SOFTWARE ENGINEERING [R18A0511] LECTURE NOTES B.TECH III YEAR - I SEM (R18) (2021-22) DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Autonomous Institution - UGC, Govt. of India) rade -IS0 90012015 pana State, INDIA, (Affiliated to SNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE - Accredited by NBA & NAAC Certified) Maisammaguds, Dbulpally (Post Via. Hakimpe), Seeunderabad — 500100, T Software EngineeringMALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LTP C Ill Year B.Tech CSE -I SEM 3 3 (R18A0511) SOFTWARE ENGINEERING Objectives: The students will be able: ‘To comprehend the various software process models. To understand the types of software requirements and SRS document. ‘To know the different software design and architectural styles. To lear the software testing approaches and metrics used in software development. 5, To know about quality control and risk management. UNIT = I: Introduction to Software Engineering: The evolving role of software, Changing Nature of Software, Software myths. A Generic view of process: Software engincering- A layered technology, a process framework, Process patterns, process assessment. Process models: The waterfall model, Incremental process models, Evolutionary process models, The Unified process, Agility and Agile Process model, Extreme Programming, Other process models, of Agile Development and Tools UNIT - I: Software Requirements: Functional and non-functional requirements, User requirements,System requirements, Interface specification, the software requirements document. Requirements engineering process: Feasibility studies, Requirements elicitation and analysis, Requirements validation, Requirements management, System models: Context Models, Behavioral models, Data models, Object models, structured methods. UML Diagrams. UNIT - II: Design Engineering: Design process and Design quality, Design concepts, the design model. Creating an architectural design: Software architecture, Data design, Architectural styles and patterns, Architectural Design. Object-Oriented Design: Objects and classes, An Object-Oriented design process, Designevolution. Performing User interface design: Golden rules, User interface analysis and design, interface analysis, interface design steps, Design evaluation, UNIT - IV: Testing Strategies: A strategic approach to software testing, test strategies for conventional software, Black-Box and White-Box testing, Validation testing, System testing, the art of Debugging, Product metries: Software Quality, Metrics for Analysis Model, Metties for Design Model, Metres for source code, Metrics for testing, Metrics for maintenance. Metries for Process and Products: Software Measurement, Metrics for software quality. Software EngineeringUNIT -V: Risk management: Reactive vs. Proactive Risk strategies, software risks, Risk identification, Risk projection, Risk refinement, RMMM, RMMM Plan. Quality Management: Quality concepts, Software quality assurance, Software Reviews, Formal technical reviews, Statistical Software quality Assurance, The Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMD), Software reliability, The ISO 9000 quality standards. TEXT BOOKS: 1. Software Engineering A practitioner's Approach, Roger S Pressman, 6thedition, McGraw Hill International Edition. 2. Software Engineering, Ian Sommerville, 7th edition, Pearson education, REFERENCE BOOKS: Software Engineering, A Precise Approach, Pankaj Jalote, Wiley India, 2010. Software Engineering: A Primer, Waman $ Jawadekar, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2008 Software Engineering, Principles and Practices, Deepak Jain, Oxford University Press. Software Engineering]: Abstraction and modelling, Diner Bjomer, Springer International edition, 2006. Software Engineering2: Specification of systems and languages, Diner Bjorner, Springer International edition 2006. Software Engineering Principles and Practice, Hans Van Vliet, 3rd edition, John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 9. Software Engineering3: Domains, Requirements, and Software Design, D. Bjorner, Springer International Edition. 10. Introduction to Software Engineering, R. J. Leach, CRC Press. eNOnReEN= Course Outcomes: Students will have the ability: +, To compare and select a process model for a business system. 2, To identify and specify the requirements for the development of an application, 3, To develop and maintain efficient, reliable and cost effective software solutions. To critically think and evaluate assumptions and arguments Software EngineeringMALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING INDEX S.No Unit Topic Page no 1 1 Introduction to Software Engineering 5 2 I Evolving Role of Software 5 3 I A Generic view of process 1 4 I Process models 1 5 " Software Requirements a 6 i Requirements engineering process 24 1 u System models 29 8 1m Design Engineering 33 9 1m Creating an architectural design 36 10 1m ‘Object-Oriented Design 39 ul im Performing User interface design 40 12 Vv Testing Strategies 44 13 Vv Product metries 53 4 Iv Metrics for Process and Products 56 1s v Risk management 58 16 v Quality Management 61 Software Engineering Page 4MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT. OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY UNIT INTRODUCTION: Software Engineering is a framework for building software and is an engineering approach to software development, Software programs can be developed without S/E principles and methodologies but they are indispensable if we want to achieve good quality software in a cost effective manner. Software is defined as: Instructions + Data Structures + Documents Engineering is the branch of science and technology concerned with the design, building, and use of engines, machines, and structures. Itis the application of science, tools and methods to find cost effective solution to simple and complex problems. SOFTWARE ENGINEERING is defined as a systematic, disciplined and quantifiable approach for the development, operation and maintenance of software. The Evolving role of software The dual role of Software is as follows: 1. A Produet- Information transformer producing, managing and displaying information. 2. A Vehicle for delivering a product- Control of computer(operating system),the communication of information(networks) and the creation of other programs, Characteristics of software + Software is developed or engineered, but itis not manufactured in the classical sense. + Software does not wear out, but it deteriorates due to change + Software is custom built rather than assembling existing components ‘THE CHANGING NATURE OFSOFTWARE, The various categories of software are 1. System software Application software Engineering and scientific software Embedded software Producteline software Web-applications Artificial intelligence software System software, System software is a collection of programs written to service other programs + Embedded software-- resides in read-only memory and is used to control products and systems for the consumer and industrial markets. + Artificial intelligence software, Artificial intelligence (Al) software makes use of nonnumeric algorithms to solve complex problems that are not amenable to computation or straightforward analysis + Engineering and scientific software. Engineering and scientific software have been characterized Software Engineering Page 5by "number crunching” algorithms. LEGACY SOFTWARE Legacy software are older programs that are developed decades ago. The quality of legacy software is poor because it has inextensible design, convoluted code, poor and nonexistent documentation, test cases and results that are not achieved. As time passes legacy systems evolve due to following reasons: ‘+ The software must be adapted to meet the needs of new computing environment or technology. ‘+The software must be enhanced to implement new business requirements. ‘+ The software must be extended to make it interoperable with more modern systems or database ‘© The software must be rearchitected to make it viable within a network environment. SOFTWARE MYTHS Myths are widely held but false beliefs and views wich propagate misinformation and confusion Three types of myth are associated with software: = Management mytia ~ Customer myth = Practitioner's myth MANAGEMENT MYTHS + Myth(I)-The available standards and procedures for software are enough + Myth(2)-Bach organization feel that they have state-of-art software development tools since they have latest computer. + Myth(3)-Adding more programmers when the work is behind schedule can catch up. + Myth(4)-Outsourcing the software project to third party, we can relax and let that party build it CUSTOMER MYTHS + Myth(1)- General statement of objective is enough to begin writing programs, the details can be filled in later. + Myth(2)-Software is easy to change because software is flexible PRACTITIONER'S MYTH ‘Myth(1)-Once the program is written, the job has been done. + Myth(2)-Until the program is running, there is no way of assessing the quality + Myth()-The only deliverable work product is the working program + Myth(4)-Software Engineering creates voluminous and unnecessary documentation and invariably slows down software development. SOFTWARE ENGINEERING-A LAYERED TECHNOLOGY Software Engineering Page 6Fig: Software Engineering-A layered technology SOFTWARE ENGINEERING - A LAYERED TECHNOLOGY + Quality focus - Bedrock that supports Software Engineering, + Process - Foundation for software Engineering + Methods - Provide technical Ilow-to's for building software + Tools - Provide semi-automatic and automatic support to methods A PROCESS FRAMEWORK + Establishes the foundation for a complete software process + Identifies a number of framework activities applicable to all software projects + Also include a set of umbrella activities that are applicable across the entire software process. Common process framework | | A PROCESS FRAMEWORK comprises of Common process framework Umbrella activities Framework activities Tasks, Milestones, deliverables SQA points Software Engineering Page 7Software process Umbrella activities framework activity @ 7 A PROCESS FRAMEWORK ‘Used as a basis for the description of process models Generic process activities + Communication + Planning + Modeling + Construction + Deployment A PROCESS FRAMEWORK Generic view of engineering complimented by a number Software project tracking and control Formal technical reviews Software quality assurance Software configuration management Document preparation and production Reusability management ‘Measurement Risk management umbrella activities CAPABILITY MATURITY MODEL INTEGRATION(CMMD), + Developed by SEU(Software Engineering institute) + Assess the process model followed by an organization and rate the organization with different levels + Asset of software enginecring capabilities should be present as organizations reach different levels of process capability and maturity. Software Engineering Page 8CMMI process meta model can be represented in different ways 1.A continuous model 2.A staged model Continuous model: -Lets organization select specific improvement that best meet its business objectives and minimize risk- Levels are called capability levels. Describes a process in 2 dimensions Bach process area is assessed against specific goals and practices and is rated according to the following capability levels, MMI + Six levels of CMMI = Level 0:Incomplete — Level 1:Performed — Level 2:Managed = Level 3:Defined = Level 4:Quantitatively managed = Level 5:Optimized Characteristics of the Maturity levels Focus on process, improvement Processes measured and controlled Processes characterized for the ‘organization and is proactive. Processes characterized for projects and is often reactive. Processes unpredictable, poorly controlled and reactive CMMI + Incomplete -Process is adhoc . Objective and goal of process areas are not known + Performed -Goal, objective, work tasks, work products and other activities of software process are carried out + Managed ~Activities are monitored, reviewed, evaluated and controlled + Defined -Activities are standardized, integrated and documented + Quantitatively Managed -Metries and indicators are available to measure the process and quality + Optimized - Continuous process improvement based on quantitative feed back from the user -Use of innovative ideas and