Energy Conservation and Audit

Unit – II: Energy Conservation in Electrical Machines

Construction of Induction Motor

A 3-phase induction motor has main two parts, Stator and rotor. A rotor is separated from the
stator by a small air- gap which ranges from 0.4mm to 4mm, depending on the power of the
motor. Stator – It consists of steel frame which encloses a hollow, cylindrical core made up of
thin laminations of silicon steel to reduce hysteresis and eddy current loss. A number of
evenly spaced slots are provided on the inner periphery of the laminations.

The insulated conductors are placed in the stator slots and are suitably connected to form a
balanced 3-phase star or delta connected circuit to form definite number of poles. Greater the
number of poles, lesser is the speed of the motor and vice-versa. Rotor – The rotor is
mounted on a shaft. It’s a hollow laminated core having slots on its outer periphery. The
winding placed in these slots (called rotor winding) may be one of the following two types,

Squirrel cage type

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 Energy Conservation and Audit

Wound type

Power Flow in Induction Motor

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 Energy Conservation and Audit

Working of an Induction Motor

When three phase stator winding is energized from a three phase supply, a rotating
magnetic field is setup which rotates round the stator at synchronous speed
(Ns=120*f/P)

The rotating field passes through the air gap and cuts the rotor conductors, which as yet are
stationary. Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and the stationary rotor, e.m.f
is induced in the rotor conductors. Since the rotor circuit is short circuited, currents starts
flowing in the rotor conductors.

The current carrying rotor conductors are placed in the magnetic field produced by the stator.
Consequently, mechanical forces act on the rotor conductors. The sum of the mechanical
forces on all the rotor conductors produces a torque which tends to move the rotor in the
same direction as the rotating field. The fact that rotor is urged to follow the stator field (i.e.
rotor moves in the direction of stator field) can be explained by Lenz’s law.

According to this law, the direction of rotor currents is the relative speed between the
rotating magnetic field and the stationary rotor conductors. Hence to reduce this relative
speed, the rotor starts running in the same direction as that of stator field and tries to catch it.

Factors for Selection of Induction Motor

Required torque

When drive is to be selected or choosing a motor for any particular application designed for
maximum efficiency torque required by the load and torque available at the motor output

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 Energy Conservation and Audit

both are critically important. Starting torque also known as break away torque, acceleration
torque, steady state torque are the major aspects while selecting a motor.

Speed of Motor

Most of the motors are directly coupled with the driven equipment where in the speed of the
motor and the driven equipment will be same.

In order to meet the speed of the driven equipment, the devices like gearbox, chains or belts
are introduced between motor and driven equipment.

In this case, it may be necessary to provide the rotor shaft suitable for its attachment with the
speed decreasing or increasing device and hence the specification should include such
specific requirement.

In case a variable speed drive is to be used for the speed variation, the motor should
be compatible for this specific application. The standard motor may not provide desired
performance when operated via variable speed drive.

Motor Efficiency

Though standard motors are now available with a better efficiency, this factor (motor
efficiency) requires due attention. When making the selection of the motor for a specific
application in view of substantial quantum of power consumed by the motors in the
industries. The motors running continuously should be as efficient as possible to reduce
the power consumption.

Ambient Temperature

As per normal standards, the motor output is given by the vendors based on 40°C ambient
temperature. If ambient temperature is expected to be high for a longer duration, then the
motor is required to be checked for its suitability to maintain the specified output at higher
temperature. Otherwise, the de-rated factor is to be applied to know the actual anticipated
output at higher temperature. In order to maintain the motor output at higher temperature as
per the power requirement of driven equipment, it may be necessary that the motor with a
higher frame size for the same rating is selected to avoid adverse effect of de-rating.

