

a e1
e2 c
b e4
d e3 e5
e6 e e8
e7
G f g

Degree Sequence
deg(a)=1, deg(b)=4, deg(c)=3, deg(d)=

1/25
Graph Theory

a e1
e2 c
b e4
d e3 e5
e6 e e8
e7
G f g

Degree Sequence
deg(a)=1, deg(b)=4, deg(c)=3, deg(d)=2,

1/25
Graph Theory

a e1
e2 c
b e4
d e3 e5
e6 e e8
e7
G f g

Degree Sequence
deg(a)=1, deg(b)=4, deg(c)=3, deg(d)=2, deg(e)=

1/25
Graph Theory

a e1
e2 c
b e4
d e3 e5
e6 e e8
e7
G f g

Degree Sequence
deg(a)=1, deg(b)=4, deg(c)=3, deg(d)=2, deg(e)=3,

1/25
Graph Theory

a e1
e2 c
b e4
d e3 e5
e6 e e8
e7
G f g

Degree Sequence
deg(a)=1, deg(b)=4, deg(c)=3, deg(d)=2, deg(e)=3, deg(f)=

1/25
Graph Theory

a e1
e2 c
b e4
d e3 e5
e6 e e8
e7
G f g

Degree Sequence
deg(a)=1, deg(b)=4, deg(c)=3, deg(d)=2, deg(e)=3, deg(f)=2

1/25
Graph Theory

a e1
e2 c
b e4
d e3 e5
e6 e e8
e7
G f g

Degree Sequence
deg(a)=1, deg(b)=4, deg(c)=3, deg(d)=2, deg(e)=3, deg(f)=2
deg(g)=

1/25
Graph Theory

a e1
e2 c
b e4
d e3 e5
e6 e e8
e7
G f g

Degree Sequence
deg(a)=1, deg(b)=4, deg(c)=3, deg(d)=2, deg(e)=3, deg(f)=2
deg(g)=1.

1/25
Graph Theory

a e1
e2 c
b e4
d e3 e5
e6 e e8
e7
G f g

Degree Sequence
deg(a)=1, deg(b)=4, deg(c)=3, deg(d)=2, deg(e)=3, deg(f)=2
deg(g)=1.
Degree sequence is:

1/25
Graph Theory

a e1
e2 c
b e4
d e3 e5
e6 e e8
e7
G f g

Degree Sequence
deg(a)=1, deg(b)=4, deg(c)=3, deg(d)=2, deg(e)=3, deg(f)=2
deg(g)=1.
Degree sequence is: 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4.

1/25
Graph Theory - Bipartite Graph

Bipartite Graph
A bipartite graph Km,n (for m, n ≥ 1) is a simple graph with m + n
vertices. The vertex set partitions into sets X and Y of cardinalities m and
n. And edges are only of the form xy , where x ∈ X , y ∈ Y :

V (Km,n ) = {x1 , x2 , · · · , xm } ∪ {y1 , y2 , · · · , yn }

E (Km,n ) ⊆ {xi yj : xi ∈ X , yj ∈ Y }
2/25
Bipartite Graph, 2-Coloring and No Odd-length Cycle
Theorem
The following are equivalent:
1 G is bipartite.
2 G admits a proper 2-vertex-colouring; that is, the vertices of G can
be coloured with 2 colours (say, red and blue) so that the endpoints
of each edge receive distinct colours.
3 G has no subgraph that is a cycle of odd length.

3/25
Bipartite Graph, 2-Coloring and No Odd-length Cycle
Theorem
The following are equivalent:
1 G is bipartite.
2 G admits a proper 2-vertex-colouring; that is, the vertices of G can
be coloured with 2 colours (say, red and blue) so that the endpoints
of each edge receive distinct colours.
3 G has no subgraph that is a cycle of odd length.

5 6

1 2

3 4

8 7
G
Bipartite Graph, 2-Coloring and No Odd-length Cycle
Theorem
The following are equivalent:
1 G is bipartite.
2 G admits a proper 2-vertex-colouring; that is, the vertices of G can
be coloured with 2 colours (say, red and blue) so that the endpoints
of each edge receive distinct colours.
3 G has no subgraph that is a cycle of odd length.

