‘Language and Literature 1 ONT —————e LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 1.1 Indian Language Families 1.1.1 World Languages According to a 2011 census, there are about 6,500 languages in the world. Nearly 2,000 of these languages are spoken by less than 1,000 people. Linguists divide the languages of the world into two groups, the genetic language family and the typological language family. The ethnic language family is the creation of many languages from Tamil and Malayalam, which existed as one language several hundred years ago, just as Tamil and Malayalam were once together and later split into two. Apart from these, some scholars also classify different languages as vernacular languages. 1.1.2 Language Families in India India has the highest number of languages spoken in the world. At one time, when Soviet Russia was not separated, it was the country that spoke the most languages in the world. After the split of Soviet Russia, India became multi-lingual. India is a country of diverse ethnic groups, as well as a countryno 7 ‘Heritage of Tamils | with a society that speaks different languages. It is estimated that more than 1652 languages are spoken in India. Information about Indian language families is changing day by day. In the it was wrongly predicted that all Indian languages had evolved beginning, the founder of the Asiatic ually from Sanskrit. When Sir William Jones, ty in Calcutta, established in 1786 that Sanskrit wa: the old views on Indian languages began to grad Societ s associated with the Indo-European language family, change. In 1856, Dr. Caldwell, known as the father of Dravidian linguistic studies, established that the nine languages spoken in the South, such as Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, etc., belonged to a separate family 0: languages distinct from Sanskrit, the old hypothesis about south Indian languages f Dravidian was forced to be reconsidered. In addition to these two language families, two different language families, namely, the Tibeto-Chinese language family and the Austro-Asiatic or Munda language family, also joined the Indian language family. In 1864, Max Muller discovered the Munda as a separate language family. It was assumed that languages belonging to four different language families were spoken in India. The languages of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are also considered to be a separate language family. Another language family has long been thought to have perished over time from its use, and the language Nagili is considered to be its remnant. At present, languages belonging to six different language families are prevalent in this country. However, many linguists have accepted the four language families mentioned earlier as the language families of India. The rich >“Language and Literature 7 a information on Indian languages is diverse, much to the amazement of linguists. Of these languages, Nahali, Pali, Prakrit, etc., are available only in written form. Sanskrit, which is in written format, is used only in religious ceremonies and is spoken by minorities. As a result of the flow of certain commonalities here and there between the language and culture of the vast people of this country, which consisted of different races and different linguistic groups, the Indian common culture began to flourish from the 2nd century A.D. onwards due to the continuous cultural mixing. It can be seen that words, grammatical elements, etc. are widely spread among many of the aforementioned language ‘amilies through the exchange of language elements. Literary traditions in most Indian languages also evolved over time. The writings also appeared over the course of time. 1.1.3 People of India and Language Families According to the 1961 census, 1,652 languages are spoken in India. One- third of these, i.e., 57.4 languages, are Indo-Aryan languages. These speakers constituted 73.30 percent of India’s population. The Indo-Aryan language family ranks first in terms of population. According to the survey, there are 153 languages in the Dravidian language family. Many of these are treated by linguists not as separate languages, but as dialects. The Dravidian language family ranks second in terms of speakers in the Indian language family. These languages are spoken by 24.47 percent of India’s population. There are 65 languages in the Munda or Austro-Asiatic language family. According to the 1961 census, there are only 6,192,495 speakers of these languages. The survey revealed that 530 languages cannot be classified. The_ Heritage of Tamia la et Tn 1 sheds new light on Indian languages. The Tibetg census conducted in 198 : which is part of the Tibeto-Chinese language famity Burman language family, faa was spoken by 0.73 percent. A total of 226 languages were in the Sino-Tibetan language family. In 1971, the number of Hindi speakers was 38 percent. In 1981, it rose to 42.88 percent. The 1981 census revealed that among the Dravidian speakers, 17.14 percent of the Malayalam speakers, 9.69 percent of Tamil speakers, 6.85 percent of Telugu speakers, and 9 percent of Kannada speakers were capable of learning and speaking Hindi. According to the 1981 census, only 6,106 people speak Sanskrit. There are 1,745 people in Bihar, 1,166 in Uttar Pradesh, 882 in Karnataka, and 559 in Maharashtra. Others speak Sanskrit along with Hindi, Marathi, and Kannada. They are bilingual. Based on the number of speakers, the language families of the Indian country can be sorted as follows. Aryan or Indo-European language family Dravidian language family Munda or Kol or Austro-Asiatic language family Fe Ne Sino-Tibetan language family Caldwell's study of Dravidian languages in the study of the Indian language family is outstanding. Following Caldwell, John Beames published three volumes of the Comparative Grammar of the Modern Aryan Languages of India in 1872, 1875, and 1879, respectively. This has created many new dimensions in the study of Indian languages. In 1877, Sir Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar, a renowned Sanskrit Scholar, delivered a detailed lecture on Indo- epee‘Language and Literature 5 ‘Aryan languages at the University of Bombay. In his speech, he explained in detail that the Aryan languages, Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Pasha have developed over time in the three stages of Old Indo-Aryan, Medieval Indo-Aryan, and New Indo-Aryan respectively. This was followed by several scholars who have studied and published many excellent books on the development of various separate languages such as Sindhi, Hindustani, Bengali, Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu, Kannada, Maithili, Kashmiri, etc. 1.1.4 History of Indian Languages It is generally assumed that the Negroes may have established their languages on Indian soil at an early stage. We find elements of this race in the Irulas, Kadars, Paniyars, and Kurumbars in Tamil Nadu. Having lost their language, they now speak many sub-dialects or regional dialects that have evolved from Tamil. It is generally assumed that Austric speakers must have come from China. Some say that they were Mediterranean people who came to India before the Dravidians. The Dravidians are generally thought to have originated from Asia Minor and the Eastern Mediterranean. There are also different opinions on this. Asians who lived in eastern Iran and north-western India came to India and destroyed urban civilizations in India. They first settled in the eastern and northern Punjab regions of India and began to live widely in different parts of the Country. They were responsible for the spread of Indo-Aryan languages. Thus, Indian culture evolved into a confluence of different races and languages that had arrived at different times.6 Heritage of Tamils | 1.1.5 Indo-Aryan languages Modern Indo-Aryan languages can be subsumed into the following six categories. lL. North-Western languages: West Punjabi and Sindhi languages are included in this category. 