techniques, statistical quality control and other methods for process improvement. Software Engineering Page 9MMI - Staged model = This model is used if you have no clue of how to improve the process for quality software. ~ It gives a suggestion of what things other organizations have found helpful to work first = Levels are called maturity levels PROCESS PATTERNS Software Process is defined as collection of Patterns. Process pattern provides a template. It comprises of + Process Template Pattern Name Antent Types “Task pattern = Stage pattern Phase Pattern + Initial Context + Problem + Solution + Resulting Context + Related Patterns PROCESS ASSESSMENT Does not specify the quality of the software or whether the software will be delivered on time or will it stand up to the user requirements. It attempts to keep a check on the current state of the software process with the intention of improving it PROCESS ASSESSMENT Software Process Software Process Assessment Software Process improvement Motivates Capability determination APPROACHES TO SOFTWARE ASSESSMENT + Standard CMMI assessment (SCAMPI) + CMM based appraisal for internal proces + SPICE(SO/IEC 15504) + 180 9001:2000 for software Personal and Team Software Process Personal software process improvement > PLANNING > HIGH LEVEL DESIGN > HIGH LEVEL DESIGN REVIEW > DEVELOPMENT > POSTMORTEM Personal and Team Software Process Team software process Goal of TSP = Build self-directed teams = Motivate the teams - Acceptance of CMM level 5 behavior as normal to accelerate software process improvement - Provide improvement guidance to high maturity organization Software Engineering Page 10+ Help in the software development + Guide the software team through a set of framework activities + Process Models may be linear, incremental or evolutionary THE WATERFALL MODEL + Used when requirements are well understood in the beginning + Also called classic life cycle + Assystematie, sequential approach to Software development + Begins with customer specification of Requirements and progresses through planning, modeling, construction and deployment, | Communication Planning |_4| Modeling Construction Deployment This Model suggests a systematic, sequential approach to SW development that begins at the system level and progresses through analysis, design, code and testing PROBLEMS IN WATERFALLMODEL + Real projects rarely follow the sequential flow since they are always iterative + The model requires requirements to be explicitly spelled out in the beginning, which is often difticult + A working model is not available until late in the project time plan THE INCREMENTAL PROCESS MODEL + Linear sequential model is not suited for projects which are iterative in nature + Incremental model suits such projects + Used when initial requirements are reasonably well-defined and compelling need to provide limited functionality quickly + Functionality expanded further in later releases + Software is developed in increments The Incremental Model > Communication Planning Modeling Construction Deployment vvvVY Software Engineering Page 11INCREMENT 1 | Communication [>| Planning |_,/ Modeling |+| Construction Deployment INCREMEN a I ‘Communication Planning |» Modeling |_+| Construction | : Deployment INCREME a Communication Planning Modeling |» . Construction |_| Deployment THE INCREMENTAL MODEL + Software releases in increments + Ist increment constitutes Core product + Basic requirements are addressed + Core product undergoes detailed evaluation by the customer + Asa result, plan is developed for the next increment, Plan addresses the modification of core product to better meet the needs of customer + Process is repeated until the complete product is produced THE RAD (Rapid Application Development) MODEL + Anincremental software process model + Having a short development cycle + High-speed adoption of the waterfall model using a component based construction approach a fully functional system within a very short span time of 60 to 90 days Software Engineering Page 12‘The RAD Model consists of the following pk Communication Planning Construction Component reuses automatic code generation testing, Modeling Business modeling Data modeling Process modeling, Deployment integration delivery feedback ocule2 THE RAD MODEL + Multiple software teams work in parallel on different functions + Modeling encompasses three major phases: Business modeling, Data modeling and process modeling + Construction uses reusable components, automatic code generation and testing Problems in RAD + Requires a number of RAD teams + Requires commitment from both developer and customer for rapid-fire completion of activities + Requires modularity + Not suited when technical risks are high EVOLUTIONARY PROCESSMODEL + Software evolves over a period of time + Business and product requirements often change as development proceeds making a straight-line path to an end product unrealistic + Evolutionary models are iterative and as such are applicable to modern day applications, Software Engineering Page 13Types of evolutionary models = Prototyping = Spiral model = Concurrent development model PROTOTYPING + Mock up or model( throw away version) of a software product + Used when customer defines a set of objective but does not identify input, output, or processing requirements + Developer is not sure of: = efficiency of an algorithm adaptability of an operating system = human/machine interaction Quick Plan Build Prototype Deployment & Deliver STEPS IN PROTOTYPING ‘Begins with requirement gathering Identify whatever requirements are known Outline areas where further definition is mandatory A quick design occur Quick design leads to the construction of prototype Prototype is evaluated by the customer Software Engineering+ Requirements are refined + Prototype is turned to satisfy the needs of customer LIMITATIONS OF PROTOTYPING + Ina rush to get it working, overall software quality or long term maintainability are generally overlooked + Use of inappropriate OS or PL + Use of inefficient algorithm THE SPIRAL MODEL An evolutionary model which combines the best feature of the classical life cycle and the iterative nature of prototype model. Include new element : Risk element. Starts in middle and continually visits the basic tasks of communication, planning, modeling, construction and deployment 2. deny stakeholders win conditions 3a. Reconcile win conditions 1 Identity nestlvel stakeholders 4b. Establish nextlevel objectives, constraints and altematives 4, Evaluate process ond product alternatives and resolve risks 7. Review and comment 6. Validate product and 5. Define next level of process definitions produc ond process including partitions THE SPIRAL MODEL + Realistic approach to the development of large scale system and software + Software evolves as process progresses + Better understanding between developer and customer + The first circuit might result in the development of a product specification Software Engineering Page 15+ Subsequent circuits develop a prototype + And sophisticated version of software I NT D. :LOPMI + Also called concurrent engineering + Constitutes a series of framework activities, software engineering action, tasks and their associated states + Allactivities exist concurrently but reside in different states + Applicable to all types of software development + Event generated at one point in the process trigger transitions among the states AFINAL COMMENT ON EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS + Difficult in project planning + Speed of evolution is not known Does not focus on flexibility and extensibility (more emphasis on high quality) + Requirement is balance between high quality and flexibility and extensibility ‘THE UNIFIED PROCESS, Evolved by Rumbaugh, Booch, Jacobson. Combines the best features their OO models. Adopts additional features proposed by other experts, Resulted in Unified Modeling Language (UML). Unified process developed Rumbaugh and Booch. A framework for Object-Oriented Software Engineering using UML PHASES OF UNIFIED PROC! + INCEPTION PHASE + ELABORATION PHASE + CONSTRUCTION PHASE + TRANSITION PHASE Inception aT ‘The Unified Process (UP) Software Engineering Page 16UNIFIED PROCESS WORK PRODUCT Tasks which are required to be completed during different phases 1. Inception Phase *Vision document *Initial Use-Case model “Initial Risk assessment *Project Plan 2. Elaboration Phase *Use-Case model *Analysis model *Software Architecture description *Preliminary design model *Preliminary model 3. Construction Phase *Design model “System components Test plan and procedure “Test cases “Manual 4. Transition Phase *Delivered software increment *Beta test results *General user feedback Agility and Agile Process model The meaning of Agile is swift or versatile." Agile process model” refers to a software development approach based on iterative development. Agile methods break tasks into smaller iterations, or parts, do not directly involve long term planning. The project scope and requirements are laid down at the beginning of the development process. Plans regarding the number of iterations, the duration and the scope of cach iteration are clearly defined in advance Pr Agi cite ef ED = = Fig. Agile Model Software Engineering Page 17Phases of Agile model 1, Requirements gathering 2.Design the requirements 3.Constructiony iteration 4,Testing/ Quality assurance S.Deployment 6. Feedback 1. Requirements gathering: In this phase, you must define the requirements. You should explain business opportunities and plan the time and effort needed to build the project. Based on this information, you can evaluate technical and economic feasibility, 2, Design the requirements: When you have identified the project, work with stakeholders to define requirements. You can use the user flow diagram or the high-level UML diagram to show the work of new features and show how it will apply to your existing system. 3. Construction/ iteration: When the team defines the requirements, the work begins. Designers and developers start working on their project, which aims to deploy a working product. The product will undergo various stages of improvement, so it includes simple, minimal functionality. Testiny inthis phase, the Quality Assurance team examines the product's performance and looks for the bug. 5. Deployment: In this phase, the team issues a product for the user's work environment. 6, Feedback: After releasing the product, the last step is feedback. In this, the team receives feedback about the product and works through the feedback. Advantages: 1 Frequent Delivery 2.Face-to-Face Communication with clients 3.Eficient design and fulfils the business requirement 4, Anytime changes are acceptable. 