MK, Instrumentation 1

Wave Analyzer
• In electronics and communications, the periodic signal is represented in the form of DC component and some
sinusoidal harmonics.
• It can be shown mathematically that any complex waveform is made up of a fundamental and its harmonics.
• Wave analyzers are used to analyze the harmonics, to measure the amplitude of the harmonics in the domain
of frequency with the help of tuned filters and voltmeters.
• The wave analyzer can be tuned to analyze the frequency of the harmonic component of the signal whose
amplitude is to be measured.
Wave Analyzer Definition
• An electronic instrument that analyzes the signal or wave by measuring the amplitude of the frequency
components or harmonics is called a Wave Analyzer, also known as signal analyzer or carrier frequency
voltmeters or frequency-selective voltmeters, or selective level voltmeters.
• This instrument uses a set of filters for tuning and voltmeters to analyze the signal in the frequency domain.
• The wave analyzers are available in the RF range (low) and 50 MHz below range and also runs through AF
range with high-frequency resolution.
• Based upon Frequency Ranges, the wave analyzers are divided into two types:
– Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer
– Heterodyne Wave Analyzer
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 Principle and Working of a Basic Wave Analyzer
• The basic wave analyzer works on the principle of the frequency-selective voltmeter.
• It should be tuned to any one frequency component of the signal and all other components are rejected.
• The particular selected frequency component of the wave/signal is calibrated in the form of amplitude
and its value indicated by a voltmeter or CRO.

• Primary Detector: It is made up of an LC

circuit. By adjusting the values of ‘L’
(inductor) and ‘C’, the particular frequency
component of the signal is allowed to
measure.
• Full-wave Rectifier: The input AC signal is
converted into the DC signal and the average
value of the signal is obtained
• PMMC Galvanometer: It is used to indicate
the value of the signal i.e, the output of the
full-wave rectifier.

MK, Instrumentation 3
 Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer
AF input
signal

• works on the principle of the

frequency-selective voltmeter.
• It is operated to measure the
frequency in the audio range of 20 Hz –
20 kHz.
• It uses a narrow-pass band filter and it
volts and decibels
is tuned to the desired frequency
components to measure.
• The frequency distortion is very low
and bandwidth is also low nearly 1% of
the selected frequency.

counters, recorders

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 Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer
• The AF input signal that is to be analyzed is given to an input attenuator.
• The signal contains maximum amplitude and it is attenuated by the input attenuator.
• It works as a range multiplier because a high range of amplitude of the signal is measured.
• The output of the input attenuator is amplified by the driver amplifier and its output is fed to the high-Q
filter section.
• The high Q-filter section selected the particular frequency component and rejects the remaining
unwanted frequencies of the signal. It contains two RC sections, two amplifier filters, connected in
cascade.
• By varying the value of the capacitor, the frequency range can be changed.
• By varying the value of the resistor, the desired frequency can be changed within the desired
range.
• The output of the High Q-filter is fed to the meter range attenuator to select the AF input signal.
• The AF input signal is attenuated by a meter range attenuator.
• The output of the meter range attenuator is amplified by the output amplifier.
• The output buffer drives the AF signal to the output devices such as counters, recorders, etc.
• The meter circuits display the reading output of the AF signal in the range of volts and decibels.

MK, Instrumentation 5
 Heterodyne Wave Analyzer
• The electronic instrument that analyzes input RF
the periodic signal in the RF range and signal
above MHz ranges, is called heterodyne
wave analyzer, also known as a
superheterodyne wave analyzer.
• Its working principle is heterodyne (mix) of
high IF (intermediate frequency range)
with the input signal, which is to be
analyzed.
• The frequency components of the signal
are fed to the pass band IF amplifier due
to the tuning of the local oscillator. 0 Hz

• The IF amplifier is rectified and applied to

the meter circuit to display the output.