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 Energy Conservation and Audit

Duty Cycle

Selecting the proper electric motor also depends on whether the load is steady, variable over
fixed time duration, following a repetitive cycle of variation, or load with pulsating torque or
shocks. The motors to be kept minimum service round the clock, such as driving pumps,
fans, etc., may be selected on the basis of continuous load and other factors discussed in
this article. The Duty Cycle is a fixed repetitive load pattern over a given period of time
which is expressed as the ratio of on- time to cycle period. When operating cycle is such that
electric motors operate at idle or a reduced load for more than 25% of the time, Duty
Cycle becomes a factor in sizing electric motors.

Mounting Arrangement

Different types of mounting arrangement for the motors are,

Horizontal foot mounted

Horizontal flange mounted

Flange-cum-foot mounted

Vertical flange mounted with shaft downwards

It is important to specify correct mounting arrangement for satisfactory installation of motor

and its coupling with the driven equipment.

Enclosures

Totally Enclosed Type,

Totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC)

Totally enclosed surface cooled

Totally enclosed pipe ventilated

Hose and splash proof

Increased safety motor with enclosure ‘e’ for hazardous areas,

Totally enclosed for marine applications

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 Energy Conservation and Audit

Frame Size

The frame size of the motor is to be selected considering ambient conditions and environment
in surroundings, where it is to be installed. If the ambient temperature is expected to be
abnormally high, the motor with one higher frame size for the same rating provides better
services due to availability of more cooling surface area due to higher frame size.

Coupling arrangement with Load

It is necessary to mention whether the motor is to be directly coupled with the driven
equipment, or coupled through a belt/chain drive, or gearbox. For belt-drives, the
motor shaft diameter and length depend on the type of belt and pulley, as the standard shaft
length suitable for flat belt may not be suitable for V-belt drive and width of pulley. It is
necessary to specify the shaft extension requirement.

Need of Energy Conservation in Induction Motor

Energy costs continues to increase due to ever increasing global demand for energy
Conservation in energy is the most important area which is focused in order to reduce
production cost Industrial and commercial consumer identifies their most energy consuming
culprit which is found to be induction motors so that energy conservation measures can be
applied 70% of the total energy consumption of the industry is due to motor and motor drives

In-efficient motors not only causes wastage of electrical energy but also more operational
costs most of the electricity to run these motors is generatedfrom non-renewable energy
plants which also has an incremental effect on green-house gases So economic as well as
environmental aspects necessitates the conservation in Electrical Motors.

Energy Conservation techniques in Induction Motor

By improving power Quality

Induction motor performance is notably affected by poor quality of input power.

There are many aspects in the term power quality such as voltage unbalance, frequency and
harmonic distortion.

According to Bureau of Indian Standards motor is expected to deliver its rated output for a
voltage variation of + / - 6% and frequency variation of + / - 3%

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 Energy Conservation and Audit

If voltage is unbalance between three phases it may lead motor to significant problem such as Excess
heating, vibrations. To ensure long life of the motor which is in operation during a voltage
unbalance it’s de-rating is required. NEMA (National Electric Manufactures Association) has
suggested standards for de-rating of motors.

NEMA standards for de-rating of motors –

A power Electronic device causes an increase in voltage distortion, due to this presence of
unwanted frequencies in addition to fundamental frequency of 50 Hz. This ultimately led to
higher operating temperatures due to increased motor heating. Effect of Harmonic voltage
distortion in induction motor can be compensated again by de-rating as suggested by NEMA.

By minimizing idle running of motors

In many engineering industries, prolonged idling of machine tools, conveyors, exhaust fan
etc. is common; stopping of such motors can save 100% of the power consumed by these
motors. Care may be taken to stop idle running of auxiliaries like cooling towers, air
compressors, pumps etc. during prolonged stoppage of production machines. In many
production shops, lights continue to remain on during recess hours or at times when nobody
is working or no production machine is on.

By minimizing redundant running of motors

Redundant running implies that equipment is working without any effect on the production
quantity or quality. Unless these are operating from safety considerations, stoppage of these
motors can lead to large savings; e.g. operation of cooling tower fans or air-conditioning
systems when ambient conditions are favorable. Large factors of safety are taken in design of
machines and processes. Machines and plants many times operate permanently at throughput
different from their design capacity.