2. Southern languages: Marathi and Konkani are the notable languages in this category. 3. Eastern languages: Oriya, Bengali, Assamese, Maithili, Magahi, and Bhojpuri are included in this category. 4. Eastern-Middle languages: Kosali, Awadhi, etc. belong to this category. 5. Middle languages: Hindi, Khaéiboli, Urdu, Bangru, East Punjabi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Saurashtra, etc., are the notable languages of this category. Northern or Himalayan languages: Korkali, Nepali, Garhwali, etc. belong to this category. 1.1.6 Himalayan languages Himalayan languages are spoken in the territory from the eastern part of Kashmir to Bhutan. These languages, known as Bahari or Imali many branch languages and dialects. The Ney the people living in the region. i, have acquired Pali language is influential among 1.1.7 Austric Asiatic LanguagesLanguage and Literature 7 been taken to areas like North Bengal and Assam by those who speak Mundari or Santali languages working in the tea plantations. These languages are spoken in areas like Chota Nagpur, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, and Bengal. Languages such as Ho, Birhor, Bhumij, and Korwa are noteworthy in this category. Languages such as Savara and Kadapa are also associated with the Munda division. Some other languages of the family are spoken by the inhabitants of Khasi Hills. Santali language is spoken by 3 million people. In Mundari and the language of Ho, there is a lot of oral literature. In the 19th century, a large number of missionaries from other countries published several books using oral conventions of these languages. The literature in the Santali language is mostly printed in Roman script. One of the Austric-Asiatic languages, Khasi (Khasi) is spoken by 300,000 people. In Roman writings, the literature of this language has been printed by many Christian missionaries. 1.1.8 Sino-Tibetan languages These languages are divided into two major divisions, Thai Chinese and Tibeto-Burman. Some people will find the Siamese or Thai language subsumed in this category. Others deny this. Ahom and Kamti languages are noted in the first category. The second category includes old Tibetan and old Burmese languages. There are many dialects among the languages of this category. Manipuri and Newari are some of the notable languages in this family. Manipuri is currently written in Bengali script. The Newari language is spoken by Indians who have migrated from Nepal. There is also another language called Lepcha in this category._ Heritage of Tamil, 1.1.9 Other languages In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, there are two — of languages. The Andaman language is associated with the pases Other Negroes. The number of people who speak the Andaman ee is estimated to be around a thousand. The Nicobar language is spoken by approximately 10,000 people. Some also consider it to be a language belonging to the Austric-Asiatic language family. There are Chinese speakers, Somali speakers, Arabic speakers, and Iranian speakers in India. About 1.5 lakh people speak English as their home language. Goa has a sizeable Portuguese-speaking population and Puducherry has a sizeable French-speaking population. Arabic and Persian are notable among the other languages spoken in India. Of these, Persian has been accepted by many as an Indian language. 1.2. Dravidian languages Dr. Caldwell was the one who named the languages spoken in South India as Dravidian languages. He is an Irish scholar; He came to Tamil Nadu as a Christian priest. In 1856, he published a book titled ‘The Comparative Grammar of Dravidian Languages.’ The Tamil language is not a language derived from Sanskrit; Along with Malayalam, Telugu, Kannada, etc., the Dravidian languages are known as a separate family of languages. Tamil is the oldest in the Dravidian language family. Caldwell established that there was no connection between Tamil, which belonged to the Dravidian language family, and Sanskrit, which belonged to the Aryan language family,Language and Literature The antiquity of Tamil was established with uniqueness. Caldwell has classified languages with written form and literature as modified languages, and languages without written form and literature as languages that have not been reformed. Accordingly, in 1856, he mentioned that five languages Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, and Tulu were the modified languages, and four languages namely, Toda, Gond, Koo, and Koda were the other four languages that were not changed or modified. In a reprint of his book published in 1875, he included the Modified language Kodagu and the unreformed languages Rajmahal and Oroan. Today, Dravidian languages like Tamil, Telugu, etc., are also spoken in Eelam, Burma, Malaysia, Singapore, Fiji, South Africa, etc. According to the 1981 census, more than 200 million people in India speak Dravidian languages. However, in the 1991 census, the number of Dravidian speakers declined. Tamil is the oldest of the Dravidian languages. Tamil has ancient literature. Tamils live all over India. There are Tamils all over the world. 1.2.1 Tamil and South Dravidian The Malayalam language is closely associated with Tamil. Malayalam has similarities to the extent that it could be called a dialect of Tamil. Among the Dravidian languages, Telugu is the most widely spoken language. The Telugu language is also known as Vadugu. Kannada is the third most important language among the Dravidian languages. Kannada language literature has existed since the 10th century. In languages like Hindi, Bengali, etc., there is an influence of Dravidian languages. Many changes have taken place in the Sanskrit language due to the influence of the Dravidian language.10 Heritage of Tamils 1.2.2 Dravidian Vocabulary Many Dravidian words are still found in North Indian languages. Sanskrit grammarians call them Swadeshi words. A comparative analysis shows the influence of the Dravidian language on the Oriya language. In India alone, four language families are spoken. The Dravidian language family is the only language family that is considered to be the entire Indian language family. Dravidian languages have many individualities that exist. 1.2.3 Organization of Dravidian Languages Dravidian languages are agglutinative languages. Morpheme is the best word element that has meaning in the language. This will be accompanied by derivatives. The derivational morphemes are called bound morphemes. For Example: ‘Seythan’ - In this word, ‘Sey’ is a morpheme that denotes the action. ‘th’ is a derivational morpheme that implies the past tense. ‘an’ is a derivative that indicates the masculine gender. Therefore, the word ’seythan’ is formed by adding the morphemes - *sey+th+an’. The suffixes ‘an aan, al, aal’ are added to mean the masculine and feminine gender. The infixes ‘vi & pi’ are fixed to convey passive action. In the verb participle, ‘kiru, kindru, and aaninru’ are used to indicate the time. Whe? these are combined, the root word does not change. Non-differentiation is the| Language and Literature 1) nature of the Dravidian language. There is only a slight difference in the lengthening or shortening of the sounds. But in Indo-European languages, when other elements are combined with the root word, it is not possible to distinguish between the root word and the combined word, They have disintegrated, mixed, and become indivisible. Hence, the Dravidian languages are called agglutinative languages. 