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 Heterodyne Wave Analyzer
• The input RF signal that is to be analyzed is given to an input attenuator to attenuate the amplitude of
the signal. The output signal will be in the range of 0-18 MHz.
• The output of the input attenuator is fed to the untuned amplifier to amplify the RF signal and its output
is fed to the first mixer.
• The signal of the first mixer is heterodyned with the signal from the local oscillator in the frequency
range of 30-48MHz.
• The output of the first mixer will be in the 30MHz frequency range i.e. IF (intermediate frequency) signal.
• The IF amplifier amplifies the IF signal obtained from the first mixer.
• This amplified IF signal of 30MHz is heterodyned (mixed) with the Crystal oscillator signal frequency
30MHz in the second mixer.
• As the frequencies of the signals are the same, the output frequency of the second mixer is 0 Hz.
• This output signal with 0 Hz is applied to an active low pass filter which has a frequency range of 0-
1500MHz.
• The output of the active LPF is fed to the meter circuit to display the reading of the selected RF signal in
the range of volts or decibels.
MK, Instrumentation 7
 Applications of Wave Analyzer
• Measures the harmonic distortion of the signal.
• Desired frequency components of the signal can be selected to analyze the signal
• Used in harmonics analyzation whose signal is to be analyzed.
• Measuring the amplitude of the selected frequency component in the signal.
• Used to analyze the DC component in the periodic signal
• Used to reduce sound and vibration produced by the electrical machines in the industries.
• Used to measure the amplitude of the signal along with noise and interfering signals.
• Used as a harmonic distortion analyzer
• Used as an automatic frequency controller.
• Used in electrical measurements

MK, Instrumentation 8
 Spectrum Analyzer
• A spectrum analyzer is a device that is employed for assessing the signal’s amplitude relating to its
frequency.
• mainly helpful for testing, handling RF circuitry, and in designing.
• The graph for this device is plotted against the amplitude of the signal corresponding to its frequency.
– amplitude is plotted on the vertical axis in the logarithmic scale, and
– frequency is plotted on the x-axis either on a normal or logarithmic scale.
– Plotting amplitude on the y-axis in the logarithmic scale allows analyzing huge variations in the
amplitude levels of multiple signals.

MK, Instrumentation 9
 Basic Spectrum Analyzer using swept receiver design
• Referring to the block diagram of Fig. 9.9(b), the saw tooth generator provides the saw tooth voltage
which drives the horizontal axis element of the scope and this saw tooth voltage is frequency controlled
element of the voltage tuned oscillator.
• As the oscillator sweeps from fmin to fmax of its frequency band at a linear recurring rate, it beats with the
frequency component of the input signal and produce an IF, whenever a frequency component is met
during its sweep.
• The frequency component and voltage
tuned oscillator frequency beats together to produce
a difference frequency, i.e. IF.
• The IF corresponding to the component is amplified
and detected if necessary, and then applied to the
vertical plates of the CRO, producing a display of
amplitude versus frequency.
• The spectrum produced if the input wave is a single
toned A.M. is given in Figs 9.10, 9.11, and 9.12.

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 One of the principal applications of spectrum
analyzers has been in the study of the RF
spectrum produced in microwave instruments.

MK, Instrumentation 16
 IRF Spectrum Analyzer
• The input signal is fed into a mixer which is driven by a local
oscillator.
• oscillator is linearly tunable electrically over the range 2–3 GHz.
• The mixer provides two signals at its output that are
proportional in amplitude to the input signal but of frequencies
which are the sum and difference of the input signal and local
oscillator frequency.
• The IF amplifier is tuned to a narrow band around 2 GHz, since
the local oscillator is tuned over the range of 2 – 3 GHz,
• only inputs that are separated from the local oscillator frequency
by 2 GHz will be converted to IF frequency band, pass through
the IF frequency amplifier, get rectified and produce a vertical
deflection on the CRT.
• From this, it is observed that as the saw tooth signal sweeps, the local oscillator also sweeps linearly from 2 – 3 GHz.
• The tuning of the spectrum analyzer is a swept receiver, which sweeps linearly from 0 to 1 GHz.
• The saw tooth scanning signal is also applied to the horizontal plates of the CRT to form the frequency axis.
• (The Spectrum Analyzer Block Diagram is also sensitive to signals from 4 – 5 GHz referred to as the image frequency of the super
heterodyne. A low pass filter with a cutoff frequency above 1 GHz at the input suppresses these spurious signals.)
• Spectrum analyzers are widely used in radars, oceanography, and bio-medical fields.
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 Advantages and Disadvantages
The advantages of spectrum analyzer are:
• Swept type analyzers can function up to some GHz range of frequency levels
• There will be a quick analysis of signals in the FT (Fourier Transform) type of analyzer and also analyses every
sample one by one.
• It also captures and analyzes phase data corresponding to the signal
• It is less expensive when compared with the oscilloscope