5. It reduces total development time. Disadvantages: Due to the shortage of formal documents, it creates confusion and crucial decisions taken throughout various phases can be misinterpreted at any time by different team members, Software Engineering Page 182.Due to the lack of proper documentation, once the project completes and the developers allotted to another project, maintenance of the finished project can become a difficulty, Extreme Programming XP isa lightweight, efficient, low-risk, flexible, predictable, scientific, and fun way to develop software. Extreme Programming (XP) was conceived and developed to address the specific needs of software development by small teams in the face of vague and changing requirements. Extreme Programming is one of the Agile software development methodologies. It provides values and principles to guide the team behavior. The team is expected to self-organize. Extreme Programming provides specific core practices where — + Each practice is simple and self-complete. + Combination of practices produces more complex and emergent behaviour Other process models of Agile Development and Tools > Crystal > Scrum Serum Scrum is aimed at sustaining strong collaboration between people working on complex products, and details are being changed or added. It is based upon the systematic interactions between the three major roles: Scrum Master, Product Owner, and the Team. Software Engineering Page 19« Scrum Master is a central figure within a project. His principal responsibility is to eliminate all the obstacles that might prevent the team from working efficiently. + Product Owner, usually a customer or other stakeholder, is actively involved throughout the project, conveying the global vision of the product and providing timely feedback on the job done after every sprint. + Scrum Team is a cross-functional and self-organizing group of people that is responsible for the product implementation. It should consist of up to 7 team members, in order to stay flexible and productive. Crystal Crystal is an agile methodology for software development. It places focus on people over processes, to empower teams to find their own solutions for each project rather than being constricted with rigid methodologies. Crystal methods focus on:- People involved Interaction between the teams Community Skills of people involved Their Talents Communication between all the teams Software Engineering Page 20MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENTOF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING uti SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS IEE defines Requirement as 1. A condition or capability needed by a user to solve a problem or achieve an objective 2. Accondition or capability that must be met or possessed by a system or a system component to satisfy constract, standard, specification or formally imposed document 3. A documented representation of a condition nor capability as in I or 2 SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS. + Encompasses both the User's view of the requirements( the external view ) and the Developer's view( inside characteristics) User's Requirements Statements in a natural language plus diagram, describing the services the system is expected to provide and the constraints + System Requirements --Describe the system’s function, services and operational condition SOPTWARE REQUIREMENTS + System Functional Requirements Statement of services the system should provide —Describe the behavior in particular situations —Defines the system reaction to particular inputs + Nonfunetional Requirements - Constraints on the services or functions offered by the system Include timing constraints, constraints on the development process —Apply to systemas a whole + Domain Requirements Requirements relate to specific application of the system Reflect characteristics and constraints of that system and standards FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS Should be both complete and consistent + Completeness ~ All services required by the user should be defined + Consistent — Requirements should not have contradictory definition + Difficult to achieve completeness and consistency for large system. NON-FUNCTIONALREQUIREMENTS Types of Non-funetional Requirements 1. Product Requirements, “Specify product behavior Include the following Software Engineering Page 21+ Efficiency + Reliability + Portability 2. Organizational Requirements Derived from policies and procedures Include the following: + Delivery + Implementation + Standard 3. External Requirements ~ Derived from factors external to the system and its development process, —Includes the following. + Interoperability + Ethical + Legislative PROBLEMS FACED USING THE NATURAL LANGUAGE 1. Lack of clarity Leads to misunderstanding because of ambiguity of narural language 2. Confusion— Due to over flexibility, sometime difficult to find whether requirements are same or distinct. 3. Amalgamation problem-- Difficult to modularize natural language requirements STRUCTURED LANGUAGESPECIFICATION + Requirements are written in a standard way + Ensures degree of uniformity + Provide templates to specify system requirements + Include control constructs and graphical highlighting to partition the specification SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS STANDARD FORM + Function + Description + Inputs + Source + Outputs + Destination + Action + Precondition + Post condition + Side effects Interface Specification + Working of new system must match with the existing system + Interface provides this capability and precisely specified Three types of interfaces 1. Procedural interface Used for calling the existing programs by the new programs 2.Data structures- -Provide data passing from one sub-system to another 3.Representations of Data ~ Ordering of bits to match with the existing system Most common in real-time and embedded system Software Engineering Page 22The Software Requirements document The requirements document is the official statement of what is required of the system developers. Should include both a definition of user requirements and a specification of the system requirements. It is NOT a design document. As far as possible, it should set of WHAT the system should do rather than HOW it should do it ‘The Software Requirements document Suggests that there are 6 requirements that requirement document should satisfy. It should + specify only external system behavior + Specify constraints on the implementation. + Be easy to change + Serve as reference tool for system maintainers + Record forethought about the life cycle of the system. + Characterize acceptable responses to undesired events Purpose of SRS + Communication between the Customer, Analyst, system developers, maintainers, + firm foundation for the design phase + support system testing activities + Support project management and control + controlling the evolution of the system IEEE requirements standard Defines a generic structure for a requirements document that must be instantiated for each specific system. = Introduction, = General description, = Specific requirements, — Appendices. = Index. IEEE requirements standard | Introduction Purpose Scope Definitions, Acronyms and Abbreviations References Overview 2. General description Product perspective Product function summary User characteristics General constraints Assumptions and dependencies 3. Specific Requirements - Functional requirements Software Engineering Page 23“External interface requirements - Performance requirements - Design constraints - Attributes eg. security, availability, maintainability, transferability/conversion = Other requirements + Appendices + Index REQUIREMENTS ENGINEERING PROCESS To create and maintain a system requirement document. The overall process includes four high level requirements engineering sub-processes: 1. Feasibility study —Concerned with assessing whether the system is useful to the business 2.Flicitation and analysis —Discovering requirements 3.Specifications Converting the requirements into a standard form 4. Validation ~ Checking that the requirements actually define the system that the customer wants SPIRAL REPRESENTATION OF REQUIREMENTSENGINEERING PROCESS, Process represented as three stage activity. Activities are organized as an iterative process around spiral. Early in the process, most effort will be spent on understanding high-level business and the use requirement. Later in the outer rings, more effort will be devoted to system requirements engineering and system modeling Three level process consists of: 1.Requirements elicitation 2, Requirements specification 3. Requirements validation Software Engineering Page 24FEASIBILITY STUDIES Starting point of the requirements engineering process + Input: Set of preliminary business requirements, an outline description of the system and how the system is intended to support business processes + Output: Feasibility report that recommends whether or not itis worth carrying out further Feasibility report answers a number of questions: 1. Does the system contribute to the overall objective 2. Can the system be implemented using the current technology and within given cost and schedule 3. Can the system be integrated with other system which are already in place. REQUIREMENTS ELICITATION ANALYSIS Involves a number of people in an organization. Stakeholder definition Refers to any person or group who will be affected by the system directly or indirectly i.e. End-users, Engineers, business managers, domain experts Reasons why eliciting is difficult 1. Stakeholder often don’t know what they want from the computer system. 2. S requirements in natural language is sometimes difficult toUnderstand, 3. Different stakeholders express requirements differently 4. Influences of political factors Change in requirements due to dynamic environments. takcholder expression of REQUIREMENTS ELICITATION PROCESS Process activities 1, Requirement Discovery -- Interaction with stakeholder to collect their requirements including domain and documentation 2. Requirements classification and organization ~- Coherent clustering of requirements from unstructured collection of requirements 3. Requirements prioritization and negotiation -- Assigning priority to requirements Resolves conflicting requirements through negotiation 4, Requirements documentation — Requirements be documented and placed in the next round of spiral Software Engineering Page 25‘The spiral representation of Requirements Engineering Requirements | Requirements classification and —— prioritization and ‘organisation | negotiation Requirements ‘documentation REQUIEMENTS DICOVERY TECHNIQUES 1. View points Based on the viewpoints expressed by the stake holder —Recognizes multiple perspectives and provides a framework for discovering conflicts in the requirements proposed by different stakeholders. Three Generic types of viewpoints, 1. Interactor viewpoint--Represents people or other system that interact directly with the system 2. Indirect viewpoint~Stakeholders who influence the requirements, but don’t use the system 3.Domain viewpoint--Requirements domain characteristics and constraints that influence the requirements, 2. Interviewing--Puts questions to stakeholders about the system that they use and the system to be developed. Requirements are derived from the answers. Two types of interview = Closed interviews where the stakeholders answer a pre-defined set of questions. = Open interviews discuss a range of issues with the stakeholders for better understanding their needs. Software Engineering Page 26Effective interviewers a) Open-minded: no pre-conceived ideas b)Prompter: prompt the interviewee to start discussion with a question or a proposal 3. Scenarios --Easier to relate to real life examples than to abstract description, Starts with an outline of the interaction and during elicitation, details are added to create a complete description of that interaction Scenario includes: + 1, Description at the start of the scenario + 2, Description of normal flow of the event + 3. Description of what can go wrong and how this is handled ‘+ 4.Information about other activities parallel to the scenario + $.Description of the system state when the scenario finishes LIBSYS scenario + Initial assumption: The user has logged on to the LIBSYS system and has located the journal containing the copy of the article. + Normal: The user selects the article to be copied. He or she is then prompted by the system to either provide subscriber information for the journal or to indicate how they will pay for the article. Alternative payment methods are by credit card or by quoting an organizational account number. + The user is then asked to fill ina copyright form that maintains details of the transaction and they ‘then submit this to the LIBSYS system. + The copyright form is checked and, if OK, the PDF version of the article is downloaded to the LIBSYS working area on the user’s computer and the user is informed that itis available. The user is, asked to select a printer and a copy of the article is printed LIBSYS scenario + What can go wrong: The user may fail to fill in the copyright form correctly. In this case, the form should be re-presented to the user for correction. If the resubmitted form is still incorrect then the user’s request for the article is rejected. + The payment may be rejected by the system, The user's request for the article is rejected. + Thearticle download may fail. Retry until successful or the user terminates the session. + Other activities: Simultaneous downloads of other articles. + _ System state on completion: User is logged on. The downloaded article has been deleted from LIBSYS workspace if it has been flagged as print-only. 4. Use cases ~- scenario based technique for requirement elicitation. A fundamental feature of UML, notation for describing object-oriented system models. Identifies a type of interaction and the actors involved. Sequence diagrams are used to add information to a Use case Article printing