1.2.4 Basic words — Similarity Basic vocabulary is the ones that refer to objects that are most commonly used in colloquial terms. They vary from language to language. However, in all the Dravidian languages, the basic words are generally the same. For Example: Tamil ~ ‘Kan’ (Eye) Kannada, Malayalam - ‘Kannu’ Toda - ‘Kon’ Kodagu - ‘Kannu’ Telugu - ‘Kannu’ Burji - ‘Ken’ Kurukh - ‘Kan’ Numeric Nouns denote numbers. These are almost the same in all Dravidian languages. For Example: Tamil - ‘Moondru’ (Three) Malayalam - ‘Moonu’Heritage of Tamils Kannada - ‘Mooru’ Telugu - ‘Moodu’ 1.3. Tamil - a classical language Classical language is a classification made on the basis of the literary antiquity of a language and the basis of other characteristics. In order to choose a language as a classical language, its literary works must be rich and ancient, and its origin should not be dependent on other languages. The status of a language as a classical language is determined on the basis of the literary quality of the language. However, to declare a language as a classical language, that language requires two important features. 1, Literary works 2. Art and Sculpture works It is with these two works that a language is declared as a classical language. 1.3.1 Literary works The primary symbol of the excellence and superiority of a language is the ancient literature of that language. In addition to the antiquity of this literature there must also be an intensity of ideas in it. The greatness of a language : : can be known only through literary works created in that language 1.3.2 Art and Sculpture Works Literature is a testimony to the antiquity of a language, and the works of art produced in those linguistic areas should be the next proof of the antiquity ofLanguage and Literature 13) that language. Works of art should be ancient art evidence such as architecture, sculpture, etc. 1.3.3 Classical Language Qualifications of Tamil If a language is to be accepted as a classical language, it requires certain qualifications. According to George William Hart, if a language is to be called a classical language, it must be of antiquity, of its own unique culture, of its own independently, of no connection to any culture, and of a rich literary richness. Greek, Latin, Arabic, Sanskrit, Chinese, etc., are some of the classical languages of the world which are so distinguished in this respect. Along with this, Tamil has also been accepted as a classical language. Tamil is an ancient, unique culture, rich in literature, and is a living language. Most of the classical languages are not spoken now and become dead languages. They are not even spoken by the people. Languages such as Sanskrit, Pali, and Hebrew, in particular, are of this type. However, the antiquities, traditions, and culture of Tamil are still preserved without changing or disintegrating. The most important reason for this is only the structure of the language Tamil. It is noteworthy that even though the Tamil language was developed by kings, poets, and people when they passed away, Tamil continued to be preserved without disappearing. In general, eleven elements are defined as qualifications for the classical language. 1. Antiquity 2. Uniqueness 3, Commonality 4. Neutrality 5. Maternalism 6. Cultural art and intellectual expression 7. Non-influence of other languages 8.Literary wealth 9. High thinking 10. The uniqueness of art and literature 11. The theory of language Tamil has all these 11 characteristics. Thirukkural is dated to be two thousand years old. Because of this, it is clear that Tamil is the most ancient special. The Sangam literature of Tamil is characterized by all eleven classical characteristics. As a result, it is established that Sangam literature is celebrated as the classical literature of Tamil. Among the notable Tamil scholars who had known and understood the classical nature of Tamil were Parithimar Kalaignar, Devaneya Pavanar, Robert Caldwell, and many others. There are many of their views on the classical language. It is an undeniable fact that Tamil has all the definitions given by them. Pavanar considers Tamil to be a classical language because of its sixteen qualities. Pavanar considers the following sixteen qualities characterizing classical Tamil. 1. Antiquity 2. Supremacy 3. Simplicity 4. Excellence 5. Youth 6. Prosperity 7. Maternalism 8. Purity 9. Perfection 10. Futurity 11. Sweetness 12. Individuality 13. Pride 14. Beauty 15. Ability 16. Standard. Because of these, it is well known that Tamil has acquired the status of a classical language. Caldwell speaks of the uniqueness of Tamil. He thinks that the idea that it was born out of Dravidian Sanskrit has become a completely unfounded myth, even though it is acceptable to earlier generations of linguists. In this way, many scholars have explained the classical character of Tamil to such an extent that the world realizes its merits. It is through this continuous effort that Tamil has now attained the status of a classical language. 14 Heritage of ee :Language and Literature 15 Dr.George Luzerne Hart, a professor in California, is the one who has now made the world aware of the classical nature of Tamil. He puts forward four of the reasons for having Tamil classical status. The Tamil language is very ancient. Tamil has its own literary tradition. Sangam literature, which is the classical literature of the Tamil language, is comparable to the literature of other classical languages. The Tamil classics are unique in Indian culture and traditions. Not only did he expound these four concepts, but he also exemplified the classical character of Tamil to the world. 1.4 Literary Classics All those defined as literary classics texts date back to A.D. Pre-6th century. They are unique in nature. 41 classical texts are mentioned below. Ty. y iq Asmeoartinud Tholkappiyam The most ancient extant Tamil | grammar text | aL@S0sren8 Ettuthokai The Eight Anthologies BM Menevor Natrinai The first of the Eight Anthologies | SDIbAstEns Kuruntthokai The second of the Eight Anthologies | SGOT Ainkurunooru The third of the Eight | | : Anthologies UB MIGUSs) Pathittruppathu The fourth of the Eight a _ Anthologies | UflumLéd Paripdal The fifth of the Eight aang - - - | Anthologies SOs TENE, Kalitthokai ___| The sixth of Bight Anthologies SB pM Akanaanooru One of the Eight Anthologies DBT gOTDy Puranaanooru The last of the Eight Lo _ AnthologiesHeritage of Tamils | 16 usg1UUT_O | Patthuppaattu The Ten laylls —— & u Thirumurugatruppadai | Devotiona ‘ami poem aed dedicated to God Murugan QurGpoMppIUEHL Porunaratruppadai__| The second of the Ten Idylls [ AQunesmpmcuc | Sirupaanatruppadai__| The last of the Ten Idylls QuGiburresempMIUUEHL Perumpaanatruppadai_| One of the Ten Idylls (YoemouuMLG Mullai Paattu The shortest poem in the Ten Idylls WgIMJSST GA Maduraikkanchi One of the Ten Idylls ABO pseu so Nedunalvadai One of the Ten Idylls GMGAwuTLG Kurincchipaattu The eighth of the Ten Idylls ULIgooLLiTEn6o Patinapaalai One of the Ten Idylls LoemMeouGs imo Malaipadukadaam One of the Ten Idylls UPA or ctr S1pHs 6001 5G Pathinenkilkanakku Belongs to Sangam Maruviya Kaalam or the Dark Period- AD 300-600 previgwiry Naaladiyar One of the Pathinenkilkanakku texts HTCTCMEG1A OS Naanmanikadikai One of the Pathinenkilkanakku texts Qeroon BTUs! Innaa Naarpathu One of the Pathinenkilkanakku texts Quer Grpug) Iniyavai Naarpathu One of the Pathinenkilkanakku texts ein HTDUS Kaar Naarpathu One of the Pathinenkilkanakku texts Sora) HTDUS! Kalavazhi Naarpathu | One of the