The disadvantages of spectrum analyzer are:

• Swept type of analyzers can analyze only continuous-wave signals without detecting any phase-related data
• Fourier transform analyzers can function only at a high range of frequencies because of restrictions on the
sampling level of converters.
• Also, it has limitations on bandwidth

MK, Instrumentation 18
 Applications of Spectrum Analyzer
The applications of spectrum analyzers include the following.
– sometimes useful in applications to calculate power levels and phase noise levels of the signals.
– Used for accepting electromagnetic interference and compatibility calculations
– Utilized in the applications to locate behavior and frequency of the signals when they impose any issues
– Used for the purposes of assessing RF shielding
– Employed in an examination of wireless transmitters
– Employed in telecommunication components
– Mobile communications
– Broadcasting devices
– Microwave communication systems
– Cable TV networks
– Radar systems

MK, Instrumentation 19
 Harmonic Distortion Analyzer
• Distortion caused by nonlinear operation is called amplitude distortion or harmonic distortion.
• It can be shown mathematically that an amplitude-distorted sine wave is made up of pure sine-wave components
including the fundamental frequency f of the input signal and harmonic multiples of the fundamental frequency, 2f,
3f, 4f . . . , and so on.
• Harmonic distortion can be quantitatively measured very accurately with a harmonic distortion analyzer, which is
generally referred to simply as a distortion analyzer.
• The total harmonic distortion (THD) is given by
(harmonics)2
THD =
fundamental
• The total harmonic distortion (THD) can also be written as :

2 2
E2 + E3 +...+
2

THD =
E n

Ef

Where, THD = total harmonic distortion

Ef = amplitude of fundamental frequency including harmonics
E2E3En = amplitude of individual harmonics

MK, Instrumentation 21
 Fundamental Suppression Type
• This type of THD analyzer filters out the fundamental frequency of a signal with a notch filter, leaving only
distortion products plus noise; the ratio of this remnant to the signal amplitude is the THD.
• A fundamental suppression analyzer consists of three main sections:
• input section with impedance matcher, a notch filter and
• amplifier section, and
• an output metering circuit.
• Negative feedback from the bridge
amplifier to the pre-amp section may
be applied to enable the rejection
circuit to work more accurately.
Gain (dB)

Fundamental frequency notch Frequency (Hz)

MK, Instrumentation 22
 Fundamental Suppression Type Working
• The input is impedance-matched with the rejection circuit with the help of an attenuator and an impedance
matcher.
• This signal is then pre-amplified to a desired level.
• The following section consists of a Wien bridge notch filter tuned to reject the fundamental frequency and balanced
for minimum output by adjusting the bridge controls.
• The output, which is the remaining signal after the
fundamental has been suppressed, is amplified to a
measurable level.
• A feedback loop from the bridge amplifier output to
the pre-amp input helps to eliminate any remaining
contribution from the fundamental frequency.
• The output from these blocks is measured, typically
using an instrumentation amplifier driving an analog
or digital meter.
• The voltage at the meter is due to the harmonic
distortion products plus noise.

MK, Instrumentation 23
 Measurement of Frequency and Time: Decimal Count Assembles

Frequency measurements Input

Signal
• Frequency can be accurately
measured by counting the number
of cycles of the unknown signal for
a precisely controlled time
interval.
• Figure shows the logic block
diagram for a counter in the
frequency mode of operation

MK, Instrumentation Frequency mode of operation 24

 Working of Decimal Count Assembles (DCA) for frequency measurement
• There are two signals that need to be traced:
• the input signal (or measured frequency)
• the gating signal → which determines the length of time during which the DCAs are allowed to accumulate pulses.
• The input signal is amplified and passed to a Schmitt trigger where it is converted into a square wave with very fast rise
and fall times, then differentiated and clipped.
• Signal arriving to the input of main gate consists of a series of pulses separated by the period of original input signal.
• The oscillator frequency is 1 MHz. The time – base output is shaped by a Schmitt trigger, so that positive spikes, 1 μs
apart, are applied to a number of decade dividers, allowing the time interval to be selected from 1 μs to 1 s.
• The first output pulse from time- base selector switch passes through a Schmitt trigger to the gate control flip- flop.
• The gate flip- flop assumes a state such that an enable signal is applied to the main gate.
• Since this is an AND gate, the input signal pulses are allowed to enter the DCAs and they are totalized and displayed.
• This continues until the second pulse from the DDAs arrives at the control flip – flop.
• The gate control assumes the other state which removes the enable signal from the main gate.
• The main gate closed and no further pulses are admitted to DCAs. The DCA display is now in a state which corresponds
to the number of input pulses received during a precise time interval which was determined by time base.
• Since frequency is defined a the number of occurrences of a particular phenomenon in some length of time, the
counter display corresponds to frequency.
• Usually the time – base selector switch moves the decimal point in the display area, allowing the frequency to be read
directly in Hz, kHz or MHz.