5 6

1 2

3 4

8 7
G

3/25
Bipartite Coloring

4/25
Bipartite Coloring

4/25
Bipartite Coloring

4/25
Bipartite Coloring

4/25
Matrix Representation of Graphs
Graph Theory - Incident Matrix Representation

Incident Matrix Representation

Let G be a graph with V (G ) = {u1 , u2 , · · · , un },
E (G ) = {e1 , e2 , · · · , em },and incidence function fG . We define:
the incidence matrix of G : an n × m matrix M = [mij ] such that

2, if fG (ej ) = {vj }

mij = 1, if fG (ej ) = {ui , uk } for some k 6= i (1)

0 otherwise.

5/25
Graph Theory - Adjacency Matrix Representation

Adjacency Matrix Representation

Let G be a graph with V (G ) = {u1 , u2 , · · · , un },
E (G ) = {e1 , e2 , · · · , em },and incidence function fG . We define:
the adjacency matrix of G : an n × n matrix A = [aij ] such that

aij = |{ek : fG (ek ) = {ui , uj }}|

= number of edges with end points ui and uj .
6/25
Graph Theory - Adjacency Matrix Representation

7/25
Graph Isomorphism

Graph Isomorphism Problem is one of the most interesting problems in

computer science.

a g 5 6

b h 1 2
c i 3 4

d j 8 7
G H

Click here for an animated example

Graph Isomorphism

Graph Isomorphism Problem is one of the most interesting problems in

computer science.

a g 5 6

b h 1 2
c i 3 4

d j 8 7
G H

Click here for an animated example

Graph Isomorphism

Graph Isomorphism Problem is one of the most interesting problems in

computer science.

An Isomorphism
between G and H
a g 5 6 f (a) = 5 f (b) = 2

b h 1 2 f (c) = 3 f (d) = 7

c i 3 4 f (g ) = 1 f (h) = 6

d j 8 7 f (i) = 8 f (j) = 4
G H

8/25
Graph Isomorphism

Graph Isomorphism Problem is one of the most interesting problems in

computer science.

An Isomorphism
between G and H
a g 5 6 f (a) = 5 f (b) = 2

b h 1 2 f (c) = 3 f (d) = 7

c i 3 4 f (g ) = 1 f (h) = 6

d j 8 7 f (i) = 8 f (j) = 4
G H

Click here for an animated example

8/25
Graph Isomorphism
Are these two graph isomorphic?

Definition (Graph Isomorphism)

Let G and H be simple graphs. An isomorphism from G to H is a
bijection ϕ : V (G ) → V (H) such that

u ∼G v ⇔ ϕ(u) ∼H ϕ(v )
for all u, v ∈ V (G ). Graphs G and H are called isomorphic (denoted
G∼ = H) if there exists an isomorphism from G to H.
9/25
Graph Isomorphism

Definition (Graph Invariant)

A graph invariant is a graph property or parameter that is preserved under
isomorphisms; that is, isomorphic graphs must agree on this property or
parameter. Many graph properties are invariants; for example:
Number of vertices
Number of edges
Degree Sequence (all the degrees of the vertices of the graph in
sorted order)
Being bipartite
Containing specific subgraph etc.

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Graph Isomorphism

Observation
To prove that graphs G and H are isomorphic, we must find an
isomorphism from G to H.
To prove that graphs G and H are not isomorphic, it suffices to find
an invariant in which G and H differ.

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Graph Isomorphism -Example 1

Are these two graph isomorphic?

Solution:

12/25
Graph Isomorphism -Example 1

Are these two graph isomorphic?

Solution:
No. They have the same degree sequence. But these two graphs are not
isomorphic. H has a subgraph isomorphic to C3 , while G does not (it is, in
fact, bipartite and isomorphic to K3,3 ).

12/25
Graph Isomorphism -Example 2
Are these two graph isomorphic?

Solution:

13/25
Graph Isomorphism -Example 2
Are these two graph isomorphic?

Solution:
Yes, these two graphs are isomorphic. An isomorphism ϕ : (G ) → V (H) is
given by

ϕ(1) = a ϕ(2) = d
ϕ(3) = b ϕ(4) = e
ϕ(5) = c ϕ(6) = f
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Graph Isomorphism -Example 3

Are these two graph isomorphic?