Pathinenkilkanakku texts QhHonco gous Ainthinai Aimpathu | One of the Pathinenkilkanakku texts BbPose (Quy Ainthinai Elupathu One of the Pathinenkilkanakk texts Henemaiomp giougy —_| Thinaimozhi One of the Pathinenkilkanaki Aimpathu texts Henemion Ho Thinaimaalai One of the Pathinenkilkanals Brew pbuUg! Nutriaimpathu textsa Language and Literature | [ upauompl ~ | Palamozhi One of the Pathinenkilkanakku | texts ANUGsEepord Sirupanchamoolam One of the Pathinenkilkanakku texts | AGED Thirukkural A classic with aphoristic teachings on virtue, wealth, and | | love HMsGsw Thirikadugam One of the Pathinenkilkanakku texts ayamgé Cerone Aacharakkovai One of the Pathinenkilkanakku — texts | RAM Psa GA Muthumozhikkanchi | One of the Pathinenkilkanakku | texts ours) Eelathi One of the Pathinenkilkanakku — texts OBE Kainnilai One of the Pathinenkilkanakku texts STL UITNE GiT Epics Long epic poetry AsuuUsesnpid Silappathikaaram An epic of an ordinary couple’: Al | love story LoowACEcned Manimekalai A Tamil-Buddhist epic- a cami to Silappathikaaram (WS OS rotonruNg io Mutthollayiram Ancient Tamil Anthology in praise of the three ancient tulers- the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas | Oonuwcins sonraiuico Iraiyanar Kalaviyal Early medieval work with the | akam tradition of Tamil love | poetry | 1.5 Religious Principles of Sangam Tamils Sangam songs beautifully convey the heroic history of the Tamils, their social history, and cultural movements through the elements of the Akam18 Heritage of Tamils (personal life) and the Puram (public life). This culture also incorporates the the Tamils of the Sangam age. The words and phrases elements of worship of alues of the Tamils of the Sangam age are found in relating to the religious v: abundance through the lyrics of Sangam literature. They are the ones that amaze us by standing as proofs and gateways to our understanding of the liturgical practices of the Sangam Tamils. They are the ones that amaze us by standing as proofs and gateways to our understanding of the liturgical practices of the Sangam Tamils. The Sangam Tamils, who did not face any external wars, had the songs of the poets as social, political, and historical documents. This is the reason why there are no Sangam inscriptions or manuscripts available on the history of the rulers of the Sangam age. Sangam literature and grammar, including Tolkaappiyam, are based on the worldly and poetic practices of the Sangam age. This is evident from the line "Tamil koorum nallulakkaththu vaazhakkum seyyyulum aayiru muthalin" sung by Panampaaranar in the Paayiram of Tolkaappiyam. (During the time of Tolkaappiyar, the northern boundary of Tamil Nadu was the Venkata range and the southern boundary was the Kumari River. Based on both the types of cases in Tamil Nadu, the worldly practice and the Poetic practice, he examined the grammar of both cases). In order to clearly establish the Teligious principles of the Sangam Tamils, let us take the worldly practices case and the Poetic practices of the Sangam age as evidence. The Sangam hymns are a testimony to the principle of Godhood, which is essential for religious life, among the Tamils of the Sangam age. Realizing that there is God, saluting Him, worshiping Him, and leading a worldly life is religious life. Life and the world form the groundwork for this principle ofLanguage and Literature 19| Godhood. Our Tolkaappiyam defines the world as "a mixture’ of land, fire, water, and air, and all five." Beyond these five, the Sangam Tamils have referred to the first thing that makes them create, and shakes them, as 'God' and ‘Superiority’. These will be estabtished by a series of phrases, "Invocation to God" and "Superiority, the great name that is praised by all the elders". Time is the God of time. The world is the people of the world. The fact that Tolkaappiar describes the nature of fate and reveals that there is a rebirth that is the cause of fate. Living beings are divided into six categories, from single-sense grass to six- sense human beings. Since all these beings are best referred to as “earthly beings" and “archetypes,” they are not created by the primary God but are eternal entities like God. That the world other than living beings and the objects in the world are created by the original object can be seen from the fact that God is the first object and that he is the "creator of the world" and "the creator of the world". Living beings have no distinct color or form; But, apart from entering and operating the various bodies which are worldly objects, they operate otherworldly objects as well; Why should these creatures enter the bodies? What is the reason for this? That's fate, the effect of the deeds. Since living beings perform such movements, reactions arise and exist among living beings. The body of life and the fruits of the consumables are the appropriate product for the actions performed. The nature of God, the first object, is to create such a body, objects of consumption, and the world as their state of existence. It is the eligious principle of the Sangam Tamils that the world is created by the Supreme Being, the Lord, for the sake of beings, and has been helped by the Supreme Being, the Lord. Humans have been removed from the ignorance that isHeritage of Tamils 7} 20 inherently attached to them and who knows themselves, who knows the Lord, and who is in a state of eternal bliss. In this way, the First Object, the Lord, ig exalted in the creation of the body and the objects of consumption. Therefore, the relationship between God and the living beings is that of the helper and the one who helps without considering the benefit, and the helped beings have worshipped in remembrance of the grace of God. This is why Tolkaappiyar formulated a special grammar for the Invocation to God section. The Sangam | poet Kaniyan Poongundranar effectively records in the song "Yaadum Oore Yaavarum Kelir (To us, all towns are one, and all people are our kin) that it was to exhort the people of the world, having realized from their experience the fact that true philosophers would never undertake to extol the great ones who were exalted by good deeds or to despise the little ones who were degraded by evil. Within the living entity, the Sangam Tamils divided the people into higher genders and the other types of life as the neuter gender. Tolkaapiyam states that all that man is the highest order, and all the rest is neutered. There are ‘deities’ in the middle of the two, without falling into the people's category and not becoming the first object, God. These deities, like the life of the world, are born and die, with feelings of mind, action, and the Consumption of pleasure and suffering. The processes and life of the deities are at the top of the worldly beings. Tolkaappiyar reports gender-suggestive suffixes. Prior to that, he als? refers in this book to the deity who is effeminate and does not belong to aly gender. In the higher gender, the ambiguous masculine nouns that indicat? femininity and the nouns about the deity do not possess suffixes that distinguis!Language and Literature 21 the gender. However, Tolkaapiyar defines that the elite gender, the higher order, plays differently. 1.6 Virtue of Sharing in Sangam Literature Sangam literature captures the lifestyles of the ancient Tamils. Hence, researchers studying social history also take literature as a historical source. In Tamil literature, TL@SASHMEMB - The Eight Anthologies, and UsSHILIUMLG - The Ten Idylis, are the oldest literatures. Not all of these were sung at a particular time. The poets who sang were not from one village and not one country. They have recorded ideas in their songs that are relevant to all times and imagination that is admired by all nations. 