MK, Instrumentation 25
 Working of Decimal Count Assembles (DCA) for Time measurement
• Time interval measurements can be made with
the same basic blocks as ration measurements.
• This measurement is very useful in
determining the pulse – width of a certain
waveform.
• This configuration shows two parallel input
signal channels,
• where one channel supplies the enabling
pulse for the main gate
• the other channel supplies the disabling
pulse for the same gate.
• The main gate is enabled at a point on the
leading edge of the input signal waveform and
closed at a point on the trailing edge of the
same waveform.
• The counter must have a slope – selection
feature, as indicated in the block diagram.
• The trigger level control permits selection of
the point on the incoming signal waveform
at which the measurement begins and ends Time interval mode of operation
MK, Instrumentation 26
 Frequency Counter
• The frequency, f, of repetitive signals may be defined by the number of cycles of that signal per unit of time. It may
be represented by the equation: f = n / t……..(1) where n is the number of cycles of the repetitive signal that occurs
in time interval, t.
• If t = 1 second, then the frequency is expressed as n cycles per second or n Hertz.
• As suggested by above equation, the frequency, f, of a repetitive signal is measured by the conventional counter by
counting the number of cycles, n, and dividing it by the time interval, t.
• The basic block diagram of the counter in its frequency mode of measurement is shown in Figure 1.

MK, Instrumentation 27
 Frequency Counter
• The input signal is initially conditioned to a form that is compatible with the internal circuitry of counter.
• The conditioned signal appearing at the door of the main gate is a pulse train where each pulse
corresponds to one cycle or event of the input signal.
• With the main gate open, pulses are allowed to pass through and get totalized by the counting register.
• The time between the opening to the closing of the main gate or gate time is controlled by the Time Base.
• From equation (1), it is apparent that the accuracy of the frequency measurement is dependent on the
accuracy in which t is determined.
• Consequently, most counters employ crystal oscillators with frequencies such as 1, 5 or 10 MHz as the
basic time base element.
• The Time Base Divider takes the time base oscillator signal as its input and provides as an output a pulse
train whose frequency is variable in decade steps made selectable by the Gate Time switch.
• The time, t, or gate time is determined by the period of the selected pulse train emanating from the time
base dividers.
• The number of pulses totaled by the counting register for the selected gate time yields the frequency of
the input signal.
• The frequency counted is displayed on a visual numerical readout.
– For example, if the number of pulses totaled by the counting register is 50,000, and the selected gate time is one second, the
MK, Instrumentation 28
frequency of the input signal is 50,000 Hertz.
 Period Counter
• The period, P, of an input signal is the inverse of its frequency. P=1/ f & P= t/n
• The period of a signal is therefore the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle of oscillation.
• If the time is measured over several input cycles, then the average period of the repetitive signal is
determined. This is often referred to as multiple period averaging.
• In this mode of measurement, the duration over which the main gate is open is controlled by the
frequency of the input signal rather than that of the time base.
• The Counting Register now counts the output pulses from the time-base dividers for one cycle or the
period of the input signal.
• The conditioned input signal may also be divided so that the gate is open for decade steps of the input
signal period rather than for a single period.
• This is the basis of the multiple period averaging technique.
• Period measurement allows more accurate measurement of unknown low-frequency signals because of
increased resolution.
– For example, a frequency measurement of 100 Hz on a counter with 8-digit display and a 1-second gate time will be displayed as
00000.100 KHz.
– A single period measurement of 100 Hz on the same counter with 10 MHz time base would display 0010000.0 µs. The resolution
is improved 1000 fold.
MK, Instrumentation 32
Period Counter

MK, Instrumentation 33
 Error: Counter Error and Signal related error
Sources of Measurement Error:
• The major sources of measurement error for an electronic counter are generally classified into the
following four categories:
– the ±1 count error
– the Time Base error
– the Trigger error
– the Systematic error
Not all these four are significant for all modes of
counter measurement. Only the ±1 count and time
base errors are considered as important for frequency
measurements using conventional counters.

