UNIT 1 Introduction to computer

The meaning or definition of a computer is:

A computer is an electronic device that processes, stores, and retrieves data according to instructions given to it,
usually in the form of a program. It can perform a wide variety of tasks automatically and at high speed.

In simple words, a computer takes input, processes it, and gives output.

The evolution of computers can be explained in simple stages:

1. Mechanical Computers (1600s–1800s)

• Early machines like the abacus (ancient tool

for calculation).

• Charles Babbage designed the Analytical Engine in the 1830s — known as the "Father of the Computer."

2. First Generation (1940s–1950s)

• Used vacuum tubes for circuits.

• Very large, slow, and expensive.

• Example: ENIAC, UNIVAC.

3. Second Generation (1950s–1960s)

• Used transistors instead of vacuum tubes.

• Smaller, faster, more reliable, and cheaper.

• Example: IBM 1401.

4. Third Generation (1960s–1970s)

• Used integrated circuits (ICs) — many transistors on a single chip.

• Increased speed and reduced size.

• Example: IBM System/360.

5. Fourth Generation (1970s–Present)

• Use of microprocessors (thousands of ICs on a single chip).

• Personal computers (PCs) were born.

• Example: Intel 4004, Apple computers, modern laptops.

6. Fifth Generation (Present and Future)

• Focus on artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, and quantum computing.

• Examples: Robots, smart assistants like Alexa, quantum computers.

The main elements of a computer system are:

• 1. Hardware – The physical parts of a computer (like CPU, monitor, keyboard, mouse).
 • 2. Software – The programs and operating system that run on the hardware (like Windows, MS
Word, games).
• 3. Data – Raw facts and figures that the computer processes (like numbers, text, images).
• 4. Users – The people who operate and interact with the computer.
• 5. Procedures – The set of instructions or rules for using the computer system properly.

The main operations of a computer are usually described as four basic functions:

1. Input – Taking data from the user (keyboard, mouse, etc.)

2. Processing – Working on the data (by the CPU)
3. Storage – Saving the data (in memory or hard disk)
4. Output – Showing the result (on monitor, printer, etc.)

Bit

• Bit stands for Binary Digit.

• It is the smallest unit of data in a computer.
• A bit can have only two values: 0 or 1.

Byte

• Byte is a group of 8 bits.

• 1 Byte = 8 Bits.
• A byte can represent one character like a letter ("A"), a number ("5"), or a symbol ("@").

Word

• Word is a fixed-size group of bits handled as a unit by the computer.

• The size of a word depends on the computer’s architecture (like 16-bit, 32-bit, or 64-bit).
• Example:
o In a 32-bit computer, 1 word = 32 bits.
o In a 64-bit computer, 1 word = 64 bits.

In computers, devices are the parts that help in input, output, storage, or processing.

They are mainly divided into types:

1. Input Devices (to give data to computer)

• Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Microphone, Webcam.

2. Output Devices (to get results from computer)

• Examples: Monitor, Printer, Speaker, Projector.

3. Storage Devices (to save data)

• Examples: Hard Disk, Pen Drive, SSD, CD/DVD.

4. Processing Device (to process data)

• Example: Central Processing Unit (CPU) — known as the "brain" of the computer.
• Here’s a clear list of various input and output devices:
•
• Input Devices (Used to send data into the computer)

Device Use
Keyboard Typing text and commands
Mouse Pointing, clicking, selecting
Scanner Scanning documents and images
Microphone Recording sound
Webcam Capturing video
Joystick Playing games (movement control)
Barcode Reader Reading barcodes
Touchscreen Both input and output (touch input)

• Output Devices (Used to get data out from the computer)

Device Use
Monitor Displaying text, images, videos
Printer Printing documents on paper
Speaker Producing sound
Headphones Listening to audio privately
Projector Displaying visuals on a large screen

Advantages of Computers:

1. Speed – Can process data and perform calculations much faster than humans.
2. Accuracy – Performs tasks with high precision and minimal errors.
3. Automation – Executes repetitive tasks automatically with the help of software.
4. Multitasking – Capable of running multiple applications simultaneously.
5. Connectivity – Facilitates communication and access to the internet and global resources.
6. Productivity – Increases efficiency and output in almost every field (education, business, healthcare,
etc.).
7. Cost Efficiency – Reduces human labor and operational costs over time.

