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Pollution - Environment

Table of Contents
Combustion for Energy .......................................................................................... 2
Air Pollutants ........................................................................................................ 3

Heavy Metal Contamination .................................................................................. 4

Major Pollution Control Conventions ..................................................................... 5

Air Pollution Control Measures in India .................................................................. 6

Apps and Tools...................................................................................................... 7

Air Quality Standards in India ................................................................................. 8

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) ............................................................ 8

Air Quality Index (AQI) – India's Air Quality Assessment System ....................................... 9

National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAQMP) ...................................................... 9

Plastic pollution .................................................................................................... 9

Environmental Damage Caused by Plastics.......................................................... 10

Biodegradable Plastics........................................................................................ 11

Plastic Waste Management Rules ........................................................................ 13

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) .............................................................................. 15

E-Waste Management Rules, 2022 ....................................................................... 16

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Combustion for Energy
Reaction Mechanism
• General Combustion Equation: CxHy + O2 → CO2 + H2O + Energy
• Incomplete combustion can lead to CO, unburned hydrocarbons (UHCs), and soot (PM2.5).

CO₂ Emissions (IEA, 2023)

• China: 10.7 Gt CO₂ (largest emitter, driven by coal dependence).
• USA: 4.7 Gt CO₂ (high per capita emissions, reliance on oil and gas).
• India: 2.7 Gt CO₂ (growing industrialization, coal-heavy power sector).
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Air Pollutants

Pollutant Primary Sources Environmental & Health Impact

Carbon - Anthropogenic: Fossil fuel - Major greenhouse gas (GHG) causing global
Dioxide (CO₂) combustion (coal, oil, natural gas), warming & climate change.
deforestation, cement production, - Leads to ocean acidification by forming
industrial emissions. carbonic acid (H₂CO₃), threatening marine
- Natural: Volcanic eruptions, biodiversity.
respiration, ocean-atmosphere - Alters carbon sequestration cycles in forests and
exchange. soils.
Carbon - Incomplete combustion of - Binds irreversibly with hemoglobin
Monoxide hydrocarbons from vehicles, biomass (carboxyhemoglobin formation), reducing
(CO) burning, industrial furnaces. oxygen transport in blood, leading to hypoxia.
- Cigarette smoke, poorly ventilated - Indoor air pollutant causing cardiovascular
indoor stoves. disorders & neurological impairment.
Methane - Biogenic sources: Enteric - High Global Warming Potential (GWP = 28-36
(CH₄) fermentation in ruminants, rice times CO₂ over 100 years).
paddies, anaerobic decomposition in - Major contributor to tropospheric ozone
landfills & wetlands. formation (short-lived climate pollutant).
- Anthropogenic sources: Natural gas - Positive feedback loop: Thawing permafrost
extraction, coal mining, biomass releases CH₄, intensifying warming.
burning.
Oxides of - Anthropogenic: Coal-fired power - Primary precursor to acid rain (H₂SO₄
Sulfur (SOₓ) plants, petroleum refining, industrial formation), affecting soil fertility, aquatic
(SO₂, SO₃) smelting (Cu, Zn, Pb). ecosystems, and corroding infrastructure.
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- Natural: Volcanic eruptions, - Respiratory disorders (SO₂ exposure leads to
decomposition of organic sulfur bronchoconstriction, asthma exacerbation).
compounds. - Reduces crop yields by stomatal uptake of SO₂,
damaging leaf chlorophyll.
Oxides of - Combustion sources: Vehicle - Leads to formation of tropospheric ozone (O₃),
Nitrogen exhaust (petrol & diesel engines), contributing to photochemical smog.
(NOₓ) (NO, thermal power plants, aviation. - Precursor to acid deposition (HNO₃
NO₂) - Agriculture: Fertilizer volatilization, formation), leading to soil & water acidification.
biomass burning. - Causes nitrogen saturation in aquatic
ecosystems, leading to eutrophication.
Volatile - Anthropogenic: Petroleum refining, - Major contributor to ground-level ozone (O₃) &
Organic solvent use (paints, varnishes), secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation.
Compounds industrial chemical production. - Carcinogenic effects (Benzene, Formaldehyde
(VOCs) - Natural: Biogenic emissions from are Group 1 carcinogens
vegetation (terpenes, isoprene). - IARC classification). - Contributes to Sick
Building Syndrome (SBS) in indoor air pollution.
Peroxyacetyl - Secondary pollutant formed from - Eye and respiratory irritant; causes oxidative
Nitrate (PAN) photochemical reaction between stress in human tissues.
NOₓ and VOCs in the presence of - Highly phytotoxic; damages chloroplast
sunlight. membranes in plants, reducing photosynthesis.
- Persistent in the atmosphere, acting as a
transport medium for NOₓ across regions.