1.6.1 Nature of Virtue The branch which has made the study of human behavior its own task is called ethics. Man is composed of three kinds of man within himself. It is evident from the first phase mentioned so far that such a way of life flourished in the life of the Tamils of the Sangam age before the penetration of the ideas of the Northern Traditions into the lives of the Tamils of the Sangam age. Literature depends on the community. That is why they are capable of taking into account the cultures and customs of the people, the cultural aspects of art, etc. Literature should have meant not only the past but also the present. In that way, Sangam literature survives even today.22, Heritage of Tamils 1.6.2 Cultural Changes Throughout Sangam literature, the knowledge of the tribals and the rise of petty kings and kings are visible and mirror the political and cultural changes of the day. In this changing age, the poets turned the cultural elements of society into poetry. The poems dealt not only with love and heroism but also with the conditions necessary for life. "Virtue/ Ethics” occupied the foremost place in it. On that basis, let us know what is virtue; its semantic interpretation; and clear definitions of ethics; In what sense did the people and scholars of the Sangam age take the word virtue? And how Tamil scholars used the word ‘Aram (virtue)' in literature. 1.6.3 Definition of Ethics The word virtue has a very flexible meaning. It is a set of principles and policies that a man has developed to become a leader for himself. The statement that 'virtue is the law for living an honest life' is apt. The people of the Sangam age believed that by practicing this principle in life, happiness and salvation in| the next birth could be achieved in this world. Man's rights and duties, social bonding, family connection, customs, and the nature of likes and dislikes are all built on the principle of morality. 1.6.4 Virtue in the Purpose of Life The people of the Sangam age regarded virtue as a way of life and not a a principle, a doctrine, or a religion. Virtue was regarded as a set of ethical norms. It can be known that virtue, which is the way of life seen by the people of‘Language and Literature _ 3 the Sangam period has developed and spread by customs, justice, sense of duty, discipline, generosity, and charity. 1.7 Management Concepts in Thirukkural Among the classical works of Tamil, Thirukkural attained the Status of Universal Common Veda. It is unique that Valluvar’s ideas, which are 2000 years old, are also applicable to modern principles today. Generally, in developing disciplines, when a theory is applied, if it applies well in that field, it will establish itself as a general principle of the world. Valluvar's management theories can be understood as a universal theory when Valluvar's management theories are compared with the management theories of today's modern world. 1.7.1 Management The Tamil dictionaries define management as the activity of controlling, monitoring, and maintaining an organization, department, institution, etc. Management is the process by which an individual or a group of individuals take into account the development of an organization plan the decisions studied and take appropriate action to implement them. 1.7.2 Planning In the field of management, deep study and planning form the basic element, Any management would want to get full benefits at a low cost as soon 48 Possible. Realizing this well, Thiruvalluvar has also formulated wonderful Policies that explain the management policies of the present day. It can be said that the chapter Acting after Due Consideration deals very well with planning.| 24 Heritage of Tamits Any action has to be planned first and executed only after that. If you think that you can start first and then plan after that, there will be loss and failure. Valluvar said, “TOT ONS, Sieve HULOLD FIOM BN6ot TST SHH OULD THUS HQSE" ‘Think, and then dare the deed! Who cry, Deed dared, we'll think, disgraceq shall be.’ “Consider, and then undertake a matter; after having undertaken it, to say "We will consider," is stupidity.’ - (Kural-467) Good management depends on the nature of planning by clearly examining the Pros and cons of the action done. This is told in Kural as, “Si fleuge wb SUGI2 BA aufluws|eio 2aeTHVULICLP LD GLb! Qewcr - (Kural-461) ‘Expenditure, return, and Profit of the deed In time to come; weigh these- then to the act proceed.’ Let a man reflect on what will be lost, what will be acquired, and (from these) what will be his ultimate gain, and (then, let him) act. When an action is performed, what is destroyed by that action? What happens next? What is the profit that comes from it? It should be examined and done. Thus, a managing director should thoroughly Study and set up plans for his company.‘Language and Literature 25 | 1.7.3 Organizing Valluvar, who Tepresents the salient features required for good governance says that, HOGI EP Siomngs, Heuer sym 2OLUIMTGH SITE U6 oo. - Kural - 381) An army, people, wealth, a minister, friends, fort: six things- Who owns them all, a lion lives amid the kings. He who possesses these six things, an army, a people, wealth, ministers, friends, and a fortress, is a lion among kings. This Kural applies to the organization of the company, even if it is told to the king of the country. When the company has good employees, an economy, and good consultarits, the company will progress. Valluvar points out that a company should be set up in such a manner. 1.7.4 Staffing A good Managing Director should be skilled in selecting employees and distributing tasks. This is best explained in the first chapter of ‘The Knowledge of Power’. AMensreussluyjid HoreuslyLo vomrsepirst euenuyd COULD HTSAE QEwsd. Biman Bh - (Kural - 471)Heritage of Tamils The force the strife demands, the force he owns, the force of foes, The force of friends; these should he weigh ere to the war he goes. Let (one) weigh well the strength of the deed (he purposes to do), his own strength, the strength of his enemy, and the strength of the allies (of both), and then let him act. ows the nature of any action, the power to can prevent it, and the strength of the A good manager is one who kn carry it out, the strength of those who employee who can assist him and carry it out. It is well explained in, QgEsmon Qsonreo Qoisirupy 6G rosy SI AHO MUTE ST alLeb. - (Kural - 517) ‘This man, this work shall thus work out,’ let thoughtful king command; Then leave the matter wholly in his servant's hand. After having considered, "this man can accomplish this, by these means", let (the king) leave with him the discharge of that duty. Valluvar also insists that the nature of the action is such, that the ways of doing are different, that he is capable of accomplishing this act by these means, and that it should be examined and realized that he is capable of accomplishing this act by other means and entrusts it to the person who deserves it. 1.7.5 Directing Schol i nt for 4 lars studying management Suggest that it is more important person at th i e: be @ e head of an industry to Possess leadership qualities than toi ‘Language and Literature Fi leader. They say only those with Such leadership qualities can lead the company well. The head of the organization Should be a role model for his employees and a person of trust. He has to be simple to the Scene, not harsh, and motivating. ‘AMGEN Fens, AMeyonssid Obprongew TEEN Caup5me Quwedy - (Kural - 382) ‘Courage, a liberal hand, wisdom, and energy: these four Are qualities a king adorn for evermore.” Never fail in these four things, fearlessness, liberality, wisdom, and energy, is the kingly characteristics. ‘BIMSTOOW ScvoN siooMeyononwo ODiepsirgyd Hmisn Hover S61 UTS! - (Kural - 383) ‘Sleepless promptitude, knowledge, and decision strong: These three for aye to rulers of the land belong. These three things, viz., vigilance, learning, and bravery, should never be wanting in the ruler of a country. SILAGE crouc SG EGsmsvover syevevGersd \Béon gun inetrenchs lod - (Kural - 386) “Where the king is easy of access, where no harsh word repels, That land's high praises every subject swells.’los.” Heritage of Tamils The whole world will exalt the country of the king who is easy to access, and who is free from harsh language. In the above Kurals, fearlessness of the way, generosity, knowledge, motivation, perseverance to speed up anything, the qualities of education ang courage to know them, the simplest of sight, the mind that does not utter harsh words, and listens to the grievances of others. While possessing, one can fee| that Valluvar is showing that the company will run according to his guidance. 