Limitations of Computers:

1. Lack of Intelligence – Cannot think or make decisions without human instructions.

2. Dependence on Electricity – Requires continuous power supply to function.
3. No Emotions – Cannot understand human emotions or social context.
4. Cybersecurity Risks – Vulnerable to hacking, viruses, and data breaches.
5. Initial Cost – High cost of hardware, software, and maintenance for advanced systems.
6. Job Displacement – Can replace human labor, leading to unemployment in some sectors.
Unit 2 Memory
Memory in Computers

Memory refers to the component of a computer that stores data and instructions for processing. It's essential
for a computer's functioning.

Types of Memory:

1. Primary Memory (Main Memory):

o RAM (Random Access Memory):
▪ Volatile (data is lost when power is off)
▪ Used for temporary storage while tasks are running
o ROM (Read-Only Memory):
▪ Non-volatile
▪ Contains essential instructions (e.g., boot process)
2. Secondary Memory (Storage):
o Examples: Hard Drive (HDD), Solid-State Drive (SSD), USB drives
o Non-volatile and used for long-term storage
3. Cache Memory:
o High-speed memory located close to the CPU
o Stores frequently accessed data and instructions
o Faster than RAM but more limited in size
4. Virtual Memory:
o A portion of the hard drive used as RAM when RAM is full
o Slower than physical RAM

Functions of Memory:

• Stores data and instructions before, during, and after processing

• Holds the operating system and software for execution
• Supports multitasking by holding multiple applications in RAM

Main Memory (Primary Memory)

Main memory is the part of the computer where data and programs are stored temporarily while being
used by the CPU. It is fast and directly accessible by the processor.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM is a type of volatile main memory used to store data and instructions that a computer's processor
needs while performing tasks.
 Key Features of RAM:

• Volatile Memory: Data is lost when the power is turned off.

• Temporary Storage: Holds data that is currently being used or processed.
• Fast Access: Much faster than secondary storage (like HDD or SSD).
• Direct Access: CPU can access any memory location directly (randomly), not sequentially.

Types of RAM:

1. DRAM (Dynamic RAM):

o Needs to be refreshed thousands of times per second.
o Commonly used as the main memory in computers.
o Less expensive, slower than SRAM.
2. SRAM (Static RAM):
o Does not need frequent refreshing.
o Much faster and more expensive.

Functions of RAM:

• Loads the operating system and applications during startup.

• Stores temporary data used by applications (e.g., unsaved documents).
• Allows multitasking by holding data from multiple programs.

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

ROM is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other devices to store permanent
instructions that do not change, even when the power is turned off.
Key Features of ROM:

• Non-volatile: Retains data even after the computer is turned off.

• Read-only: Data is written during manufacturing or via special methods and usually cannot be
modified by users.
• Used for firmware: Stores essential programs like the BIOS/UEFI that help start the computer.

Types of ROM:

Type Description
ROM (Mask ROM) Programmed during manufacturing. Cannot be altered.
PROM (Programmable ROM) Can be written once after manufacturing.
EPROM (Erasable PROM) Can be erased using UV light and reprogrammed.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM) Can be erased and rewritten electrically; through BIOS chips,

Functions of ROM:

• Stores firmware and boot instructions.

• Helps initialize hardware during the startup process.
• Ensures essential system programs remain unchanged.

Comparison with RAM:

Feature ROM RAM

Volatility Non-volatile Volatile
Data Access Read-only (mostly) Read and write
Use Booting and firmware Running applications
Modifiable? Not easily Easily
Secondary memory

Secondary memory is a non-volatile memory used to store data permanently. Unlike primary memory
(RAM), data remains intact even when the computer is turned off.

Key Features:

• Non-volatile – Retains data without power.

• Larger capacity – Stores operating systems, applications, files, etc.
• Slower than RAM – But necessary for long-term data storage.
• Cheaper per GB – More cost-effective for large storage.

Hard Disk Drive (HDD):

• Uses spinning magnetic disks.

• High capacity, low cost.
• Slower and more prone to physical damage.
 Solid-State Drive (SSD):

• Uses flash memory (no moving parts).

• Faster, more durable than HDDs.
• More expensive per GB.

Overview of Storage Devices

Storage devices are hardware components used to store digital data permanently or temporarily. They are
essential for saving files, applications, and the operating system.