Heavy Metal Contamination

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Heavy Sources Impact Regulation

Metal
Mercury Coal combustion, gold Minamata Disease (Japan, 1956) – Minamata Convention on
(Hg) mining, chlor-alkali Severe neurological damage from Mercury (2013) – Global
industries, e-waste methylmercury bioaccumulation restriction on mercury use
Cadmium Nickel-cadmium Itai-Itai Disease (Japan, 1946) – Industrial waste disposal
(Cd) batteries, phosphate Bone deformation, kidney failure due regulations, restrictions in
fertilizers, industrial to chronic Cd exposure fertilizers
wastewater discharge
Lead (Pb) Lead-acid batteries, Neurotoxicity, cognitive Banned in gasoline under
leaded petrol (phased impairments in children (WHO: 1 UNEP-led programs
out in 2021), paint million deaths annually from lead
industry poisoning)
Arsenic Groundwater Skin lesions, carcinogenicity WHO limit: 10 ppb in
(As) contamination (IARC Group 1 Carcinogen) – drinking water
(Bangladesh, India, Liver, lung, kidney cancers
West Bengal crisis)
Nitrates Fertilizers, sewage, Blue Baby Syndrome Regulated under drinking
(NO₃⁻) agricultural runoff (Methemoglobinemia) – Oxygen water safety standards
deficiency in infants; Hypoxic zones
in aquatic ecosystems

Major Pollution Control Conventions

Convention Key Features Pollutants Controlled

Montreal Protocol Legally binding treaty for phasing out Ozone- Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
(1987) Depleting Substances (ODS) under the Vienna Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs),
Convention. Multilateral Fund (MLF) Halons, Methyl Bromide
established to aid developing countries.
Stockholm Targets elimination, restriction, and Dioxins, Furans, Polychlorinated
Convention on unintentional release of Persistent Organic Biphenyls (PCBs), Pesticides (DDT,
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) under the Dirty Dozen list. Aldrin, Endrin, Chlordane, Heptachlor)
Pollutants (POPs, India ratified with conditional exemptions for DDT
2001) use in malaria control.
Basel Convention on Regulates transboundary movement of Hazardous waste, Electronic waste (e-
Transboundary hazardous and other wastes, promoting waste), Plastic waste, Biomedical waste
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Movements of environmentally sound management (ESM).
Hazardous Wastes Basel Ban Amendment (1995) prohibits export of
(1989) hazardous waste to developing countries.
Rotterdam Requires exporting countries to seek consent Hazardous chemicals, Pesticides
Convention on Prior from importing nations before sending hazardous (Endosulfan, Paraquat, Asbestos,
Informed Consent chemicals. PIC Procedure ensures informed Industrial chemicals)
(PIC, 1998) decision-making.
Minamata Bans new mercury mines, restricts mercury trade Mercury (Hg) and its compounds
Convention on and emissions, and promotes safe mercury
Mercury (2013) disposal. India ratified with exemptions for
fluorescent lamps and mercury amalgam use.
Kigali Amendment Legally binding agreement to phase down Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
to the Montreal Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), with separate
Protocol (2016) schedules for developed and developing countries.
India committed to phase-out HFCs by 2047.
Convention on Regulates cross-border air pollution under the Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂), Nitrogen Oxides
Long-range EMEP Protocol (1984) and subsequent (NOₓ), Volatile Organic Compounds
Transboundary Air amendments. Focuses on acid rain, ozone (VOCs), Ammonia (NH₃), Fine Particulate
Pollution (CLRTAP, precursors, and particulate pollution. Matter (PM₂.₅)
1979)