use-case Article printing LIBSYS use cases Article printing Article search User administration Supplier Catalogue services Library Software Engineering Page 27User Library Staff REQUIREMENTS VALIDATION Concemed with showing that the requirements define the system that the customer wants. Important because errors in requirements can lead to extensive rework cost Validation checks 1. Validity checks —-Verification that the system performs the intended function by the user 2.Consistency check Requirements should not conflict 3. Completeness checks ~-Includes requirements which define all functions and constraints intended bythe system user 4. Realism checks 5. Verifiability ~ 1 Ensures that the requirements can be actually implemented stable to avoid disputes between customer and developer. VALIDATION TECHNIQUES | REQUIREMENTS REVIEWS Reviewers check the following: (a) Verifiability: Testable (b) Comprehensibility (©) Traceability (@) Adaptability 2. PROTOTYPING 3. TEST-CASE GENERATION Requirements management Requirements are likely to change for large software systems and as such requirements management process is required to handle changes. Reasons for requirements changes (a) Diverse Users community where users have different requirements and. priorities (b) System customers and end users are different (©) Change in the business and technical environment after installation Two classes of requirements (a) Enduring requirements: Relatively stable requirements (b) Volatile requirements: Likely to change during system development process or during operation Requirements management planning An essential first stage in requirement management process. Planning process consists of the following, 1. Requirements identification — Each requirement must have unique tag for cross reference and traceability 2. Change management process ~ Set of activities that assess the impact and cost of changes 3.TTraceability policy — A matrix showing links between requirements and other elements of software development 4. CASE tool support Automatic tool to improve efficiency of change management process. Automatedtools are required for requirements storage, change management and traceability management Traceability Maintains three types of traceability information, 1. Source traceability--Links the requirements to the stakeholders 2. Requirements traceability--Links dependent requirements within the requirements document 3. Design traceability Links from the requirements to the design module Software Engineering Page 28Ta a2 1 Ba a as a R D D D R R R D D D R D R A traceability matrix Requirements change management consists of three principal stages: 1. Problem analysis and change specification Process starts with a specific change proposal and analysed to verify that it is valid 2. Change analysis and costing--Impact analysis in terms of cost, time and risks 3. Change implementation—Carrying out the changes in requirements document, system design and its implementation Used in analysis process to develop understanding of the existing system or new system, Excludes details, An abstraction of the system ‘Types of system models I Context models 2. Behavioural models 3.Data models 4. Object models 5. Structured models CONTEXT MODELS ‘A ype of architectural model. Consists of sub-systems that make up an entire system First step: To identify the subsystem Represent the high level architectural model as + Depict each sub systema named rectangle + Lines between rectangles indicate associations between subsystems Disadvantages Concerned with system environment only, doesn't take into account other systems, which may take data or give data to the model imple block diagram The context of an ATM system consists of the following Auto-teller system Security system Maintenance system Account data base Usage database Branch accounting system Branch counter system Behavioral models Describes the overall behaviour of a system. Two types of behavioural model L.Data Flow models 2.State machine models Data flow models ~Concentrate on the flow of data and functional transformation on that data. Show the processing of data and its flow through a sequence of processing steps. Help analyst understand what is going on Software Engineering Page 29Advantages ~ Simple and easily understandable ful during analysis of requirements State machine models Describe how a system responds to internal or external events. Shows system states and events that cause transition from one state to another. Does not show the flow of data within the system, Used for ‘modeling of real time systems Exp: Microwave oven Assumes that at any time, the system is in one of a number of possible states. Stimulus triggers a transition from on state to another state Disadvantage — Number of possible states increases rapidly for large system models DATA MODELS Used to describe the logical structure of data processed by the system. An entity-relation- attribute model sets out the entities in the system, the relationships between these entities and the entity attributes. Widely used in database design. Can readily be implemented using relational databases. No specific notation provided in the UML but objects and associations can be used. Software Engineering Page 30Library semantic model afte Be canis Issue Be Po-nevebles date pages published-in Copyright Agency. ‘Country, copyright form tax rate Data dictionary entries a eacinna ao ane, Deis of he publated arte at ny beondered bY nrnny soenaoa nes peoples using LIBSYS. * deve Togas ofthe mon fe arla who maybe &i° purus sq.tz.anoa aire a share of the fee. manene Cag Aaa US sit BS COMM metion 20.12.2008 payable-to een ‘an — ease, Tie ates aN le OM A is pct yi siete Software Engineering Page |31OBJECT MODEL. ‘An object oriented approach is commonly used for interactive systems development. Expresses the systems requirements using objects and developing the system in an object oriented PL such as ¢~+ A object class: An abstraction over a set of objects that identifies common attributes. Objects are instances of object class. Many objects may be created from a single class. Analysis process ~ Identifies objects and object classes Object class in UML Represented as a vertically oriented rectangle with three sections (a) The name of the object class in the top section (b) The class attributes in the middle section (©) The operations associated with the object class are in lower section, OBJECT MODELS INHERITANCE MODELS ‘A type of object oriented model which involves in object classes attributes. Arranges classes into an inheritance hierarchy with the most general object class at the top of hierarchy Specialized objects inherit their attributes and services UML notation ~ Inheritance is shown upward rather than downward Single Inheritance: Every object class inherits its attributes and operations from a single parent class Multiple Inheritance: A class of several of several parents. OBJECT MODELS OBJECT AGGREGATION Some objects are grouping of other objects. An aggregate of a set of other objects. The classes representing these objects may be modeled using an object aggregation model A diamond shape on the source of the link represents the composition. OBJECT-BEHAVIORAL MODEL — Shows the operations provided by the objects, ~ Sequence diagram of UML can be used for behavioral modeling Software Engineering Page 32MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENTOF COMPUTER SCIE! NG E AND ENGINEER) UNIT DESIGN ENGINEERING DESIGN PROCESS AND DESIGN QUALITY Encompasses the set of principles, concepts and practices that lead to the development of high quality system or product. Design creates @ representation or model of the software. Design model provides details about S/W architecture, interfaces and components that are necessary to implement the system. Quality is established during Design. Design should exhibit firmness, commodity and design. Design sits at the kemel of S/W Engineering. Design sets the stage for construction. QUALITY GUIDELINES Uses recognizable architectural styles or patterns + Modular; that is logically partitioned into elements or subsystems + Distinct representation of data, architecture, interfaces and components + Appropriate data structures for the classes to be implemented + Independent functional characteristics for components + Interfaces that reduces complexity of connection + Repeatable method QUALITY ATTRIBUTES FURPS quality attributes Functionality * Feature set and capabilities of programs * Security of the overall system Usability user-friendliness Aesthetics Consistency Documentation Reliability Evaluated by measuring the frequency and severity of failure MITF Supportability Extensibility ‘Adaptability Serviceability IGN CONC! Abstractions Architecture Patterns ‘Modularity Information Hiding TS vaereg software Engineering Page so6. Funetional Independence 7. Refinement 8. Refactoring 9. Design Classes Many levels of abstraction, Highest level of abstraction: Solution is slated in broad terms using the language of the problem environment Lower levels of abstraction: More detailed description of the solution is provided + Procedural abstraction-- Refers to a sequence of instructions that a specific and limited function + Data abstraction-- Named collection of data that describe a data object DESIGN CONCEP! ARCHITECTURE- Architecture Models (a) Structural Models~ An organized collection of program components (b) Framework Models-- Represents the design in more abstract way (©) Dynamic Models Represents the behavioral aspects indicating changes as a function of external events (@), Process Models-- Focus on the design of the business or technical process structure organization of program components (modules) and their interconnection PATTERNS Provides a description to enables a designer to determine the followings: (a). whether the pattern isapplicable to the current work (b). Whether the pattern can be reused (©). Whether the pattern can serve as a guide for developing a similar but functionally or structurally different pattern MODULARITY Divides software into separately named and addressable components, sometimes called modules Modules are integrated to satisfy problem requirements. Consider two problems pl and p2. Ifthe complexity of pl iscp! and of p2 is cp2 then effort to solve pl=cpl and effort to solve p2=cp2 If ep!>ep2 then epl>ep2 ‘The complexity of two problems when they are combined is often greater than the sum of the perceived complexity when each is taken separately. + Based on Divide and Conquer strategy it is easier to solve a complex problem when broken into sub-modules INFORMATION HIDING Information contained within a module is inaccessible to other modules who do not need such information. Achieved by defining a set of Independent modules that communicate with one another only that information necessary to achieve S/W function, Provides the greatest benefits when modifications are required during testing and later. Errors introduced during modification are less likely to propagate to other location within the S/W. Software Engineering Page 34FUNCTIONAL INDEPENDENCE, A direct outgrowth of Modularity. abstraction and information hiding. Achieved by developing a module with single minded function and an aversion to excessive interaction with other modules. Easier to develop and have simple interface. Easier to maintain because secondary effects caused b design or code modification are limited, error propagation is reduced and reusable modules are possible. Independen« is assessed by two quantitative criteria: (1) Cohesion (2) Coupling Cohesion -- Performs a single task requiring little interaction with other components Coupling--Measure of interconnection among modules. Coupling should be low and cohesion should be high for good design. REFINEMENT & REFACTORING REFINEMENT - Process of elaboration from high level abstraction to the lowest level abstraction, High level abstraction begins with a statement of functions. Refinement causes the designer to elaborate providing more and more details at successive level of abstractions Abstraction and refinement are complementary concepts. Refactoring — Organization technique that simplifies the design of a component without changing its function or behavior. Examines for redundancy, unused design elements and inefficient or unnecessary algorithms. DESIGN CLASSES Class represents a