Types of Measurement Error:

• The ±1 Count Error :
• When an electronic counter makes a measurement, a ±1 count ambiguity can exist in the least
significant digit. This is often referred to as quantization error. This ambiguity can occur because of the
non-coherence between the internal clock frequency and the input signal as illustrated in Figure 17.
The error caused by this ambiguity is, in absolute terms, ±1 out of the total accumulated count.
MK, Instrumentation 34
 Error: Counter Error and Signal related error
• The Time Base Error:
• Any error resulting from the difference between the actual time base oscillator frequency and its nominal
frequency is directly translated into a measurement error. This difference is the cumulative effect of all the
individual time base oscillator errors described previously and may be expressed as dimensionless factor
such as so many parts per million.
• Trigger Error:
• Trigger error is a random error caused by noise on the input signal and noise from the input channels of
the counter. In period and time interval measurements, the input signal(s) control the opening and
closing of the counter’s gate. The effect of the noise is to cause one limit of the hysteresis window to be
crossed too soon or too late — causing the main gate to be open for an incorrect period of time. This
results in a random timing error for period and time interval measurements.
• Systematic Error:
• For time interval measurements, any slight mismatch between the start channel and the stop channel
amplifier rise times and propagation delays results in internal systematic errors. Mismatched probes or
cable lengths introduce external systematic errors. For time interval measurements, trigger level timing
error is another systematic error which is caused by uncertainty in the actual trigger point. This uncertainty
is not due to noise, however, but is due to offsets in trigger level readings caused by hysteresis and drifts.
Trigger level timing error may be expressed as: ∆T = trigger level error/ signal slew rate at trigger point
MK, Instrumentation 35
 Digital Voltmeter
• A digital voltmeter uses a numeric display to show the exact value of the measurement of potential
differences between two specific points in an electric circuit. This makes digital voltmeters more precise
and easier to read. Due to the fragile nature of these voltmeters, they are more expensive than analog
voltmeters.
• The types of Digital Voltmeter are:
– Ramp Type Digital Voltmeter
– Integrating Type Digital Voltmeter
– Successive Approximation Digital Voltmeter
– Dual Slope Integrating Digital Voltmeter

MK, Instrumentation 36
 Digital Voltmeter
• The input signal is fed as the input to the pulse generator. The pulse generator generates rectangular pulses of width
as that of input signal.
• The output of the pulse generator acts as the input the AND gate whose another input is a sequence of pulses.
• This creates a positive triggered switch resulting in positive triggered sequence of pulses having width same as the
pulses generated by the pulse generator.
• The positive triggered pulses i.e. the output of AND gate is fed to invertor which inverts the output of AND gate.
• The output of invertor is fed as an input to the counter which counts the total pulses and time duration between the
pulses.
• The last step involves showing the precise output mainly on LED and the reading is calibrated and shown in Volts.

sequence of pulses

MK, Instrumentation 37
 Ramp Type Digital Voltmeter
• There are circuits that generate output signals in the shape of a ramp. The voltmeter used for measuring
such ramp signals in Ramp type digital voltmeter.
• Timing plays an important role in these type of signals .The name of voltmeter is mainly because it
measures ramped up signals.
Working:
• The voltage is measured by providing an unknown input signal to the ranging and attenuation.
• Depending on the needs ,the signal is attenuated or made stronger by amplification.
• The ramp generator is a device which generates a positive or a negative ramp and our unknown signal is
compared to it.
• The comparator compares input signal to the ramp signal.
• If the input voltage matches with ramp voltage then gate is opened with the pulse and after the ramp
signal reaches 0 ,the gate is closed.
• The time period between two events is called gating time interval. This generates the ramp voltage.
• The output from the gate is counted and used for display.