1.7.6 Morale To ensure that a leader not only plans the activities of the organization but also has to be determined to face the problems arising out of it, the following Kural is applicable. TMOCTHFALUD TWAS STGAHLD Non sors H iid Cousttrony Couscrmg] 2.606" - (Kural - 670) ‘The world desires not men of every power possessed, Who power in act desire not, - crown of all the rest.’ The great will not esteem those who esteem not the firmness of action, whatever other abilities the latter may possess. The fact that the world will never admire those who do not have goodwill in the profession of leading a person, even if one has other strengths and glories, shows that if the world is to admire a leader, he must act as a man of determination. And an administrative head, through the following it is cleat!Language and Literature / 29 ried all over the body and are wounded. gement and will remain in its glory, ‘AMEN 55) Sodany 2 jCany Yooswioiny uc@uur Cornyn SoM.” - (Kural - 597) ‘The men of lofty mind quail not in ruin's fateful hour, The elephant Tetains his dignity mind arrows’ deadly shower.’ The Strong-minded will not faint, even when all is lost; the elephant stands firm, even when wounded by a shower of arrows. Similarly, Valluvar Says that even if there are many obstacles to their superiority, those who are motivated will not be disturbed by their hearts and will maintain their pride and that the administrative head should act with determination and not be disturbed, even if there are many obstacles to his superiority. In today's scenario, this is a boon for those who have invested Crores of rupees and tun the company. 7A Intelligence The head of a company, even if he is well-versed, must also have natural intelligence in order to lead his organization in an efficient manner. It is evident in Kural 636 that the most sophisticated machinations of the enemy in front of such a Capable person will be shattered. ‘WABILULD EIGorG 2 mLwngse sp uo 1-636) WTeyer WNsérHItD Lismeu.” “‘When native subtilty combines with sound scholastic lore, "Tis subtilty surpassing all, which nothing stands before.’ What (machinations) are there so acute as to resist those who possess natural acuteness in addition to learning? Research knowledge is also essential for the managing director of an administration. Before starting work, the Managing Director should be capable of examining all four aspects of strengths and weaknesses, the future prospects of the job, and the impending disruption. Today's management policy is that if there is a lack of research on any one of these four elements, the work will not succeed. 1.7.8 Coordination Considering the growth of the organization, the leader should not only coordinate the parts of the organization but also make the employee, who is the basis of the development, happy to accept the goals and work. ‘QUTGICHTSSror Cups uloneuinr CHT soot AZFCHTEA aumpoury svg.’ - (Kural - 528) ‘Where king regards not all alike, but each in his degree, "Neath such discerning rule many dwells happily.’ Many relatives will live near a king when they observe that he does nol look at all alike, but that he looks at each man according to his merit.“Language and Literature 31 If the king does not look at everyone in general, but according to their own merits, there are many who love it and live in the vicinity as relatives. Similarly, it is clear from Valluvar that everyone will work together under the leadership of the one who examines the qualifications and merits of the employees and encourages them at the right time. 1.7.9 Professional Ethics Entrepreneurs should be concerned about the society to which they belong. They should not act merely with the intention of increasing wealth. Valluvar highlights this in the, HOCH SND HEMGHSMd Assos, ITEM QwimyAw aired. - (Kural - 113) ‘Though only good it seems to give, yet gain By wrong acquired, not even one day retain.” Forsake in the very moment (of acquisition) that gain which, though it should bring advantage, is without equity. He says that even if the wealth that comes from misbehaviour is useful for 4 good cause, the tainted wealth should be discarded right away. 1.8. Tamil Epics The creation of the epic in Tamil began in the latter part of the second Century. ‘Silappathikaaram’ of ‘Iangovadikal’ is hailed as the first epic in Tamil and ‘Manimekalai’ of ‘Seethalai Saathanar’ is the second epic in Tamil. Both of these are found in the five great epics. Silappathikaaram, composed by pt. °° —32 Heritage of Vamit, Mangovadikal, is praised by scholars ax a text in the form of a sony with versey Since then, the creation of the epic has been {aking place in every per tod of time. Lipies are the stories that highlight: in detail how the characters of the story experience pood and evil inthe life of the world, perform good deeds, and wldimately attain immortal happiness, the divine site, ‘The number of epies written it ‘Tamil to date ix, approximately 150 Silappathikaaram is the primary testimony (0 the composition of Tamil epics 1.8.1 Silappathikaaram Silambu or Silappathikanram was written in the second century A.D, by the Cher prince Hangovadikal, The epic tells the story of Kovalan, a merchant from Poompuhar, the capital of the Chola kingdom, and his wife Kannagi. Madhavi, a dancer who shares her life with Kovakin, is another important character ADIAUIG MomPACH MAG OLD Yo {D(H M,ougiT2 td, REMIT Uphold G LUI hCHry shHgpid, Bar HaTomeor 21g 21 Ohh! Qa Gud srssugyra vd (Silambu: Those who have committed crimes in polities will be killed by. virtue. Those who are exalted will praise the virtuous wite, Silapathikaarant is based ot the three principles of the time when the time of cy sits Alamity Comes and gi consequences, The message of the entire epic is conveyed in the following lines The other names of this book are The Pioneer Upie of Tamil, The First Poent o! ‘amil, ‘The Firs Phe ‘Text, the Muthamizh Kappiyam, the Virst Kpie, the P thinik (virtuous woman) Kappiyam, the Draw Epic, the Citizen's Epic. the Modern Epic. theLanguage and Literature 3 Universal Sense Epic, the Epic of Unity, the Epic of Integrity, the Tamil National Epic, the Moovendar Epic, the Historical Epic, the Revolutionary Epic, the Sirappathikaaram, the Paintthamil Kaapiyam, (U. V. Swaminatha Iyer) and so on. 1.8.2 Manimekalai This epic is one of the five great epics. Manimekalai and Silappathikaaram are called Twin pics because Manimekalai's story structure, story characters, and the time when the story takes place are similar to Silappathikaaram. Manimekalai, the heroine of this epic, is