different layer of design architecture. Five types of Design Classes 1. User interface class ~ Defines all abstractions that are necessary for human computer interaction 2. Business domain class ~ Refinement of the analysis classes that identity attributes and services to implement some of business domain 3. Process class -- implements lower level business abstractions required to fully manage the business domain classes 4. Persistent class — Represent data stores that will persist beyond the execution of the software 5. System class ~ Implements management and control functions to operate and communicate within the computer environment and with the outside world, THE DESIGN MODEL, Analysis viewed in two different dimensions as process dimension and abstract dimension. Process dimension indicates the evolution of the design model as design tasks are executed as part of software process. Abstraction dimension represents the level of details as each element of the analysis model is, transformed into design equivalent Data Design elements ~ Data design creates a model of data that is represented at a high level of abstraction ~ Refined progressively to more implementation-specific representation for processing by the computer base system ~ Translation of data model into a data base is pivotal to achieving business objective of a system Software Engineering Page 35,THE DESIGN MODEL Architectural design elements. Derived from three sources (1) Information about the application domain of the software (2) Analysis model such as dataflow diagrams or analysis classes. (3) Architectural pattern and styles Interface Design elements Set of detailed drawings constituting (1) User interface (2) External interfaces to other systems, devices ete (3) Internal interfaces between various components: THE DESIGN MODEL Deployment level design elements. Indicates how software functionality and subsystem will be allocated within the physical computing environment. UML deployment diagram is developed and refined Component level design elements Fully describe the internal details of each software component. UML diagram can be used CREATING AN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN What is SOFTWARE ARCHITECTURE... The software architecture of @ program or computing system is the structure or structures of the system, which comprise software components, the externally visible properties of those components and the relationship among them. Software Architecture is not the operational software, It is a representation that enables a software engineer to + Analyze the effectiveness of the design in meeting its stated requirements, + + consider architectural alternative at a stage when making design changes is still relatively easy + Reduces the risk associated with the construction of the software, Why Is Architecture Important? Three key reasons, —Representations of software architecture enable communication and understanding between stakeholders ~Highlights early design decisions to create an operational entity. constitutes a model of software components and their interconnection Data Design ‘The data design action translates data objects defined as part of the analysis model into data structures at the component level and database architecture at application level when necessary. DATA DESIGN AT ARCHITECTURE LEVEL + Data structure at programming level + Data base at application level + Data warehouse at business level. DATA DESIGN AT COMPONENT LEVEL Principles for data specification: 1. Proper selection of data objects and data and data models Software Engineering Page 362. Identification of attribute and functions and their encapsulation of these within a class 3. Mechanism for representation of the content of each data object. Class diagrams may be used 4, Refinement of data design elements from requirement analysis to component level design. 5.Information hiding 6. A library of useful data structures and operations be developed. 7. Software design and PL should support the specification and realization of abstract da types. ARCHITECTURAL STYLES. Describes a system category that encompasses: () aset of components Q) asset of connectors that enables “communication and coordination @) Constraints that define how components can be integrated to form the system (@ Semantic models to understand the overall properties of a system Client software Client lient : sofware Data-flow architectures Shows the flow of input data, its computational components and output data. Structure is also called pipe and Filter. Pipe provides path for flow of data. Filters manipulate data and work independent of its neighboring filter. If data flow degenerates into a single line of transform, itis termed as batch sequential Call and return architectures Achieves a structure that is easy to modify and scale “Two sub styles (2) Main program/sub program architecture — Classic program structure Software Engineering Page 37~ Main program invokes a number of components, which in turn invoke still other components (2) Remote procedure call architecture — Components of main program/subprogram are distributed across computers over network Object-oriented architectures ‘The components of a system encapsulate data and the operations. Communication and coordination between components is done via message Layered architectures Annumber of different layers are defined Inner Layer( interface with OS) + Intermediate Layer Utility services and application function) Outer Layer (User interface) pore plea Wyle FIG: Layered ARCHITECTURAL PATTERNS A template that specifies approach for some behavioral characteristics of the system Patterns are imposed on the architectural styles Pattern Domains Concurrency Handles multiple tasks that simulate parallelism. —Approaches (Patterns) (a) Operating system process management pattern (b) A task scheduler pattern 2.Persistence ~Data survives past the execution of the process Approaches (Patterns) (a) Data base management system pattern (b) Application Level persistence Pattern( word processing software) ‘Software Engineering Page 383. Distribution — Addresses the communication of system in a distributed environment —Approaches (Patterns) (a) Broker Pattern — Acts as middleman between client and server. Object-Oriented Design: Objects and object classes, An Object-Oriented design process, Design evolution. + Performing User interface design: Golden rules, User interface analysis and design, interface analysis, interface design steps, Design evaluation, Object and Object Classes + Object: An object is an entity that has a state and a defined set of operations that operate on that state. + An object class definition is both a type specification and a template for creating objects, + Tt includes declaration of all the attributes and operations that are associated with object of that class, Object Oriented Design Process There are five stages of object oriented design process 1) Understand and define the context and the modes of use of the system. 2) Design the system. architecture 3) Identify the principle objects in the system. 4) Develop a design models 5)Specify the object interfaces Systems context and modes of use. It specifies the context of the system. it also specify the relationships between the software that is being designed and its external environment, + If the system context is a static model it describes the other system in that environment. + Ifthe system context is a dynamic model then it describes how the system actually interact with, theenvironment. System Architecture Once the interaction between the software system that being designed and the system environment have been defined. We can use the above information as basis for designing the System Architecture. Object [dentification—~This process is actually concerned with identifying the object classes. We can identify the object classes by the following 1) Use a grammatical analysis 2) Use a tangible entities 3) Use a behavioral approach 4) Use a scenario based approach. Software Engineering Page 39,Design mode! Design models are the bridge between the requirements and implementation, There are two type of design models 1) Static model describe the relationship between the objects. 2) Dynamic model describe the interaction between the objects Object Interface Specification It is concerned with specifying the details of the interfaces to objects. Design evolution. The main advantage OOD approach is to simplify the problem of making changes to the design. Changing the internal details of an object is unlikely to effect any other system object. Golden Rules I. Place the user in control 2. Reduce the user’s memory load 3. Make the interface consistent Place the User in Control + Define interaction modes in a way that does not force a user into unnecessary or undesired actions. + Provide for flexible interaction. + Allow user interaction to be interruptible and undoable. + Streamline interaction as skill levels advance and allow the interaction to be customized. + Hide technical internals from the casual use. + Design for direct interaction with objects that appear on the screen, Make the Interface Consistent. Allow the user to put the current task into a meaningfal context. Maintain consistency across a family of applications. If past interactive models have created user expectations, do not make changes unless there is a compelling reason to do 50. USER INTERFACE ANALYSISAND DESIGN The overall process for analyzing and designing a user interface begins with the creation of different models of system function. There are 4 different models that is to be considered when a user interface is to be analyzed and designed, User Interface Design Models User model —Establishes a profile of all end users of the system Design model — A design model of the entire system incorporates data, architectural, interface and procedural representation of the software. ‘A design realization of the user model User's Mental model (system perception). the user’s mental image of what the interface is Implementation model — the interface “look and feel” coupled with supporting information that describe interface syntax and semantics Software Engineering Page 40,Users ean be categorized as 1, Novice— No syntactic knowledge of the system and little semantic knowledge of the application or computer usage of the system 2. Knowledgeable, intermittent users- Reasonable semantic knowledge of the application but low recallof syntactic information to use the system 3. Knowledgeable, frequent users- Good semantic and syntactic knowledge User interface analysis and design process + ‘The user interface analysis and design process is an iterative process and it can be represented as a spiral model It consists of S framework activities I-User, task and environment analysis 2.Interface design’ Interface construction 4. Interface validation intetace ——f—— __ lser task and validation environmentand ysis implementation intetave design Le User Interface Design Process Interface analysis -Understanding the user who interacts with the system based on their skill evels.i.e, requirement gathering ~The task the user performs to accomplish the goals of the system are identified, described and elaborated, Analysis of work environment. Interface design In interface design, all interface objects and actions that enable a user to perform all desired task are defined Implementation A prototype is initially constructed and then later user interface development tools may be used to complete the construction of the interface. + Validation The correctness of the system is validated against the user requirement Software Engineering Page 41Interface Analysis Interface analysis means understanding (1) the people (end-users) who will interact with the system through the interface; (2) the tasks that end-users must perform to do their work, = G) the content that is presented as part of the interface (4) the environment in which these tasks will be conducted. User Analysis + Areusers trained professionals, technician, clerical, o manufacturing workers? + What level of formal education does the average user have? + Are the users capable of learning from written materials or have they expressed a desire for classroom training? + Areusers expert typists or keyboard phobic? + What is the age range of the user community? + Will the users be represented predominately