MK, Instrumentation 38
Ramp Type Digital Voltmeter

MK, Instrumentation 39
 Integrating Type Digital Voltmeter
• This voltmeter measures exact value of input corresponding to the constant of time.
• This circuit usually uses a voltage-to-frequency converter device which works on the feedback control
system.
• The main characteristic of this voltmeter is that the output from the integrator is compared with the
fixed level voltage of reference source.
Working:
• In this, as soon as the input voltage is applied, the output voltage begins to increase which fed to level
detector.
• After the output voltage reaches a certain value, detector sends a pulse to pulse generator gate.
• The integrator output is compared to fixed level voltage of the internal reference source resulting in an
output pulse. This output pulse from level detector.
• This pulse opens gate which passes pulse from oscillator to pulse generator.
• The pulse generator like a Schmitt trigger, generates pulses with fixed width and amplitude.
• So for each wave, a pulse is generated which helps to determine the input voltage.

MK, Instrumentation 40
Integrating Type Digital Voltmeter

MK, Instrumentation 41
 Servo Potentiometer Type Digital Voltmeter
• The input voltage is applied to one side of a mechanical chopper comparator, the other side being
connected to the variable arm of a precision potentiometer.
• The output of the chopper comparator, which is driven by the line voltage at the line frequency rate, is a
square wave signal whose amplitude is a function of the difference in voltages connected to the opposite
side of the chopper.
• The square wave signal is amplified and fed to a power amplifier, and the amplified square wave
difference signal drives the arm of the potentiometer in the direction needed to make the difference
voltage zero.
• The servo-motor also drives a mechanical readout, which is an indication of the magnitude of the input
voltage.
• This DVM uses the principle of balancing, instead of sampling, because of mechanical movement. The
average reading time is 2 s.
• 3 1/2 – DIGIT
– The number of digit positions used in a digital meter determines the resolution.
– Hence a 3 digit display on a DVM for a 0 – 1 V range will indicate values from 0 – 999 mV with a smallest
increment of 1 mV.

MK, Instrumentation 42
Servo Potentiometer Type Digital Voltmeter

MK, Instrumentation 43
 Successive Approximation Digital Voltmeter
• In this voltmeter the output of digital to analog convertor is compared with a certain unknown
reference voltage.
• This meter can measure up to 100 readings per second.
• The voltmeter uses an amplifier to choose a required range of input voltage and minimize the noise
which can cause distortion.
Working:
• The input amplifier of this device helps to choose a range of input voltage and eliminates any noise.
• The input is then sent to comparator through an S/H circuit.
• The comparator generates a signal when it receives the analog signal.
• This is further sent to AND gate whose output become one if and only if output of comparator is
positive.
• In the end , a digitized digital signal is generated from control registers giving us the required voltage.

MK, Instrumentation 44
Successive Approximation Digital Voltmeter

MK, Instrumentation 45
 Vector Voltmeter
• measures the amplitude of a signal at two points in a circuit and simultaneously measures the phase
difference between the voltage waveforms at these two points.
• can be used in a wide variety of applications, especially in situations where other methods are very
difficult or time consuming.
• extremely useful in very high frequency measurement situations and is capable of accurate phase
determinations at frequencies up to several GHz.
• The vector voltmeter may be used successfully in the following measurements:
• Amplifier gain and phase shift
• Complex insertion loss
• Filter transfer functions
• Two port network parameters
• converts two RF signals of the same fundamental frequency in the range from 1 MHz to 1 GHz to two IF
signal with 20kHz fundamental frequencies.
• The IF signals have the same amplitudes, waveforms, and phase relationships as the RF signals.
• Consequently, the fundamental components of the IF signals have the same amplitude and phase
relationships as the fundamental components of the RF signals.
• These fundamental components are filtered from the IF signals and measured by a voltmeter and a phase
meter. MK, Instrumentation 49
 Vector Voltmeter
• The instrument consists of five major sections, indicated in the block diagram of figure 10-21 by the
dashed outlines.
• They are identical channel A and channel B RF- to- IF converters, an automatic phase control
section, a phase meter, and a voltmeter.
• The RF – to – IF converters and the phase control section produce two 20 kHz sine waves which
have the same amplitudes and phase relationship as the fundamental components of the RF
signals applied to channels A and B.
• The phase meter section continuously monitors these two 20 kHz sine waves and provides a
meter display of the phase angle between them.
• The voltmeter section is manually switched to channel A or channel B (20 kHz sine wave) and
provides a meter display of the amplitude.