the daughter of Madhavi in Silappathikaram. After the separation of Kovalan and Kannagi, Madhavi freed herself from public life and artistic work. Wanting to change the way and memories of her past lived, Madhavi brought her up in a Buddhist monastery without traces of them and worldly pleasures. When the prince of the country in which she lived fell in love with Manimekalai, she got rid of him, went to Manipallava Island, and became a Buddhist monk. There she got the ‘Akshaya Patra (a vessel that never gets exhausted with food)' that eliminates the problem of hunger. From that day on, Manimekalai, whose duty was to satiate the hunger of the people, was revered as a deity after her death. DIMI cro! UGA) WITS! rors CHL LoMeumgs MSI Gacir ose 2. uNgsCacveomd 2 GTZ. LYLD 2 MLWYLD 2BAMMUOHLD SdH! BOL S| Qed : (Manimekalai 25-228)(340 a ; Heritage of ee According to the society of the time, culture is all about knowing that basic necessities of life and imparting them to all. these are the The other names of the book are Manimekalai Renunciation, The First Religious Epic, the Epic of Virtue, the Reformation Epic, the Moral Epic, The rminology Epic, the Story Repository Epic, pic, The Creative Tamil Epic, and the Revolutionary Epic, the Religious Te: Hunger Medical Epic, Cow Worship E Renunciation Epic. 1.8.3 Seevaka Chinthamani 'Seevakachinthamani', written by a Jain poet named Thiruthakkatthevar, is regarded as one of the best of the five epics in Tamil literature. The original text is based on the Uttara Puranam written by Gunapattra in 896 A.D. Therefore, Seevakachinthamani must have been composed in the 10th century. Nachinarkkiniyar mentions that the author who created Chinthamani was born in the Chola dynasty. Thiruthakkathevar wanted to write in Tamil the stories that have existed since time immemorial in Jaina Puranas in a popular, ethnographic, and imaginative manner. It is also true that he succeeded in that endeavour. Each of the Seevakachinthamani verses that we have now has 3,145 verses of four feet. The other names vf Seevakachinthamani are Mana Nool (Wedding Manual), Mukti Nool (Salvation Book), Kaama Nool (Lust Book), Scripture, Mudiporul (Truth), Continuous Verses that follow each other in words and subject), Natural Penance, Muthal Vrutthappa Kappiyam, Chinthamani, Tamil literary Nanthamani, etc.“Language and Literature 35. 1.8.4 Valaiyaapathi / Valaiyaapathi is one of the five books known as the Five Great Epics of Tamil. Believed to belong to the 9th century, it is a Jaina text. This book is currently not completely found. Only 72 copies of the book have been published. Although there is speculation about the epic’s subject, it is impossible to say that the epic's story is the same as the available songs. From the available compositions, it can be said that the epic is composed of songs with a literary taste and richness of substance. It is evident from the available verses that the author of Valaiyaapathi has taken and used not only ideas but also idioms from classical verses such as Thirukkural and Kuruntthokai. Valaiyapathi 8 explains that the wealth of the childless is as useless as the knowledge of the impatient, the youth without the joy of pleasure, the lotus pond without a field to descend, the purity of makeup without clothes, the garland without fragrance, the erudition without many books and learning, and the city without good water levels. The verses of this book have been-taken up by Adiyaarkku Nallar, [lampuranar, Nachinaarkiniyar, and Parimelazhagar in their speeches. 1.8.5 Kundalakesi Kundalekesi is a Buddhist text that is considered to be one of the five great epics of the Tamil language. The authors of various Tamil books have used Kundalakesi songs in their speeches. All the songs from this book are thus derived from other books. Only nineteen complete songs have been found in this way. The theme of the epic is the story of Kundalakesi, a merchant woman who Killed her husband who tried to kill her and became a Buddhist monk and engaged in spreading the glory of the religion. The child becomes young, and thele Heritage of Tamils ; young man becomes old. Isn't one phase of life dead and we're going to the next? Nathakutthanaar asks why we are crying only for death when we don't cry for other losses. In this poem, the poet talks about the impermanence of life “We cry for the death of our near and dear ones. But we are dying every day, Every stage of our lives entails the death of the previous stage. We are a fetus in our mother’s womb. Once we are born, the fetus dies. Then our childhood dies when we become young adults. Which again dies when we become passion. driven youth. That stage too dies. Death repeats itself in our life. That is the norm. What is more, it is death that awaits us in our old age too. As we ate dying every day, why do we not cry for ourselves? It is pointless to cry for the death of near and dear ones”. UTOMTUITL Feito eds sid; uTovesrma SoTL CES HId STOMETUIMLD HeiTom1o Ces syd; ST MIL Qersmo Qe sso Bab Ocu Qucry QerCon; Cosveug eptiyjio BS HMGhL Hot sr Ast mmoncv: BWSG Hrd ATS 8) crest Conn a Kundalakesi9 1.8.6 Ainchirunkaapiyam The Dhandiyasiriyar who wrote the grammar for great epics has alsd given a grammar for the minor epic. However, he uses the same worl ‘kaappiyam' and not the word ‘sirukaappiyam’, For the first time, C.V- Damodaram Pillai himself uses the term ‘Sirukaappiyam' in his Sulamatl preface. Udhayana Kumara Kaaviyam, Naga Kumara Kaviyam, Yashodhat | and Neelakesi are the five works that fall under Category of Ainchirukkaapiyangal. Kaviyam, Soolamani,Language and Literature 37 1.8.7 Udhayana Kumara Kaaviyam The epic narrates the story of Udhayanan, the son of the king Sathanikan of Vatthavam, and his wife Mrigavathi. The book is composed of 369 Vruddhappas out of six chapters. It was composed by a Jaina woman saint, Kandhiyaar. The name is not known. In this book, it can be seen that Udhayanan married four wives and eventually took up asceticism. 1.8.8 Naakakumaara Kaviyam This book is a Jain text known as the Naakakumara Kaviyam or The Story of Naakapanchami. The author's name is not known. It is an epic of Naakakumaran as it tells the story of Nagakumaran, the king of Magadha. It consists of 170 songs set in Vriddhappa. It consists of five cantos. In this epic, the birth and upbringing of Nagakumaran, his heroic deeds, the greatness of Panchami fasting, and the greatness of renunciation are praised. The story is based on the Panchami story narrated by Sage Gautama to King Shironikarasan. The song sung by the King in praise of the Argha God is heart-warming. AM AUP Wo sve wT) HCW ANU AF woof wisort 5 ows ANCors CorsQunG Cew #fCu Ceanh Coudeongyis S955 oC - (Naakakumara 18:1-2) It means “You are the Magnanimous One. You are the Sinless One. You are the Original. You are the Supreme Being. You are the Abode of Wealth. You are the Infinite-All-Being. You are the Land of the Three Worlds and the Other Worlds. You are the Holy One who is the God of all gods.”Heritage of Tamils 38 1.8.9 Yasodharaa Kaaviyam - "Yasod T , iff © oning , f : P harag , aviyam' in Tamil. There was a time in Hinduism when it was customary to Kaaviy: 7 dt T. yweve\l reform: ere introduced sacrifice lives to deities. Later, ho’ , some reforms w . . d Accordingly, instead of living beings, it was customary to pretend to be sacrificed with their figures made of flour. Jainism, which was vehemently opposed to the sacrifice of life, insisted that the method of using this use was similar to murder and that the karmic consequences of killing would be similar to that of murder because of the intention of killing. It consists of five cantos and 320 verses. With a song, the author of this book is called Vennaavaludaiyar. 