By rewinding of motors

Rewind the motors as per the original winding data; if not available contact the manufacturer.

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 Energy Conservation and Audit

Select a good re-winder following good practices. Do not allow re-winders to use open flame
or heat the stators above 350°C for extracting the old, burned out winding. This can damage
the inter-laminar insulation of the steel core and increase the core losses.

By Survey of motors

It is worthwhile that a motor rating survey is carried out in industrial plants. The following
methodology can be adopted.

Select important motors by size and long running hours. Initially, ignore small motors
(below 3.7 KW) as well as those running for few hours (less than 3000 hours/annum).

Identify motors with loads less than 40%, out of these again categories frequently rewound
motors.

By operating motors in star mode

In delta mode the line voltage is impressed on each winding of motor and in star mode phase
voltage is impressed on each winding of motor (i.e. VL / √3) hence the current get
reduced. If a motor is oversized and continuously loaded below 30% of its rated shaft
load, the motor can be permanently connected in Star.

If the motor is normally loaded below 30% but has a high starting torque requirement, then
the motor can be started with a suitable starter. After overcoming the starting inertia, be
automatically switched from Delta to Star, using timer control or current sensing.

By matching motor

It is important to remember that it is the load that determines how much power the motor
draws. The size of the motor does not necessarily relate to the power being drawn. For
example, a fan requiring 15 kW could be driven by a 15 kW motor; in which case, it is well
matched. It could also be driven by a 30 kW motor, and although it would work, it would not
be very efficient.

Motors are often oversized because of

a) Uncertainty about load

b) Allowance for load growth
c) Rounding up to the next size

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 Energy Conservation and Audit

d) Availability
The efficiency of motors operating at loads below 40% is likely to be poor and energy
savings are possible by replacing these with properly sized motors.

Energy Efficient motors

Core losses are reduced by using low loss steel (cold rolled), lower density (larger core area)
and thinner steel stampings. Friction and wind age losses are reduced by better fan design,
improved bearings and improved aerodynamic design of rotor and airflow. In high efficiency
motors, losses are low and hence cooling requirements are also lower.

Stator copper losses are reduced by increasing the copper cross-section of winding wires;
hence resistance and I2R losses reduce the weight of copper increases. Rotor copper losses
are reduced by increasing the cross section of rotor bars and end rings, again more material is
used. Stray losses are reduced due to increase in air gap, better electromagnetic design of
slots and windings.

Energy efficient motor and conventional motor comparison

No Energy Efficient Motor Standard Motor

Thin & low loss
laminations of core, Laminations with
Longer core, higher flux densities,
1 Large diameter Copper conductor, Cu/Al conductor with smaller dia.
low loss fan, Aluminum fan.
Aerodynamic designed rotor,
Quality control procedure in
Manufacturing.
2 Efficiency Higher up to 92 % Efficiency Lower up to 86%
(Slightly higher) nearer to Slip around 4 % at
3 synchronous, slip about 2.5 to 3% at Full load.
full load.
4 Starting torque Good as required. Starting torque Sufficient

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 Energy Conservation and Audit

Need of Energy Conservation in Transformer

Transformer is called as backbone of Electrical power system which performs a major role of
energy transfer from one circuit to another. Energy conservation in transformer obviously
will be step forward when attempts to reduce energy losses related with transformer
operation in electrical power system are made. Transformer especially in distribution network
actually make up near about 40% of energy loss. All the electrical power which consumer
receives at his end passes through transformer.

At each transformer power loss and hence energy losses are obvious. If these losses are given
attention, it will considerably reduce greenhouse emission. Transformers like distribution
transformer can supply power to loads and remain energized for all day 24 hrs. Though it
does not consume any power, losses are inherent in the process of transformation especially
in core. However increasing concern of energy conservation has made to turn head towards
transformer.

Methods to improve the performance of Transformer

Two components that mainly contribute, rather transformer losses consist of core loss
and copper loss.