MK, Instrumentation 50
Vector Voltmeter

MK, Instrumentation 51
 Digital Multimeter
• For measuring electrical quantities such as voltage, current, resistance, capacitance, frequency, temperature, and
more.
• can also test the continuity and diode function of circuits and components.
• A digital multimeter can display the measured values on a digital screen, making it easy to read and record in
both AC and DC circuits.
• These multimeters have two probes for the positive and negative terminal which are colour coded as black and red
respectively.
– The black terminal is plugged into the port of a multimeter which is marked as COM,
– whereas the red is used to touch the various contacts where the measurement of the variable is required.
• The digital multimeter has a knob in the centre which can be turned to determine the different range of the
measurements required.

• During the measurement of voltage, the voltage to be measured is first

attenuated to a suitable range and then rectified into a DC signal which
is then fed into an analog-to-digital converter to get the RMS value of
the AC voltage.
• For measurement of resistance, a constant current provided by the
source is made to pass through the unknown resistance, and the
voltage across the terminals of the resistor is given to an Analog-to-
Digital Converter, whose output in the form of resistance is displayed.

MK, Instrumentation 52
Features of Digital Multimeter

MK, Instrumentation 53
 Features of Digital Multimeter
• Auto-Ranging: This feature enables the digital multimeter to automatically select the best range for the
measurement based on the input signal. It eliminates the need to manually adjust the range and
prevents overloading or underestimating the signal.
• Auto-Polarity: This feature shows the polarity of the voltage or current being measured by displaying a
positive (+) or negative (-) sign on the screen. It helps avoid confusion and errors when measuring DC
signals with reversed polarity.
• Auto-Off: This feature turns off the digital multimeter automatically after a period of inactivity to save
battery power. It can be disabled or adjusted by the user if needed.
• Continuity Test: This feature tests whether there is a complete path for current flow between two
points in a circuit or component. It emits an audible beep or tone when continuity is detected. It can
also measure resistance at low ranges.
• Data Hold: This feature freezes or holds the current reading on the screen until another button is
pressed. It allows the user to record or note down the reading without losing it.
• True RMS: This feature measures the true root mean square (RMS) value of an AC signal, regardless of
its shape or distortion. It is more accurate than average-responding multimeters that can only measure
pure sine waves.
MK, Instrumentation 54
 Computer based Digital Instruments: IEEE 488 GPIB Instruments
• The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) in the U.S.A. have given it their specification number 488 in 1978,
and as a result it is sometimes referred to as the IEEE 488 bus or IEEE488 bus.
• It is an 8-bit parallel multi-master interface bus that is used for short-distance communications.
• As the bus became the key interface meeting multiple standards, it was termed as General Purpose Interface Bus.
• a very flexible system, allowing data to flow between any of the instruments on the bus, at a speed suitable for the slowest
active instrument.
• Up to fifteen instruments may be connected together with a maximum bus length not exceeding 20 m.
• A further requirement is that there must also be no more than 2m between two adjacent test instruments.
• It is possible to purchase GPIB cards to incorporate into computers that do not have the interface fitted.
• As GPIB cards are relatively cheap, this makes the inclusion of a GPIB card into the system a very cost effect method of
installing it. However, the falling usage of GPIB means that GPIB cards are not nearly as widely available as they used to be.
• Devices have a unique address on the bus. Test instruments are allocated with addresses in the range 0 to 30, and no two
instruments on the same bus are allowed to have the same address.
• The addresses on the instruments can be changed and this may typically be done via the front panel, or by using switches
often located on the rear panel.

MK, Instrumentation 57
 Computer based Digital Instruments: IEEE 488 GPIB Instruments
In order to achieve proper communication between the devices, GPIB requires three components which are:
1. Controller:
• controls the operation of the bus.
• It is usually a computer and it signals that instruments are to perform the various functions.
• The GPIB controller also ensures that no conflicts occur on the bus.
– If two talkers tried to talk at the same time then data would become corrupted and the operation of the whole system would be seriously
impaired.
• It is possible for multiple controllers to share same bus; but only one can act as a controller at any particular time.
2. Listener:
• A listener is an entity connected to the bus that accepts instructions from the bus.
– An example of a listener is an item such as a printer that only accepts data from the bus. It could also be a test instrument such as a
power supply or switching matrix that does not take measurements.
3. Talker:
• This is an entity on the bus that issues instructions / data onto the bus.