1.8.10 Neelakesi It can be said that this is the first logical book to appear in Tamil. A text that arose in opposition to Kundalakesi. The book Yaparungala Vridhi calls it blue. The author's name is unknown. It is a book of 10 verses and 894 hymns. A Jain monk, Munichandar, stops the sacrifice to Kali at the Paalaalayam crematorium in Panchala. Kali sends Palayanur Neeli to chase away the sage. Neeli, who came to chase away the sage, loses to the Sage in the argument and becomes his wife. She defeats many in the argument and defeats the Buddhist monk Kundalakesi and the Buddha in the argument. Prof. Thiru A Chakravarthy Nainar, who served as the Principal of Kumbakonam Government College, ws the first to publish The Neelakesi from the manuscripts with the speech of Sage Samaya Divakara Vamana. Published in 1936, this edition was reprinted bY Thanjavur Tamil University in 1984.‘Language and Literature Pn) 1.8.11 Choolamani Choolamani is the crown jewel of the crown. Choolamani means the bead of Nachinarkiniyar hair and the Nayaka bell. This is also known as Soodamani. It js not known what the real name of the Tolamozhi deva was, the author of Choolamani. It is believed by the wise men that since he had given the sweet and beautiful phrases ‘Aarkum Tholaathaai’ and 'Tholaanaavir Sachuthan' in two places in the book, the elders realized its value and started calling him the 'Tholamozhi Thevar'. This is a Jain epic. It consists of 12 cantos and 2131 songs. It is said that this is a story based on the Mahapurana called SriPurana. Life is full of misery. The occasional pleasure in this is small. However, it is human nature to want to enjoy it. Tholaamozhi Thevar has shown this rare truth in such a simple and delicious way. 1.8.12 Contemporary Epics It is only natural that new literary works appear from time to time in a cultured language. Accordingly, there is the development of Tamil epics. In ancient times, many epics arose on religious grounds. In the Middle Ages, religious scholars who developed religions were more likely to sing histories. It was especially during the Chola period that most of the epics appeared. Therefore, in the history of Tamil literature, the Chola period is called the epic literary period by Tamil scholars. In the 17th and 18th centuries A.D., most of the Puranic texts (mythology) were written. After the Chola period, story songs appeared in abundance in this period as well. Nowadays, only a few epic Sammars are followed by works of poetry which are given the names of the[ 40 7 7 j ‘Heritage of Tamils short epic, the minor epic, and the short poem. These poems are also found as translations and adaptations. 1.9 Impact of Jainism on Tamil Nadu The contribution of Jains to Sangam Tamil literature is immense. The five epics such as Seevaka Chinthamani, Naaladiyar, and the five short epics such as Udhayanakumara Kaaviyam, Choolamani, Naaga Kumara Kaaviyam, Neelakesj and Yasodhara Kaviyam composed by Jain sages are notable. Some scholars believe that the Jaina literature of the Sangam literature was written in the eighth century or later. Silappathikaaram, one of the twin epics of Tamil, has a great influence of Jainism. 1.9.1 Dictionaries The Divaakara Nikantu (dictionary) was composed by the sage Divaakara in the 8th century AD. The Pingala Nikantu composed by Sage Pingala in the tenth century AD and the Soodamani Nikantu composed in the 16th century AD enriched the Tamil language. 1.9.2 Temples There are 26 Jain caves, 200 stone beds, and 60 inscriptions in the Paandiya country. The Jain monks also wrote Tamil epics, Tamil grammar books, and dictionaries. The Sitthanavaasal caves of the 7th and 8th centuries AD are an excellent example of Jains’ painting and caves. Moreover, the names of the Jain monks who lived in the Sitthanavaasal hills are inscribed in the form of the Ezhadi pattam Jain bed inscriptions, in the Tamil Brahmi script of the 2nd century BC and the Tamil script of the 8th century AD.‘Language and Literature 4 Kazhugumalai Jain sculptures and circular (ancient Tamil scripture) inscriptions of the 8th century AD are examples of the renaissance of Jainism in Tamil Nadu. Paandiya king Paraanthaka Nedunchezhiyan built the Kazhugumalai monolithic temple. The Melsithaamur Jains’ Mutt is the religious headquarters of the Tamil Jains. There are Jain cave temples, beds, temples, and Chitharal Rock Jain Temple. The Kunthavai Jinaalayam (temple) is found in the Jain temple at Tirumala in Tiruvannamalai district. Historian Arani R. Vijayan has written the book. Historian Arani R. Vijayan has written a book on this Jinaalayam. The Jain monasteries are found in the following places. Kazhugumalai Jain sculptures and inscriptions Thirailokkiyanaathar Temple Kongarpuliyankulam Jain Hills Karungaalakkudi Jain beds Jain Hills, Madurai Yaanai Malai, Madurai Kizhavalavu Maangulam Sithanavasal Jain beds and Inscriptions Arma Mountain Cave Onampaakkam Cholapaadiyapuram. Nekanoorpatty Ennaayiram[42 aaa Heritage of Tamit, - Mel Sithaamoor Jains Temple Anumanthakudi Jains Temple Karanthai Aadhishwaraswami Jinaalayam Kumbakonam Chandraprabha Bhagavaan Jinaalayam Kumbakonam Swethaambarar Jains Temple Samanak Kanchi SeeyaMangalam Dheepangudi Dheepanaickaswami Jinaalayam Bharsuva Jinaalayam Poondi Arukar Temple Mannaarkudi Mallinaathaswami Jinaalayam Vijayamangalam Jains Temple Thirunaathar Hills 1.9.3 Buddhism and Tamil There was a time when Buddhism was flourishing in Tamil Nadu. From about the 2™ century BC to the 10” century AD, this religion was highly established in Tamil Nadu. Later, after the thirteenth century, this religion began to disappear. Manimekalai, an ancient Tamil Buddhist text, was composed by Seethalai Saathanar based on Kaveri Poompattinam.[Language and Literature 43 | Burmese historical writings dating back to the 3rd century were discovered in Naagappattinam. This is evidence of the existence of a Buddhist Vihara built by Ashoka here. Nagapattinam was a Buddhist centre during the fourth and fifth centuries. At that time there was a Stupa. But in later times it disappeared from here. But flourished again in the ninth century. In the 11th century, with the help of Rajaraja Chola I, the Soodamani Vihar was renovated and built by the Chaavaka king Sri Vijaya Soolaamanivarman. In Kulothunga Chola's "Animangalam Seppet" the Buddhist monk "Kasiya Therar" is said to have renovated the sixth- century Buddhist temple with the help of Naganadu Buddhist monks. This "Nagar Annam Vihar" was later known as Nagana Vihar. Buddhism flourished here till the 15th century. The buildings of the vihar lasted till the 18th century. Kanchipuram is one of the oldest cities in South India. Tamil, Sanskrit, and Pali were taught in the city. Yuan Chwang is believed to have come to the city. He came to this city in the 7th century. The city was six miles in circumference and these people were known for their valour and devotion and were lovers of justice, respectful of others, and learners. It is also said that Gautama Buddha came to this place. The city was famous as the capital of the Pallavas from the 4th to the 9th century. Moreover, many famous temples were built during their reign. Bodhi Dharman, who was born in the Tamil tradition and the founder of Zen Buddhism, was born here. Dandin, a renowned Sanskrit writer and author of the book Dasakumara Charitra, hails from this place. Another Sanskrit scholar, Baaravi, hailed from Kanchipuram. He wrote the book ‘Kil Krataarjunya of the Pallava king Simhavishnu, Famous Buddhist scholars Such as Dignaagar, Buddhakosar, and Thammapaalar lived here.