Solution:

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Graph Isomorphism -Example 3

Are these two graph isomorphic?

Solution:
No, these two graphs are not isomorphic. They have the same degree
sequence, however, graph H contains no pair of adjacent vertices of degree
3, while G does.

14/25
Walks, Trails, Paths, Cycle
Walks, Trails, Paths, Cycles
Definition
Walk Let G = (V , E ) be a graph with the incidence function fG . Let
x, y ∈ V and k ∈ N. An (x, y )-walk of length k in G is an alternating
sequence of vertices and edges.

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Walks, Trails, Paths, Cycles
Definition
Walk Let G = (V , E ) be a graph with the incidence function fG . Let
x, y ∈ V and k ∈ N. An (x, y )-walk of length k in G is an alternating
sequence of vertices and edges.

A (v1 , v3 )-walk of length 4

W = v1 e2 v2 e6 v4 e8 v3 e7 v3
15/25
Walks, Trails, Paths, Cycles
Definition
A walk W = v0 e1 v1 e2 v2 · · · vk1 ek vk is called
closed if v0 = vk , and open otherwise;
a trail if its edges are pairwise distinct;
a path if its vertices are pairwise distinct; and
a cycle if v0 = vk while its internal vertices v1 , · · · , vk are pairwise
distinct.

16/25
Walks, Trails, Paths, Cycles
Definition
A walk W = v0 e1 v1 e2 v2 · · · vk1 ek vk is called
closed if v0 = vk , and open otherwise;
a trail if its edges are pairwise distinct;
a path if its vertices are pairwise distinct; and
a cycle if v0 = vk while its internal vertices v1 , · · · , vk are pairwise
distinct.

16/25
Walks, Trails, Paths, Cycles
Definition
A walk W = v0 e1 v1 e2 v2 · · · vk1 ek vk is called
closed if v0 = vk , and open otherwise;
a trail if its edges are pairwise distinct;
a path if its vertices are pairwise distinct; and
a cycle if v0 = vk while its internal vertices v1 , · · · , vk are pairwise
distinct.

W = 1a2h6n5f 1a2b3

16/25
Walks, Trails, Paths, Cycles
Definition
A walk W = v0 e1 v1 e2 v2 · · · vk1 ek vk is called
closed if v0 = vk , and open otherwise;
a trail if its edges are pairwise distinct;
a path if its vertices are pairwise distinct; and
a cycle if v0 = vk while its internal vertices v1 , · · · , vk are pairwise
distinct.

W = 1a2h6n5f 1a2b3
is a (1,3)-walk of length 6 that is not a trail.

16/25
Walks, Trails, Paths, Cycles
Definition
A walk W = v0 e1 v1 e2 v2 · · · vk1 ek vk is called
closed if v0 = vk , and open otherwise;
a trail if its edges are pairwise distinct;
a path if its vertices are pairwise distinct; and
a cycle if v0 = vk while its internal vertices v1 , · · · , vk are pairwise
distinct.

W = 1a2h6n5f 1a2b3
is a (1,3)-walk of length 6 that is not a trail.

W = 1e4d4c3

16/25
Walks, Trails, Paths, Cycles
Definition
A walk W = v0 e1 v1 e2 v2 · · · vk1 ek vk is called
closed if v0 = vk , and open otherwise;
a trail if its edges are pairwise distinct;
a path if its vertices are pairwise distinct; and
a cycle if v0 = vk while its internal vertices v1 , · · · , vk are pairwise
distinct.

W = 1a2h6n5f 1a2b3
is a (1,3)-walk of length 6 that is not a trail.

W = 1e4d4c3
is a (1,3)-trail of length 3 that is not a path.

16/25
Walks, Trails, Paths, Cycles
Definition
A walk W = v0 e1 v1 e2 v2 · · · vk1 ek vk is called
closed if v0 = vk , and open otherwise;
a trail if its edges are pairwise distinct;
a path if its vertices are pairwise distinct; and
a cycle if v0 = vk while its internal vertices v1 , · · · , vk are pairwise
distinct.

W = 1a2h6n5f 1a2b3
is a (1,3)-walk of length 6 that is not a trail.

W = 1e4d4c3
is a (1,3)-trail of length 3 that is not a path.