Types of Storage Devices:

1. Primary Storage (Temporary)

• RAM (Random Access Memory):

o Volatile memory
o Stores data currently being used by the CPU
• Cache:
o Very fast memory located near the CPU
o Stores frequently accessed data

2. Secondary Storage (Permanent)

• Hard Disk Drive (HDD):

o Magnetic storage
o Large capacity and cost-effective
• Solid-State Drive (SSD):
o Faster than HDD
o No moving parts, more durable
• Optical Discs (CD/DVD/Blu-ray):
o Read using lasers
o Mostly used for media and software distribution
• Flash Drives (USB Pen Drives):
o Portable, small, and easy to use
o Uses flash memory
• Memory Cards (SD cards, microSD):
o Common in cameras, smartphones, and tablets

3. Cloud Storage:

• Data is stored on remote servers accessed via the internet

 • Examples: Google Drive, Dropbox, OneDrive

Storage Evaluation Criteria

When choosing or evaluating a storage device, the following criteria are considered:

1. Capacity

• The amount of data the device can store (measured in GB, TB).
• Important for storing large files, applications, or databases.

2. Speed

• How quickly data can be read from or written to the device.

• SSDs are faster than HDDs; speed is crucial for performance in applications.

3. Cost

• Cost per GB of storage.

• HDDs are cheaper, while SSDs offer better performance at a higher cost.

4. Durability

• Resistance to damage from physical shocks, temperature, and wear.

• SSDs and flash storage are more durable than HDDs due to lack of moving parts.

5. Portability

• Ease of carrying and using the storage device.

• USB drives and external SSDs are highly portable.
UNIT 3 Classification of computer
Classification means grouping or organizing things based on common characteristics or features.

Simple Definition:

Classification is the process of dividing or sorting items, ideas, or information into categories or classes.

Examples:

• In science: Classifying animals as mammals, reptiles, birds, etc.

• In computers: Classifying files as images, documents, or videos.
• In daily life: Classifying clothes as casual, formal, or sportswear.

The computer systems can be classified on the following basis:

• Based on Size
• Based on Functionality
• Based on Purpose

Based on Size
Computers vary in size, from powerful supercomputers for complex tasks to
embedded systems built for specific functions in everyday devices. Each type is
designed to meet different performance needs and applications.

Supercomputers
Supercomputers are the most powerful computers in terms of processing power. They are used for extremely
complex computations and tasks that require massive data processing capabilities, such as scientific
simulations, weather forecasting, and modelling natural phenomena.
Characteristics:
• High-performance processors and memory systems.
 • Can perform billions or even trillions of calculations per second.
• Costly and require special environments (e.g., controlled cooling systems).
Examples:
• IBM Blue Gene
• Cray XT5
Mainframe Computers
Mainframes are large and powerful computers designed to handle and process vast amounts of data quickly.
They are used by large organizations like banks, insurance companies, and government institutions for tasks
such as transaction processing, large-scale enterprise applications, and database management.
Characteristics:
• Can support thousands of users simultaneously.
• Known for reliability, scalability, and processing large volumes of data.
• Operate in environments that require high security and uptime.
Examples:
• IBM Z Series
• Unisys ClearPath
c. Minicomputers (Mid-range Computers)
Minicomputers, also known as mid-range computers, are smaller than mainframes but still capable of
supporting multiple users and handling medium-scale tasks. They are typically used for smaller businesses
or industrial applications that require fewer resources than mainframes.
Characteristics:
• Less powerful than mainframes but still capable of running several programs simultaneously.
• Used in manufacturing control, research labs, and medium-sized organizations.
• Can support up to hundreds of users at once.
Examples:
• DEC VAX
• Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC)
d. Microcomputers (Personal Computers)
Microcomputers are the most common type of computers used by individuals. They are designed for
general-purpose tasks such as browsing the internet, word processing, gaming, and other personal or office
activities. Microcomputers are based on a microprocessor, which integrates the functions of a computer's
central processing unit (CPU) on a single chip.
Characteristics:
• Typically smaller, affordable, and user-friendly.
• Found in homes, schools, and offices.
• Includes desktops, laptops, tablets, and smartphones.
Examples:
• Desktop PCs
• Laptops
• Tablets
• Smartphones
e. Embedded Computers
Description: Embedded computers are specialized computers that are designed to perform specific tasks and
are often built into other devices. These computers are not typically seen as separate units but are an integral
part of everyday objects, from household appliances to industrial machines.
Characteristics:
• Focused on specific functions, with minimal user interaction.
• Often run on low power and have limited resources.
• Commonly used in devices that require real-time processing.
Examples:
• Smart TVs
• Washing Machines
• Car Control Systems
• Microwave Ovens

Based on Functionality
Computers are classified by functionality into analog, digital, and hybrid types.
Analog handles continuous data, digital processes binary data, and hybrid
combines both methods.