by one gender? + How are users compensated for the work they perform? + Dousers work normal office hours or do they work until the job is done? Task Analysis and Modeling Analysis Techniques + Use-cases define basic interaction + Task elaboration refines interactive tasks + Object elaboration identifies interface objects(classes) + Workflow analysis defines how a work process is completed when several people (and roles) are involved — What work will the user perform in specific circumstances? Interface Design Steps + Using information developed during interface analysis define interface objects and actions (operations). + Define events (user actions) that will cause the state of the user interface to change. Model this behavior. + Depict each interface state as it will actually look to the end-user. + Indicate how the user interprets the state of the system from information provided through the interface. Interface Design Patterns, Patterns are available for = The complete UL = Page layout = Forms and input — Tables = Direct data manipulation = Navigation = Searching = Page elements = eCommerce Software Engineering Page 42Design Issues + Response time + Help facilities, + Error handling + Menu and command labeling + Application accessibility + Internationalization Design Evaluation Cycle: Steps: Preliminary design Build prototype #1 Interface evaluation is studied by designer Design modifications are made Build prototype #1 Interface User evaluate’s interface Interface design is complete Software EngineeringMALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENTOF COMPUTER SCI (CE AND ENGINEERING Testing Strategies: A strategic approach to software testing, test strategies for conventional software, Black-Box and White-Box testing, Validation testing, System testing, the art of Debugging. Product metries: Software Quality, Metrics for Analysis Model, Metrics for Design Model, Metrics for source code, Metrics for testing, Metrics for maintenance. Metrics for Process and Products: Software Measurement, Metrics for software quality. ‘Testing Strategies Software is tested to uncover errors introduced during design and construction. Testing often accounts for ‘More project effort than other s/e activity. Hence it has to be done carefully using a testing strategy. The strategy is developed by the project manager, software engineers and testing specialists. Testing is the process of execution of a program with the intention of finding errors Involves 40% of total project cost Testing Strategy provides a road map that describes the steps to be conducted as part of testing, It should incorporate test planning, test case design, test execution and resultant data collection and execution Validation refers to a different set of activities that ensures that the software is traceable to the Customer requirements, V&V encompasses a wide array of Software Quality Assurance Asstrategic Approach for Software testing Testing is a set of activities that can be planned in advance and conducted systematically Testing strategy Should have the following characteristics: usage of Formal Technical reviews(FTR) Begins at component level and covers e Different techniques at different points conducted by developer and test group should include debugging Software testing is one element of verification and validation Verification refers to the set of activities that ensure that software correctly implements a specific fumetion, (Ex: Are we building the product right? ) ‘Validation refers to the set of activities that ensure that the software built is traceable to customer requirements, (Ex: Are we building the right product ?) Testing Strategy systemTesting can be done by software developer and independent testing group. Testing and debugging are different activities. Debugging follows testing Low level tests verifies small code segments. High level tests validate major functions against customer requirements Testing Strategies for Conventional Software can be viewed as a spiral consisting of four levels of testing: 1) Unit Testing 2)Integration Testing 3)Validation Testing and 4) System Testing yystem Spiral ing for Conventional Softwar: ~~ a Syiten ergineeiing a ~Syiten ergingering Unit Testing begins at the vortex of the spiral and concentrates on each unit of software in source code. It uses testing techniques that exercise specific paths in a component and its control structure to ensure complete coverage and maximum error detection. It focuses on the internal processing logic and data structures. Test cases should uncover errors, Software Engineering Page 45,\ Unit Testing 2 at —> Fig: Unit Testing Boundary testing also should be done as s/w usually fails at its boundaries. Unit tests can be designed before coding begins or after source code is generated. | Intertace Local data structures Boundary conditions Independent paths Error handling paths Test Fig. - Unit test environment Integration testing: In this the focus is on design and construction of the software architecture. It addresses the issues associated with problems of verification and program construction by testing inputs and outputs. Though modules function independently problems may arise because of interfacing. This technique uncovers errors associated with interfacing. We can use top-down integration wherein modules are integrated by moving downward through the control hierarchy, beginning with the main control module. The other strategy is bottom —up which begins construction and testing with atomic modules which are combined into clusters as we move up the hierarchy. A combined approach called Sandwich strategy can be used i., top- down for higher level modules and bottom-up for lower level modules. Software Engineering Page 46Validation Testing: Through Validation testing requirements are validated against s/w constructed. These are high-order tests where validation criteria must be evaluated to assure that s/w meets all functional, behavioural and performance requirements. It succeeds when the software functionsin a manner that can be reasonably expected by the customer. 1)Validation Test Criteria 2)Configuration Review 3)Alpha And Beta Testing The validation criteria described in SRS form the basis for this testing. Here, Alpha and Beta testing is performed. Alpha testing is performed at the developers site by end users in a natural setting and with a controlled environment. Beta testing is conducted at end-user sites. It is a “live” application and environment is not controlled. End-user records all problems and reports to developer. Developer then makes modifications and releases the product. System Testing: In system testing, s/w and other system elements are tested as a whole. This is the last high-order testing step which falls in the context of computer system engineering. Software is combined with other system elements like H/W, People, Database and the overall functioning is checked by conducting a series of tests. These tests fully exercise the computer based system, The types of tests are: L.Recovery testing: Systems must recover from faults and resume processing within a prespecified time. It forces the system to fail in a variety of ways and verifies that recovery is properly performed. Here the Mean Time To Repair (MTTR) is evaluated to see ifit is within acceptable limits. 2.Sccurity Testing: This verifies that protection mechanisms built into a system will protect it from improper penetrations. Tester plays the role of hacker. In reality given enough resources and time it is possible to ultimately penetrate any system. The role of system designer is to make penetration cost more than the value of the information that will be obtained. 3.Stress testing: It executes a system ina manner that demands resources in abnormal quantity, frequency or volume and tests the robustness of the system. 4.Performance Testing: This is designed to test the run-time performance of s/w within the context of an integrated system. They require both h/w and s/w instrumentation. Testing Tactics: The goal of te an error. A good test is not redundant and it should be neither too simple nor too complex. Two major categories of software testing (Black box testing: It examines some fundamental aspect of a system, tests whether each function of product is fully operational (White box testing: It examines the internal operations of a system and examines the procedural detail. ing is to find errors and a good test is one that has a high probability of finding Software Engineering Page 47Black box testing This is also called behavioural testing and focuses on the functional requirements of software. It fully exercises all the functional requirements for a program and finds incorrect or missing functions,interface errors, database errors etc. This is performed in the later stages in the testing process. Treatsthe system as black box whose behaviour can be determined by studying its input and related output Not concerned with the internal. The various testing methods employed here are: 1)Graph based testing method: Testing begins by creating a graph of important objects and their relationships and then devising a series of tests that will cover the graph so that each object and relationship is exercised and errors are uncovered Object Link Fig: O-R graph. 2) Equivalence partitioning: This divides the input domain of a program into classes of data from which test Cases can be derived. Define test eases that uncover classes of errors so that no. of test cases are reduced. This is based on equivalence classes which represents a set of valid or invalid states for inputconditions. Reduces the cost of testing, Example Input consists of 1 to 10 Then classes are n<1,1<=n<=10,n>10, Choose one valid class with value within the allowed range and two invalid classes where values are greater than maximum value and smaller than minimum value. 3)Boundary Value analysis, Select input from equivalence classes such that the input lies at the edge of the equivalence classes. Set of Software Engineering Page 48data lies on the edge or boundary of a class of input data or generates the data that lies at the boundary of a class of output data, Test cases exercise boundary values to uncover errors at the boundaries of the input domain. Then test cases are (0.0,1.0) for valid input and (-0.1 and 1.1) for invalid input 4)Orthogonal array Testing This method is applied to problems in which input domain is relatively small but too large for exhaustive testing Example Three inputs A,B,C each having three values will require 27 test cases. Orthogonal testing will reduce the number of test case to 9 as shown below ‘Also called glass box testing. It uses the control structure to derive test cases. It exercises all independent paths, Involves knowing the internal working of a program, Guarantees that all independent paths will be exercised at least once Exercises all logical decisions on their true and false sides, Executes all loops,Exercises all data structures for their validity. White box testing techniques 1. Basis path testing 2.Control structure testing 1 Basis path testing Proposed by Tom McCabe. Defines a basic set of execution paths based on logical complexity of a procedural design. Guarantees to execute every statement in the program at least once Steps of Basis Path Testing 1. Draw the flow graph from flow chart of the program 2.Calculate the cyclomatic complexity of the resultant flow graph 3.Prepare test cases that will force execution of each path Two methods to compute Cyclomatic complexity number 1.V(G)-E-N+2 where E is number of edges, N is number of nodes 2.V(G)=Number of regions The structured constructs used in the flow graph a Software Engineering Page 49The sricred consti low graph frm: Sequence While Uni aod gp Fo-0- Where each ctl represents one or more ronbrorching POL or source code statements Fig: Basis path testing Basis path testing is simple and effective It is not sufficient in itself 2.Control Structure testing This broadens testing coverage and improves quality of testing. It uses the following methods: a) Condition testing: Exercises the logical conditions contained in a program module, Focuses on testing each condition in the program to ensure that it does not contain errors Simple condition ElE2 Compound condition simple conditionsimple condition Types of errors include operator errors, variable