W = 1f 5m8k3
16/25
Walks, Trails, Paths, Cycles
Definition
A walk W = v0 e1 v1 e2 v2 · · · vk1 ek vk is called
closed if v0 = vk , and open otherwise;
a trail if its edges are pairwise distinct;
a path if its vertices are pairwise distinct; and
a cycle if v0 = vk while its internal vertices v1 , · · · , vk are pairwise
distinct.

W = 1a2h6n5f 1a2b3
is a (1,3)-walk of length 6 that is not a trail.

W = 1e4d4c3
is a (1,3)-trail of length 3 that is not a path.

W = 1f 5m8k3
is a (1,3)-path of length 3. 16/25
Walks, Trails, Paths, Cycles
Definition
A walk W = v0 e1 v1 e2 v2 · · · vk1 ek vk is called
closed if v0 = vk , and open otherwise;
a trail if its edges are pairwise distinct;
a path if its vertices are pairwise distinct; and
a cycle if v0 = vk while its internal vertices v1 , · · · , vk are pairwise
distinct.

W = 2b3j7i2h6o7i2

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Walks, Trails, Paths, Cycles
Definition
A walk W = v0 e1 v1 e2 v2 · · · vk1 ek vk is called
closed if v0 = vk , and open otherwise;
a trail if its edges are pairwise distinct;
a path if its vertices are pairwise distinct; and
a cycle if v0 = vk while its internal vertices v1 , · · · , vk are pairwise
distinct.

W = 2b3j7i2h6o7i2 is a closed walk of length

6 that contains vertex 2 and is not a trail:.

17/25
Walks, Trails, Paths, Cycles
Definition
A walk W = v0 e1 v1 e2 v2 · · · vk1 ek vk is called
closed if v0 = vk , and open otherwise;
a trail if its edges are pairwise distinct;
a path if its vertices are pairwise distinct; and
a cycle if v0 = vk while its internal vertices v1 , · · · , vk are pairwise
distinct.

W = 2b3j7i2h6o7i2 is a closed walk of length

6 that contains vertex 2 and is not a trail:.

W = 4d4l8k3c4

17/25
Walks, Trails, Paths, Cycles
Definition
A walk W = v0 e1 v1 e2 v2 · · · vk1 ek vk is called
closed if v0 = vk , and open otherwise;
a trail if its edges are pairwise distinct;
a path if its vertices are pairwise distinct; and
a cycle if v0 = vk while its internal vertices v1 , · · · , vk are pairwise
distinct.

W = 2b3j7i2h6o7i2 is a closed walk of length

6 that contains vertex 2 and is not a trail:.

W = 4d4l8k3c4 is a closed trail of length

4 that contains vertex 4 and is not a cycle.

17/25
Walks, Trails, Paths, Cycles
Definition
A walk W = v0 e1 v1 e2 v2 · · · vk1 ek vk is called
closed if v0 = vk , and open otherwise;
a trail if its edges are pairwise distinct;
a path if its vertices are pairwise distinct; and
a cycle if v0 = vk while its internal vertices v1 , · · · , vk are pairwise
distinct.

W = 2b3j7i2h6o7i2 is a closed walk of length

6 that contains vertex 2 and is not a trail:.

W = 4d4l8k3c4 is a closed trail of length

4 that contains vertex 4 and is not a cycle.

W = 2b3j7o6h2
17/25
Walks, Trails, Paths, Cycles
Definition
A walk W = v0 e1 v1 e2 v2 · · · vk1 ek vk is called
closed if v0 = vk , and open otherwise;
a trail if its edges are pairwise distinct;
a path if its vertices are pairwise distinct; and
a cycle if v0 = vk while its internal vertices v1 , · · · , vk are pairwise
distinct.

W = 2b3j7i2h6o7i2 is a closed walk of length

6 that contains vertex 2 and is not a trail:.

W = 4d4l8k3c4 is a closed trail of length

4 that contains vertex 4 and is not a cycle.

W = 2b3j7o6h2 is a cycle of length 4

containing vertex 2. 17/25
Trees and Forests
Trees and Forests
Warm up: Connected Graph

Connected Graph
A graph G = (V , E ) is called connected if for any x, y ∈ V there exists an
(x, y )-path (or equivalently, (x, y )-walk) in G . A graph that is not
connected is called disconnected.