Many items of test equipment will fulfill more than one function.
– For example a voltmeter which is controlled over the bus will act as a listener when it is being set up, and then when it is returning the
data, it will act as a talker. As such it is known as a talker / listener.
Often GPIB cards can be used in a variety of roles, but these GPIB cards are most often used as controllers as they tend to
reside in the controlling computer.
Most test instruments that might be intended for use with the GBIP interface would have this fitted as standard and
would therefore not require and additional GPIB card
MK, Instrumentation 58
 IEEE 488 Bus Block Diagram
• The IEEE 488 bus architecture, consists of 16 signaling lines that are used to carry information and allow to pass
commands between various devices that have connections with the bus. These 16 signals are classified into three
groups which are 1) Data Bus – 8 lines 2) Data Byte Transfer Control Bus – 3 lines, and 3)General Interface
Management Bus – 5 lines.
• All three functional groups explain the IEEE 488 bus working principle.
1. Data Bus
• a channel for data transmission and passage of
commands across the device connected to the
GPIB device.
2. Data Byte Transfer Control Bus
• The control over data transmission of every
byte that happens in the data bus can be
achieved through an approach named “three-
wired-handshake”.
• Using this approach, the data transmission
happens at the speed level of the slowest
listener so that every listener can be able to
hear, ensuring data integrity.
3. General Interface Management Bus
• This is a group of 5 lines that controls the data
flow all over the GPIB device. MK, Instrumentation 59
The below table details the pin configuration of the connector.
GPIB Pin Abbreviation Line Name
1 Data Input/Output 1 DIO1
2 Data Input/Output 2 DIO2
3 Data Input/Output 3 DIO3
4 Data Input/Output 4 DIO4
5 End or Identify EOI
6 Data Valid DAV
7 Not Ready for Data NRFD
8 Not Data Accepted NDAC
9 Interface Clear IFC
10 Service Request SRQ
11 Attention ATN
12 Shield (Connected to Earth)
13 Data Input / Output 5 DIO5
14 Data Input / Output 6 DIO6
15 Data Input / Output 7 DIO7
16 Data Input / Output 8 DIO8
17 Remote Enable REN
18 Twisted pair with pin 6 Wire twisted with DAV line
19 Twisted pair with pin 7 Wire twisted with NRFD line
20 Twisted pair with pin 8 Wire twisted with NDAC line
21 Twisted pair with pin 9 Wire twisted with IFC line
22 Twisted pair with pin 10 Wire twisted with SRQ line
23 Twisted pair with pin 11 Wire twisted with ATN line
24 Signal Ground MK, Instrumentation 60
 Computer based Digital Instruments: IEEE 488 GPIB Instruments

• Although the full specification for GPIB / IEEE 488 is held by the IEEE and IEC, there key features for the bus
can be seen in the short table below.

IEEE 488 BUS / GPIB FEATURES SUMMARY

PARAMETER DETAILS
Max length of bus 20 metres
Max individual distance between instruments 2 metres average 4 metres maximum in any instance.
Maximum number of instruments 14 plus controller, i.e. 15 instruments total with at least 2/3rds of the devices powered on.
Data bus width 8 lines.
Handshake lines 3
Bus management lines 5
Connector 24-pin Amphenol (typical) D-type occasionally used.
Max data rate ~ 1 Mbyte / sec (HS-488 allows up to ~8Mbyte / sec)

MK, Instrumentation 61
 Computer based Digital Instruments: IEEE 488 GPIB Instruments
Advantages & disadvantages of GPIB: Like any other technology, GPIB has advantages and disadvantages that need to
be weighed up when considering its use.
Advantages
• Simple & standard hardware interface
• Interface present on many bench instruments
• Rugged connectors & connectors used (although some insulation displacement cables appear occasionally)
• Possible to connect multiple instruments to a single controller

Disadvantages
• Bulky connectors
• Cable reliability poor - often as a result of the bulky cables.
• Low bandwidth - slow compared to more modern interfaces
• Basic IEEE 422 does not mandate a command language (SCPI used in later implementations but not included on all
instruments.
GPIB capability is included on a large number of bench instruments, but when opting to use the facility to build a system,
it is necessary to consider all the advantages and disadvantages before committing time and cost to its use.

MK, Instrumentation 62