errors, arithmetic expression errors ete. b)_ Data flow Testing This selects test paths according to the locations of definitions and use of variables in a program Aims to ensure that the definitions of variables and subsequent use is tested First construct a definition-use graph from the control flow of a program DEF (definition):definition ofa variable on the left-hand side of an assignment statement USE: Computational use of a variable like read, write or variable on the right hand of assignment statement Every DU chain be tested at least once. c) Loop Testing This focuses on the validity of loop constructs, Four categories can be defined 1.Simple loops 2.Nested loops Software Engineering Page 50,3.Concatenated loops 4,Unstructured loops Testing of simple loops N is the maximum number of allowable passes through the loop 1.Skip the loop entirely 2.Onlly one pass through the loop 3. Two passes through the loop 4.m passes through the loop where m>N 5.N-1,NN+1 passes the loop The Art of Debugging Debugging occurs as a consequence of suecessful testing. It is an action that results in the removal of errors. It is very much an art. The Art of Debugging The Debugging process . Execution of | —~ testcases ~~" L im Test cases Additional Suspected tests “causes. \ Regression tests Bebugging ) Identified ~~~ Corrections — [Results causes Fr Fig: Debugging process Debugging has two outcomes: - cause will be found and corrected = cause will not be found Characteristics of bugs: - symptom and cause can be in different locations Software Engineering Page 51= Symptoms may be caused by human error or timing problems Debugging is an innate human trait, Some are good at it and some are not, Debugging Str The objective of debugging is to find and correct the cause of a software error which is realized by a combination of systematic evaluation, intuition and luck. Three strategies are proposed: 1)Brute Force Method. 2)Back Tracking 3)Cause Elimination Brute Force: Most common and least efficient method for isolating the cause ofa s/w error. This is applied when all else fails. Memory dumps are taken, run-time traces are invoked and program is loaded with output statements. Tries to find the cause from the load of information Leads to waste of time and effort. Back tracking: Common debugging approach. Useful for small programs Beginning at the system where the symptom has been uncovered, the source code is traced backward until the site of the cause is found. More no. of lines implies no. of paths are unmanageable. Cause Elimination: Based on the concept of Binary partitioning. Data related to error ‘oceurenee are organized to isolate potential causes. A “cause hypothesis” is devised and data is used to prove or disprove it. A list of all possible causes is developed and tests are conducted to eliminate each Automated Debugging: This supplements the above approaches with debugging tools that provide semi-automated support like debugging compilers, dynamic debugging aids, test casegenerators, mapping tools ete. Regression Testing: When a new module is added as part of integration testing the software changes, This may cause problems with the functions which worked properly before. This testing is the re-execution of some subset of tests that are already conducted to ensure that changes have not propagatedunintended side effects. It ensures that changes do not introduce unintended behaviour or errors. This can be done manually or automated. Software Quality Conformance to explicitly stated functional andperformance requirements, explicitly documented development standards, and implicit characteristics that are expected of Software Engineering Page 52All professionally developed software. Factors that affect software quality can be categorized in two broad groups: Factors that can be directly meastired (e.g, defects uncovered during testing) Factors that can be measured only indirectly (e.g. usability or maintainability) McCall’s quality factors 1 Productoperation Correctness Reliability Efficiency Integrity Usability 2,Product Revision Maintainability Flexibility 3. Product Transition Portability Reusability Interoperability ISO 9126 Quality Factors 1.Funetionality 2.Reliability 3.Usability 4.Effciency 5.Maintainability 6.Portability Product metrics Product metrics for computer software helps us to assess quality. Measure Provides a quantitative indication of the extent, amount, dimension, capacity or size of someattribute of a product or process Metric(IEEE 93 definition) Software Engineering Page 53‘A quantitative measure of the degree to which a system, component or process possess a given attribute Indicator ‘A metric or a combination of metrics that provide insight into the software process, a software project or a product itself Product Metrics for analysis, Design, Test and maintenance Product metrics forthe Analvsis model (Function point Metric (UFirst proposed by Albrecht Measures the functionality delivered by the system FP computed from the following parameters 1) Number of external inputs(EIS) 2) Number external outputs(EOS) Product metrics for the Analysis model Number of external Inquiries(EQS) Number of Internal Logical Files(ILF) ‘Number of external interface files(EIFS) Each parameter is classified as simple, average or complex and weights are assigned as follows Product metrics for the Analysis model + Information Domain Count Simple avg Complex EIS 3 4 6 EOS 4 5 7 EQS 3 4 6 ILS 7 10 15 EIFS 5 7 10 FP=Count total *[0.65+0.01*E(Fi)] Metrics for Design Model DSQI(Design Structure Quality Index) US air force has designed the DSQI Compute s1 to s7 from data and architectural design Software Engineering Page 54S1:Total number of modules S2:Number of modules whose correct function depends on the data input 83:Number of modules whose function depends on prior processing S4:Number of data base items $5:Number of unique database items 86: Number of database segments S7:Number of modules with single entry and exit Calculate D1 to D6 froms! to s7 as follows: DI=1 ifstandard design is followed otherwise D1=0 D2(module independence)=(1-(s2/s1)) D3(module not depending on prior processing)=(1 -(s3/sl)) D4 (Data base size)=(1-(s5/s4)) D5(Database compartmentalizatio D6(Module entry/exit characteristi 1-(s6/s4) s)=(1-(87/s1)) DsQl gma of WiDi i+1 to 6,Wiis weight assigned to Di Ifsigma of wis 1 then all weights are equal to 0.167 DSQI of present design be compared with past DSQI. If DSQI is significantly lower than the average, further design work and review are indicated METRIC FOR SOURCE CODE HSS(Halstead Software science) Primitive measure that may be derived after the code is generated or estimated once design is complete 1n;= the number of distinct operators that appear in a program n= the number of distinct operands that appear in a program Ni = the total number of operator occurrences, N2 =the total number of operand occurrence Overall program length N can be computed: N= nm; log? m + tz log? mV =N logs(m+ m) Software Engineering Page 55METRIC FOR TESTIN iG ny = the number of distinct operators that appear in a program m= the number of distinct operands that appear in a program ‘Ni = the total number of operator occurrences, No= the total number of operand occurrence. Program Level and Effort PL = 1/{(m / 2) x (Nz /m D] = VIPL METRICS FOR MAINTENANCE, ‘M:= the number of modules in the current release F.= the number of modules in the current release that have been changed F, =the number of modules in the current release that have been added. Fa= the number of modules from the preceding release that were deleted in the current release The Software Maturity Index, SMI, is defined as: SMI = [MeiFe + Fa sFay Me] Metrics for Process And Product Software Measurement: Software measurement can be categorized as Measure and sure Metres for Process And Product Direct Measurement Direct measure of software process include cost and effort Direct measure of product include lines of code, Execution speed, memory size, defects per reporting time period. Indirect Measurement Indirect measure examines the quality of software product itselfle.g. :-Functionality, complexity, efficiency, reliability and maintainability) Reasons for measurement To gain baseline for comparison with future assessment To determine status with respect to plan To predict the size, cost and duration estimate To improve the product quality and process improvement Software Engineering Page 56Software Measurement The metrics in software Measurement are Size oriented metrics Function oriented metrics Object oriented metrics Web based application metric Size Oriented Metrics It totally concerned with the measurement of software. ‘A sofiware company maintains a simple record for calculating the size of the software. It includes LOC, rt,$$,PP document,Error,Defect ,People. Function oriented metric ‘Measures the functionality derived by the application ‘The most widely used function oriented metric is Function point Function point is independent of programming language Measures functionality from user point of view Object oriented metric Relevant for object oriented programming Based on the following Number of scenarios (Similar to use eases (Number of key classesNumber of support classes (Number of average support class per key(Glass Number of subsystem Web based application metric Metries related to web based application measure the following, 1.Number of static pages(NSP) 2. Number of dynamic pages(NDP) Customization(C)=NSP/NSP+NDP C should approach 1 Metrics for Software Quality Measuring Software Quality 1 Correctness=defects/KLOC 2.Maintainability-MTTC(Mean-time to change) 3 Integrity-Sigmal I-(threat(-security))] Threat : Probability that an attack of specific type will occur within a given time Security : Probability that an attack of a specific type will be repelled Metrics for Software Quality Usability: Ease of use Defect Removal Efficiency(DRE) DRI (EXD) Eis the no. of errors found before delivery and D is no. of defects reported after delivery Ideal value of DRE is 1 Software Engineering Page 57MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING UNIT-V Risk management: Reactive vs. Proactive Risk strategies, software risks, Risk identification, Risk projection, Risk refinement, RMMM, RMMM Plan. Quality Management: Quality concepts, Software quality assurance, Software Reviews, Formal technical reviews, Statistical Software quality Assurance, The Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI), Software reliability, The ISO 9000 quality standards. Risk Management Risk is an undesired event or circumstance that occur while a project is underway It is necessary for the project manager to anticipate and identify different risks that a project may be susceptible to Risk Management. It aims at reducing the impact of all kinds of risk that may effect a project by identifying, analyzing and managing them Reactive Vs Proactive risk Reactive : It monitors the projects likely risk and resour Proactive: Risk are identified, their probability and impact is accessed Software Risk Itinvolve 2 characteristics Uncertainty: Risk may or may not happen Loss : If risk is reality unwanted loss or consequences will occur Itineludes 1)Project Risk 2)Technical Risk 3)Business Risk 4)Known Risk '5)Unpredictable Risk 6) Predictable risk Project risk: Threaten the project plan and affect schedule and resultant cost ‘Technical risk: Threaten the quality and timeliness of software to be produced Business risk: Threaten the viability of software to be built Known risk: These risks can be recovered from careful evaluation Predictable risk: Risks are identified by past project experience Unpredictable risk: Risks that occur and may be difficult to identifyRisk Identification It concerned with identification of risk Stepl: Identify all possible risks Step2: Create item check list Step3: Categorize into risk components-Performance risk, cost risk, support risk and schedule risk Step4: Divide the risk into one of 4 categories Negligible-0 Marginal-1 Critical-2 Risk Identification Risk Identification includes Product size Business impact Development environment Process definition Customer characteristics Technology to be built Staff'size and experience Risk Projection Also called risk estimation. It estimates the impact of risk on the project and the product Estimation is done by using Risk Table. Risk