Measures related to material and design so as to improve efficiency of the transformer and
energy conservation is as follows:

Design such as it will have lower operating temperatures

Use of magnetic materials with low losses
Improve core window fill factor
Reduce stray losses
Minimize hot spot in coils.
Improved methods of cooling and effective medium
Iron loss by Core Material

Important materials in the manufacturing of core are CRGO and Amorphous material.
Amorphous core has very less core losses as compared to CRGO but cost of CRGO core cost
is very less as compare to amorphous core cost.

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 Energy Conservation and Audit

Amorphous core transformers are energy efficient transformers with increased cost. The cost
of the transformer can be reduced by replacing the amorphous core with Amorphous +
CRGO core.

Copper losses by conductor

Copper losses can be minimised by greater diameter of conductor wire and use of winding
material with better resistivity, casually choosing the thickness, increases eddy currents. In
this regard sectionalisation is preferred in order to reduce radial thickness to decrease eddy
currents.

Copper losses by conductor

Use of copper in place of aluminium makes resistivity less. Current flowing through wires
encounters less resistance in copper than aluminium for same diameter.

Core Laminations

Laminations mitigate eddy currents. Iron core is formed by laminations dipped in insulating
varnish.

Core Laminations

Laminations mitigate eddy currents. Iron core is formed by laminations dipped in insulating
varnish. Slice core offers very less width to circulate eddy currents. Silicon steel sheets to
replace with solid core break up the eddy current path without incrementing reluctance of
magnetic path.

Core Laminations

In addition to increased efficiency above approaches benefits in,

Minimize unit dimensions.

Minimized transformer heating which reduces need of extra cooling and insulation
Minimize noise
Insulation life
Withstand harmonic loads

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 Energy Conservation and Audit

Energy Conservation techniques related to transformer

Parallel operation of transformers

In parallel operation of transformers a second transformer is connected in parallel to supply

the load in excess of the rating of an existing transformer.

Sometimes in industrial or commercial premises also transformers are parallel to,

Make power system more reliable

Provide better power quality
Prevent voltage sag
Meet additional load requirement
Electrical utilities prefer this aiming reliability and power quality while consumer remains
online. Number of small rated transformer in parallel is recommended than a bigger rated
electrical power transformer because of following advantages.

Much improved reliability

Maximized availability of power
Maximized power system efficiency
Flexibility
It is economical to install numbers of smaller rated transformers in parallel than installing
bigger rated electrical power transformers to maximize electrical power system efficiency, if
we run numbers of transformers in parallel, we can switch on only those transformers which
will give the total demand by running nearer to its full load rating for that time.

When load increases, we can switch one by one other transformer connected in parallel to
fulfill the total demand. In this way we can run the system with maximum efficiency.

To maximize electrical power system availability: If numbers of transformers run in parallel,

we can shut down any one of them for maintenance purpose. Other parallel transformers in
system will serve the load without total interruption of power.

To maximize power system reliability: if any one of the transformers run in parallel, is
tripped due to fault of other parallel transformers is the system will share the load,

Hence power supply may not be interrupted if the shared loads do not make other
transformers over loaded.

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 Energy Conservation and Audit

To maximize electrical power system flexibility: There is always a chance of increasing or

decreasing future demand of power system. If it is predicted that power demand will be
increased in future, there must be a provision of connecting transformers in system in parallel
to fulfill the extra demand.

As it is not economical from business point of view to install a bigger rated single
transformer by forecasting the increased future demand as it is unnecessary investment of
money. Again if future demand is decreased, transformers running in parallel can be removed
from system to balance the capital investment and its return.

Conditions for satisfactory Parallel operation of transformers

Same Voltage Ratio

Same Percentage Impedance

Same Polarity

Same Phase Sequence

Same kVA rating

Parallel operation of two single phase transformer

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 Energy Conservation and Audit

Isolating techniques

Isolation transformers offer an effective means of meeting the requirements of domestic and
international safety standards for electronic equipment. Circuit impedance can be changed by
using transformer to reduce short circuit current or to insulate between two systems.

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