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Trees

Tree and Forest

A graph without cycles is called acyclic or a forest. A tree is a connected
acyclic graph ,that is, a connected forest.

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Trees
Theorem 1
Let G be a graph. Then G is a tree if and only if for any two vertices
u, v ∈ V (G ), there exists a unique (u, v )-path in G .

Theorem 2 and 3
Every tree with at least 2 vertices has at least 2 vertices of degree 1
(called leaves).
Any tree with n vertices has exactly n − 1 edges.
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Rooted Trees

Rooted Tree
A tree with a vertex designated as the root is called a rooted tree.

21/25
Rooted Trees
Similar terminologies for rooted trees?

22/25
Rooted Trees
Terminology for rooted trees:
Let T = (V , E ) be a rooted tree with root r and u, v ∈ V .
If u lies on the unique (v , r )-path, then u is called anancestor of v ,
and v is called a descendant to u.
If u lies on the unique (v , r )-path and uv has an edge, then u is called
the parent of v , and v is called a child of u.
If u and v have the same parent, then they are called siblings.
If vertex u has a child, then it is called an internal vertex; if it has
no children, thenit is called a leaf.

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Rooted m-ary Trees

A Rooted m-ary Tree:

an m-ary tree if every internal vertex has at most m children; and
a full m-ary tree if every internal vertex has exactly m children.
A Binary is a 2-ary tree.
A Ternary is a 3-ary tree.

24/25
Thank you for your attention!!

25/25
 CSM 166
Lecture FIVE

Topic:
Boolean Algebra
1 of 2
 INTRODUCTION

.
Inputs
.
.
Network . Outputs
.
.

 Boolean algebra is used to describe the

relationship between inputs and outputs.
 It is developed by English Mathematician George
Boole in between 1815 - 1864.
 It is described as an algebra of logic or an
algebra of two values i.e True or False.
 The term logic means a statement having binary
decisions i.e True/Yes/On or False/No/Off.
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 2
 INTRODUCTION

 Why Study Boolean Algebra?

 When we learned numbers like 1, 2, 3, we also

then learned how to add, multiply, etc. with

them. Boolean Algebra covers operations that
we can do with 0’s and 1’s. Computers do
these operations ALL THE TIME and they are
basic building blocks of computation inside
your computer program.
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 3
 APPLICATION OF BOOLEAN
ALGEBRA
 Boolean algebra is used to perform the logical operations

in digital computer. In digital computer True represent by

‘1’ (high volt) and False represent by ‘0’ (low volt).

 Logical operations are performed by logical operators. The

fundamental logical operators are:

1. AND (conjunction) 2. OR (disjunction)

3. NOT (negation/complement)
 AND is denoted by a dot (·).

 OR is denoted by a plus (+).

 NOT is denoted by an overbar ( ¯ ), a single quote mark (') after, or (~)

before the variable.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 4
 BINARY LOGIC AND GATES

 Binary variables take on one of two values.

 Logical operators operate on binary values
and binary variables.
 Basic logical operators are the logic
functions AND, OR and NOT.
 Logic gates implement logic functions.
 Boolean Algebra: a useful mathematical
system for specifying and transforming
logic functions.
 We study Boolean algebra as foundation for
designing and analyzing digital systems!
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 5
 BINARY LOGIC AND GATES
 Boolean Algebra applied in computers electronic
circuits. These circuits perform Boolean operations
and these are called logic circuits or logic gates.
 A gate is an digital circuit which operates on one or
more signals and produce single output.
 Gates are digital circuits because the input and output
signals are denoted by either 1(high voltage) or 0(low
voltage).
 There are three basic gates and are:

1. AND gate 2. OR gate

3. NOT gate
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 6
 OPERATOR DEFINITIONS

 The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that

gives a high output (1) if its input is low .

 NOT gate inverts the value (flip 0 and 1)

y = NOT (A)= A’

A A’ A NOT A
0 1
1 0

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 7

 OPERATOR DEFINITIONS
 The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high

output (1) if one or more of its inputs are high.