Analog Computers
Analog computers are designed to process continuous data. Instead of using digital numbers (0s and 1s),
these computers use physical quantities, such as voltage or current, to represent data. Analog computers are
especially good at simulating real-world phenomena that vary continuously, like temperature, speed, or
pressure.
Characteristics:
• Process continuous data (e.g., temperature, pressure).
• Used for tasks that require real-time simulations.
• Often used in scientific research, engineering, and control systems.
Examples:
• Speedometers: Measure the speed of a vehicle using continuous data.
• Thermometers: Measure temperature changes.
• Radar Systems: Measure distance by sending out continuous waves and processing reflected
signals.
b. Digital Computers
Digital computers process data in binary form (0s and 1s). They are the most common type of computer and
are capable of performing a wide range of tasks, from simple calculations to complex simulations. Digital
computers are versatile, reliable, and can handle large volumes of data quickly.
Characteristics:
• Process discrete data in binary format.
• Capable of performing arithmetic and logical operations.
• Used in personal computers, servers, and smartphones.
Examples:
• Personal Computers (PCs): Laptops, and desktops used for general tasks.
• Smartphones: Mobile devices for communication and entertainment.
• Servers: High-performance systems that manage data and resources for multiple users.
c. Hybrid Computers
Hybrid computers combine features of both analog and digital computers. They can process both continuous
(analog) and discrete (digital) data. Hybrid systems are designed to take advantage of the strengths of both
types of computers, making them highly useful in specific applications where both types of data need to be
processed simultaneously.
Characteristics:
• Combine the real-time processing capabilities of analog systems with the precision and versatility of
digital systems.
• Used in specialized applications that require both types of data.
Examples:
• Hospitals: Patient monitoring systems that measure heart rate (analog) and store data digitally.
• Scientific Research: Systems that simulate complex phenomena and process both continuous data
(like temperature) and discrete data (like test results).
• Industrial Systems: Systems controlling factory machines where both analog sensors (e.g.,
temperature) and digital control systems are used.

Based on Purpose
Computers are classified by purpose into general-purpose and special-purpose
types. General-purpose computers can perform a wide range of tasks, while
special-purpose computers are designed for specific functions.

a. General-Purpose Computers
General-purpose computers are designed to handle a wide variety of tasks. They can be programmed to
perform a range of functions, from simple calculations to complex tasks. These computers are flexible
and can run many different types of software, making them suitable for personal, educational, business,
and entertainment use.
Characteristics:
• Can perform multiple tasks and be used for a variety of purposes.
• Capable of running many types of software applications.
• Users can install or update software as needed.
• Typically include personal computers, laptops, and workstations.
Examples:
• Personal Computers (PCs): These are the most common general-purpose computers used for
activities such as word processing, web browsing, and gaming.
• Laptops: Portable computers used for general-purpose tasks.
• Workstations: High-performance computers designed for technical and scientific work, often used
for tasks like video editing, 3D design, and software development.
b. Special-Purpose Computers
Special-purpose computers are designed and optimized to perform a specific task or set of tasks. Unlike
general-purpose computers, they cannot be reprogrammed for other uses. These computers are typically
more efficient than general-purpose computers for the specific function they are designed for. They are
found in a wide range of devices and industries, from household appliances to industrial machinery.
Characteristics:
• Designed to perform a specific, limited set of functions.
• Usually do not require user interaction beyond the task they are built for.
• Often optimized for speed and efficiency in their specific domain.
• Can be embedded within devices or machines for dedicated control.
Examples:
• Gaming Consoles: Devices like the PlayStation or Xbox, which are designed specifically for playing
video games.
• Calculators: Electronic devices designed to perform arithmetic calculations.
• Traffic Signal Controllers: Specialized systems are used to manage the flow of traffic at
intersections.
• ATM Machines: These are computers dedicated to banking transactions and cannot be used for
other tasks.
• Microwave Ovens: Embedded systems in appliances that perform specific tasks like cooking food
by controlling the temperature and time.