projection addresses risk in 2 ways Prob abilit Imp Risk y Size estimate may be significantly low Larger no, of users than planned Less reuse than planned End user resist system Likelihood or probability that the risk is real(L:) Consequences(X;)Risk Projection Steps in Risk projection 1. Estimate L; for each risk 2. Rstimate the consequence X; 3. Estimate the impact 4. Draw the risk table Ignore the risk where the management concern is low icc, risk having impact high or low with low probability of occurrence Consider all risks where management concem is high i., high impact with high or moderate probability of occurrence or low impact with high probability of occurrence Risk Projection Projection ‘The impact of each risk is assessed by Impact values Catastrophic-I Critical-2 Marginal-3 Negligible-4 Risk Refinement Also called Risk assessment Refines the risk table in reviewing the risk impact based on the following three factors a.Nature: Likely problems if risk occurs b.Scope: Just how serious is it? ¢.Timing: When and how long It is based on Risk Elaboration Caleulate Risk exposure RE=P*C Where P is probability and C is cost of project if risk occurs Risk Mitigation Monitoring And Management (RMMM) Its goal is to assist project team in developing a strategy for dealing with risk There are three issues of RMMM Risk Avoidance 2)Risk Monitoring and 3)Risk Management Risk Mitigation Monitoring And Management (RMMM) Risk Mitigation Proactive planning for risk avoidance Risk Monitoring Assessing whether predicted risk occur or not Ensuring risk aversion steps are being properly applied Collection of information for future risk analysis Determine which risks caused which problems Risk Mitigation Monitoring And Management (RMMM) Risk ManagementContingency planning, ‘Actions to be taken in the event that mitigation steps have failed and the risk has become a live problem Devise RMMP(Risk Mitigation Monitoring And Management Plan)RMMM plan Tt documents all work performed as a part of risk analysis, Each risk is documented individually by using a Risk Information Sheet. RIS is maintained by using a database system Quality Management Quality Concepts Variation control is the heart of quality control Form one project to another, we want to minimize the difference between the predicted resources needed to complete a project and the actual resources used, including staff, equipment, and calendar time Quality of design Refers to characteristics that designers specify for the end product Quality Management Quality of conformance Degree to which design specifications are followed in manufacturing the product, uality control Series of inspections, reviews, and tests used to ensure conformance of a work product to its specifications Juality assurance Consists of a set of auditing and reporting functions that assess the effectiveness and completeness of quality control activities Cost of Quality Prevention cos Quality planning, formal technical reviews, test equipment, training Appraisal costs In-process and inter-process inspection, equipment calibration and maintenance, testing Failure costs rework, repair, failure mode analysis Complaint resolution, product return and replacement, help line support, warranty work Software Quality Assurance Software quality assurance (SQA) is the concern of every software engineer to reduce cost and improve product time-to-market. A Software Quality Assurance Plan is not merely another name for a test plan, though. test plans are included in an SQA plan. SQA activities are performed on every software project. se of metrics is an important part of developing a strategy to improve the quality of both software processes and work products. Software Quality Assurance Definition of Software Quality serves to emphasize: Conformance to software requirements is the foundation from which software quality is measured.Specified standards are used to define the development criteria that are used to guide the manner in which software is engineered. Software must conform to implicit requirements (ease of use, maintainability, reliability, etc.) as well as its explicit requirements. SQA Activities Prepare SQA plan for the project. Participate in the development of the project's software process description. Review software engineering activities to verify compliance with the defined software process. Audit designated software work products to verify compliance with those defined as part of the software process. Ensure that any deviations in software or work products are documented and handled according to a documented procedure. Record any evidence of noncompliance and reports them to management. Software Reviews Purpose is to find errors before they are passed on to another software engineering activity or released to the customer. Software engineers (and others) conduct formal technical reviews (FTRs) for software quality assurance, Using formal technical reviews (walkthroughs or inspections) is an effective means for improving software quality. Formal Technical Review AFTR is a software quality control activity performed by software engineers and others.The objectives are: To uncover errors in function, logic or implementation for any representation of the software. To verify that the software under review meets its requirements. To ensure that the software has been represented according to predefined standards, To achieve software that is developed in a uniform manner and To make projects more manageable. Review meeting in FTR The Review meeting in a FTR should abide to the following constraints Review meeting members should be between three and five. Every person should prepare for the meeting and should not require more than two hours of work for each person. The duration of the review meeting should be less than two hours. ‘The focus of FTR is on a work product that is requirement specification, a detailed component design, a source code listing for a component. The individual who has developed the work product i.e, the producer informs the project leader that the work product is complete and that a review is required. The project leader contacts a review leader, who evaluates the product for readiness, generates copy of product material and distributes them to two or three review members for advance preparationEach reviewer is expected to spend between one and two hours reviewing the product, making notes The review leader also reviews the product and establish an agenda for the review meeting The review meeting is attended by review leader, all reviewers and the producer. ‘One of the reviewer act as a recorder,who notes down all important points discussed in ‘the meeting. The meeting(FTR) is started by introducing the agenda of meeting and then the producer introduces his produet. Then the producer “walkthrough” the product, the reviewers raise issues which they have prepared in advance. If errors are found the recorder notes down Review reporting and Record keeping During the FTR, a reviewer( recorder) records all issues that have been raised A review summary report answers three questions What was reviewe Who reviewed it? ‘What were the findings and conclusions? Review summary report is a single page form with possible attachments The review issues list serves two purposes To identify problem areas in the product To serve as an action item checklist that guides the producer as corrections are made Review Guidelines Review the product, not the producer Set an agenda and maintain it Limit debate and rebuttal Enunciate problem areas, but don’t attempt to solve every problem noted Take return notes Limit the number of participants and insist upon advance preparation. Develop a checklist for each product ie likely to be reviewed Allocate resources and schedule time for FTRS Conduct meaningful training for all reviewer Review your early reviews Software Defects Industry studies suggest that design activities introduce 50-65% of all defects or errors during the software process Review techniques have been shown to be up to 75% effective in uncovering design flaws which ultimately reduces the cost of subsequent activities in the software process Statistical Quality Assurance Information about sofiware defects is collected and categorized. ch defect is traced back to its cause Using the Pareto principle (80% of the defects can be traced to 20% of the causes) isolate the "vital few" defect causes.Move to correct the problems that caused the defects in the "vital few" Six Sigma for Software Engineering The most widely used strategy for statistical quality assurance ‘Three core steps: 1. Define customer requirements, deliverables, and project goals via well-defined methods of customer communication. 2. Measure each existing process and its output to determine current quality performance (e.g., compute defect metrics) Analyze defect metries and determine vital few causes For an existing process that needs improvement 1. Improve process by eliminating the root causes for defects 2. Control future work to ensure that future work does not reintroduce causes of defects If new processes are being developed 1, Design each new process to avoid root causes of defects and to meet customer requirements 2. Verify that the process model will avoid defects and meet customer requirements Software Reliability Defined as the probability of failure free operation of a computer program in a specified environment for a specified time period Can be measured directly and estimated using historical and developmental data Software reliability problems can usually be traced back to crrors in design or implementation. Measures of Reliability Mean time between failure (MTBF) = MTTF + MTTR, MTTF = mean time to failure MTTR = mean time to repair Availability = [MTTF / (MTTF + MTTR)] x 100% ISO 9000 Quality Standards ISO (International Standards Organization) is a group or consortium of 63 countries established to plan and fosters standardization, ISO declared its 9000 series of standards in 1987. It serves as a reference for the contract between independent parties. The ISO 9000 standard determines the guidelines for maintaining a quality system, The ISO standard mainly addresses operational methods and organizational methods such as responsibilities, reporting, etc. ISO 9000 defines a set of guidelines for the production process and is not directly concerned about the product itself. ‘Types of ISO 9000 Quality Standards The ISO 9000 series of standards is based on the assumption that if proper stage is followed for production, then good quality products are bound to follow automatically. The types of industries to which the various ISO standards apply are as follows.1.18 9001: This standard applies to the organizations engaged in design, development, production, and servicing of goods. This is the standard that applies to most software development organizations. 2.1SO 9002: This standard applies to those organizations which do not design products but are only involved in the production. Examples of these category industries contain steel and car manufacturing industries that buy the product and plants designs from external sources and are engaged in only manufacturing those products. Therefore, ISO 9002 does not apply to software development organizations. 3.1SO 9003: This standard applies to organizations that are involved only in the installation and testing of the products. For example, Gas companies. An organization determines to obtain ISO 9000 certification applies to ISO registrar office for registration, The process consists of the following stages: ISO 9000 Certification Compliance Continued Audit Inspection Document review and Adequacy of udit | Application: Once an organization decided to go for ISO certification, it applies to the registrar for registration, 2. Pre-Assessment: During this stage, the registrar makes a rough assessment of the organization, 3.Document review and Adequacy of Audit: During this stage, the registrar reviews the document submitted by the organization and suggest an improvement, 4.Compliance Audit: During this stage, the registrar checks whether the organization has compiled the suggestion made by it during the review or not. 5. Registration: The Registrar awards the ISO certification after the successful completion of all the phases, 6.Continued Inspection: The registrar continued to monitor the organization time by time,