 OR gate: Output is true if either input is true

y= A OR B (A + B)

AB A+B
A
0 0 0 A+B
B
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST
8
 OPERATOR DEFINITIONS

 Example: Logic circuit with its Boolean expression

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 9

 OPERATOR DEFINITIONS
 The AND gate is an electronic circuit that
gives a high output (1) only if all its inputs are
high.
 AND gate: Output is true only if all inputs are
true, y= A AND B (A∙B)

AB A∙B
A 0 0 0
A∙B
B 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST

10
 OPERATOR DEFINITIONS

 Example: Logic circuit with its Boolean expression

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 11

 TRUTH TABLE

 Truth table is a table that contains all possible

values of logical variables/state-ments in a
Boolean expression.

 No. of possible combination = 2n, where

n=number of variables used in a Boolean
expression.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 12

 TRUTH TABLE
The truth table for XY + Z is as follows:
X Y Z XY XY+Z
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 13
 TAUTOLOGY AND FALLACY

 If the output of Boolean expression is always

True or 1 is called Tautology.

 If the output of Boolean expression is always

False or 0 is called Fallacy.

 For example: Verify that P+(PQ)’ is a Tautology.

P Q PQ (PQ)’ P+(PQ)’
0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 14
 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF LOGIC GATES

AND Gate

So while going out of the house you set the

"Alarm Switch" and if the burglar enters he will
set the "Person switch", and tada the alarm will
ring.
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 15
 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF LOGIC GATES

AND Gate

Electronic door will only open if it detects a

person and the switch is set to unlocked.

Microwave will only start if the start button is

pressed and the door close switch is closed.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 16

 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF LOGIC GATES

OR Gate

You would of course want your doorbell to

ring when someone presses either the front
door switch or the back door switch.
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 17
 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF LOGIC GATES

NOT Gate

When the temperature falls below 20c

the Not gate will set on the central heating
system (cool huh).
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 18
 EXERCISE 5.1

1. Evaluate the following Boolean

expression using Truth Table.
(a) X’Y’+X’Y
(b) X’YZ’+XY’
(c) XY’(Z+YZ’)+Z’

2. Verify that (X+Y)’=X’Y’

3. Show that xy + yz + xz = xy + yz + xz.
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 19
 EXERCISE 5.2
Use a table to express the values of each of these
Boolean functions.
a) F(x, y, z) = x’y
b) F(x, y, z) = x + yz
c) F(x, y, z) = xy’ + (xyz)’
d) F(x, y, z) = x(yz + y’z’)
e) F(x, y, z) = z’
f) F(x, y, z) = x’y + yz’
g) F(x, y, z) = xy’z + (xyz)’
h) F(x, y, z) = y’(xz + x’z’)

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 20

 Duality
 Definition
The dual of a Boolean expression is obtained
by interchanging Boolean sums and Boolean
products and interchanging 0s and 1s.
 Example
Find the duals of x(y + 0) and x’ ⋅ 1 + (y’ + z)
Solution
Interchanging ⋅ signs and + signs and
interchanging 0s and 1s in these
expressions produces their duals. The
duals are x + (y ⋅ 1) and (x’ + 0)(y’z), resp.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 21

 EXERCISE 5.3
1. Find the duals of these Boolean expressions.
a) x+y
b) xy
c) xyz + x y z
d) xz + x ⋅ 0 + x ⋅ 1
2. The Boolean operator ⊕, called the XOR operator, is defined
by 1 ⊕ 1 = 0, 1 ⊕ 0 = 1, 0 ⊕ 1 = 1, and 0 ⊕ 0 = 0.
a) Simplify these expressions.
i) x ⊕ 0
ii) x ⊕ 1
iii) x ⊕ x
iv) x ⊕ x’
b) Show that these identities hold.
i) x ⊕ y = (x + y)(xy)’
ii) x ⊕ y = (xy’) + (x’y)
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 22
 AXIOMS, LAWS, THEOREMS
 We need to know some rules (axioms) about how
those 0’s and 1’s can be operated on together.
 Learning Axioms and theorems of Boolean algebra
 Allows you to design logic functions
 Allows you to know how to combine different
logic gates
 Allows you to simplify or optimize on the
complex operations
 A Boolean algebra comprises...
 A set of elements B
 Binary operators {+ , •} Boolean sum and product
 A unary operation { ' } (or { }) example: A’ or A
 …and the following axioms…
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 23
 AXIOMS, LAWS, THEOREMS
 …and the following axioms…

 1. The set B contains at least two elements {a b} with a ≠ b

 2. Closure: a+b is in B a•b is in B
 3. Commutative: a+b = b+a a•b = b•a
 4. Associative: a+(b+c) = (a+b)+c a•(b•c) = (a•b)•c
 5. Identity: a+0 = a a•1 = a
 6. Null: a+1 = 1 a•0 = 0
 7. Distributive: a+(b•c)=(a+b)•(a+c) a•(b+c)=(a•b)+(a•c)
 8. Complementarity: a+a' = 1 a•a' = 0
 9. Idempotent: a+a = a a•a = a
 10. Involution: (a’)‘ = a
 11. De Morgan’s laws: (a+b)' = a'•b’ (a•b)’ = a' +b'

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 24

 Proving theorems

 Example 1: Prove using axioms the

uniting theorem: X•Y+X•Y'=X
Distributive X•Y+X•Y' = X•(Y+Y')
Complementarity = X•(1)
Identity =X

 Example 2: Prove using axioms the

absorption theorem: X+X•Y=X
Identity X+X•Y = (X•1)+(X•Y)
Distributive = X•(1+Y)
Null = X•(1)
Identity =X
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 25
 Proving theorems
 Example 3: Prove using axioms the
consensus theorem: (XY)+(YZ)+(X'Z)= XY+X'Z
Complementarity XY+YZ+X'Z = XY+(X+X')YZ +
X'Z
Distributive = XYZ+XY+X'YZ+X'Z
 Use absorption {AB+A=A} with A=XY and B=Z

= XY+X'YZ+X'Z
Rearrange terms = XY+X'ZY+X'Z
 Use absorption {AB+A=A} with A=X'Z and B=Y

XY+YZ+X'Z = XY+X'Z

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 26

 EXERCISE 5.4
1. Find the duals of these Boolean expressions.
a) x+y
b) xy
c) xyz + x y z
d) xz + x ⋅ 0 + x ⋅ 1
2. The Boolean operator ⊕, called the XOR operator, is defined
by 1 ⊕ 1 = 0, 1 ⊕ 0 = 1, 0 ⊕ 1 = 1, and 0 ⊕ 0 = 0.
a) Simplify these expressions.
i) x ⊕ 0
ii) x ⊕ 1
iii) x ⊕ x
iv) x ⊕ x’
b) Show that these identities hold.
i) x ⊕ y = (x + y)(xy)’
ii) x ⊕ y = (xy’) + (x’y)
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 27
 CSM 166
Lecture six

Topic:
Boolean Algebra
2 of 2
 Boolean Expressions and Boolean
Functions
Recall
 Let B = {0, 1}. Then B ͫ = {(x , x ,…, x ) ∣ x ∈ B for 1 ≤ i ≤
1 2 m i

m} is the set of all possible m-tuples of 0s and 1s.

 The variable x is called a Boolean variable if it
assumes values only from B, that is, if its only
possible values are 0 and 1.
 A function from B ͫ to B is called a Boolean function of
degree m.
Example
 The function F(x, y) = xy’ from the set of ordered pairs
of Boolean variables to the set {0, 1} is a Boolean
function of degree 2 with F(1, 1) = 0, F(1, 0) = 1, F(0, 1)
= 0, and F(0, 0) = 0.
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 2
 Boolean Expressions and Boolean
Functions
Example 6.2
 How many different Boolean functions of degree n are
there?

The Number of Boolean Functions of Degree n.

Degree Number
1 4
2 16
3 256
4 65,536
5 4,294,967,296
6 18,446,744,073,709,551,616

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 3

 Representing Boolean Functions
 Given the values of a Boolean function, how can a

Boolean expression that represents this function be

found?
 This problem will be solved by showing that any Boolean function

can be represented by a Boolean sum of Boolean products of the

variables and their complements.

 The solution of this problem shows that every Boolean function

can be represented using the three Boolean operators ⋅,+, and ‘.

 Is there a smaller set of operators that can be used to

represent all Boolean functions?

 We will answer this question by showing that all Boolean functions

can be represented using only one operator.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 4
 Representing Boolean Functions
Minterms
 A literal is a Boolean variable or its complement. A minterm of the

Boolean variables x , x ,…, x is a Boolean product y y ⋯y , where y =

1 2 n 1 2 n i

x or y = x’ . Hence, a minterm is a product of n literals, with one literal

i i i

for each variable.

 Consider variables A and B
 Assume that they are somehow combined with AND operator
 There are 4 possible combinations

 Each of those terms is called a minterm (standard product)

 In general, if there are n variables, there are minterms
 Example 6.3
 Find a minterm that equals 1 if x = x = 0 and x = x = x = 1, and equals 0 otherwise.
1 3 2 4 5

 ANS: x’1x2x’3x4x5
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 5
 Representing Boolean Functions
Sum-of-products expansion
 The sum of minterms that represents the function is called the sum-
of-products expansion or the disjunctive normal form of the
Boolean function.
 Example 6.4
 Find the sum-of-products expansion for the function F(x, y, z) = (x + y)z’.
 The sum-of-products expansion of F is the Boolean sum of three minterms
corresponding to the three rows of this table that give the value 1 for the
function.
 This gives F(x, y, z) = xyz’ + xy’z’ + x’yz’.

x y z x+y z (x + y)z
1 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 0
Emmanuel Kpeglo 0 KNUST0 0 0 1 0 6
 Representing Boolean Functions
Maxterms
 Consider variables A and B
 Assume that they are somehow combined with OR operator
 There are 4 possible combinations

 Each of those terms is called a maxterm (standard sums)

 In general, if there are n variables, there are maxterms
Example 6.5
 Find a Boolean sum containing either x or x’, either y or y’, and
either z or z’ that has the value 0 if and only if
a) x = y = 1, z = 0. ANS: x’+y’+z

b) x = y = z = 0. ANS: x+y+z

c) x = z = 0, y = 1. ANS: x+y’+z
Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 7
 NAND Gate
NAND operator, defined by 1 ∣ 1 = 0 and
1∣0=0∣1=0∣0=1

NAND
X Y Z
X
0 0 1
Z 0 1 1
1 0 1
Y
1 1 0
Z = ~(X & Y)

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 8

 NOR Gate

NOR

X X Y Z
Z 0 0 1
Y 0 1 0
1 0 0
Z = ~(X OR Y) 1 1 0

NOR operator, defined by 1 ↓ 1 = 1 ↓ 0 = 0 ↓ 1 = 0

and 0 ↓ 0 = 1

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 9

 Example
Example 6.6
 A committee of three individuals decides issues for an organization.
Each individual votes either yes or no for each proposal that arises.
A proposal is passed if it receives at least two yes votes. Design a
circuit that determines whether a proposal passes.

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 10

 Exercise
1. Find the sum-of-products expansions of these
Boolean functions.
a) F(x, y, z) = x + y + z
b) F(x, y, z) = (x + z)y
c) F(x, y, z) = x
d) F(x, y, z) = xy’
Ans:
a) xyz + xyz’ + xy’z + xy’z’ + x’yz + x’yz’ + x’y’z
b) xyz + xyz’ + x’yz
c) xyz + xyz’ + xy’z + xy’z’
d) xy’z + xy’z’

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 11

 Exercise
2. Find the product-of-sums expansions of these
Boolean functions.
a) F(x, y, z) = x + y + z
b) F(x, y, z) = (x + z)y
c) F(x, y, z) = x
d) F(x, y, z) = xy’
Ans:
a) x+y+z
b) (x+y+z)(x+y+z’)(x+y’+z)(x’+y+z)(x’+y+z’)
c) (x+y+z)(x+y+z’)(x+y’+z)(x+y’+z’)
d) (x+y+z)(x+y+z’)(x+y’+z)(x+y’+z’)(x’+y’+z)(x’+y’+z’)

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 12

 Exercise
3. Show that
a) x’ = x ↓ x.
b) xy = (x ↓ x) ↓ (y ↓ y).
c) x + y = (x ↓ y) ↓ (x ↓ y).
d) x’ = x ∣ x.
e) xy = (x ∣ y) ∣ (x ∣ y).
f) x + y = (x ∣ x) ∣ (y ∣ y).

Emmanuel Kpeglo KNUST 13