Air Pollution Control Measures in India

Policy/Programme Objective Key Features
National Clean Air Reduce air pollution levels in 122 • City-specific targets for emission reduction.
Programme (NCAP) non-attainment cities by 20-30% by • Expansion of air quality monitoring networks
2024. (CAAQMS).
• Control of vehicular emissions, industrial pollution,
and dust.
• Use of AI-based forecasting and low-cost sensors.
Pradhan Mantri Address indoor air pollution by • Free LPG connections for low-income households.
Ujjwala Yojana replacing solid fuels with cleaner
• Reduces PM2.5, CO, PAHs, and VOC emissions.
(PMUY) LPG.
• Improves combustion efficiency, leading to a lower
carbon footprint.
Bharat Stage VI (BS- Adopt stringent vehicular emission • Reduction of sulfur content in fuel from 50 ppm (BS-
VI) Emission Norms standards to curb pollution. IV) to 10 ppm (BS-VI).
• PM emissions reduced by 80% in diesel vehicles.
• NOx emissions cut by 70% in diesel and 25% in
petrol vehicles.
• Mandatory real-time emission monitoring (OBD-II).
Graded Response Implement emergency pollution- • Stage-wise emergency actions based on AQI levels.
Action Plan (GRAP) control measures in Delhi-NCR • Real-time air quality monitoring using CCTV,
based on AQI. satellites, and sensors.
• Ban on diesel generators, shutdown of brick kilns, and
traffic restrictions.

Air Quality Standards

• National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
o Sets limits for key air pollutants, including PM10, PM2.5, NO₂, SO₂, CO, O₃, and Lead, to
safeguard public health and the environment.
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• Bharat Stage Emission Standards (BSES)
o Defines vehicular emission limits for PM, NOx, and hydrocarbons, progressively tightening
standards from BS-IV to BS-VI for cleaner vehicle emissions.

Apps and Tools

App Name Objective Key Features Developed By

Safaigiri App Facilitates citizen reporting • Enables users to report Government of India
of pollution and cleanliness pollution hotspots.
issues. • Promotes community
participation in pollution
control.
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Air Quality Provides real-time AQI • Displays AQI levels for Central Pollution Control
Index (AQI) data for various pollutants. multiple pollutants. Board (CPCB)
App • Provides health advisories
and alerts.
BreatheEasy Displays real-time air • Shows real-time air quality Independent Organizations
App quality data and public data.
health guidance. • Provides guidance on
limiting exposure to
pollution.
Prakriti App Offers real-time air quality • Tracks pollution levels. Ministry of Environment,
and weather data. • Provides weather-related Forest and Climate Change
pollution insights. (MoEFCC)

SAFAR Air Provides real-time AQI and • Delivers real-time AQI Indian Institute of Tropical
forecasts for Indian cities. data. Meteorology (IITM)
• Issues health advisories
based on air quality
forecasts.
Sameer Provides real-time air • Developed by CPCB. Central Pollution Control
quality data and pollution • Tracks air pollution Board (CPCB)
source information. sources and levels across
India.

Air Quality Standards in India

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

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• Enforced under the Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
• Notified by: Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) under the Ministry of
Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
• First Notification: 1994, revised in 2009 based on WHO & EU norms.

Pollutants under NAAQS

• Particulate Matter (PM10); Particulate Matter (PM2.5)
• Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂); Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂)
• Carbon Monoxide (CO); Ozone (O₃)
• Ammonia (NH₃); Lead (Pb)
• Benzene (C₆H₆); Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP)
• Arsenic (As); Nickel (Ni)

Air Quality Index (AQI) – India's Air Quality Assessment System

• Launched in: 2014 by MoEFCC under the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan.
• Monitored by: CPCB.
• Objective: Single number (0-500 scale) representing overall air quality in real time.
• Parameters: 8 major pollutants:
o Particulate Matter (PM10, PM2.5)
o Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂); Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂)
o Carbon Monoxide (CO); Ozone (O₃)
o Ammonia (NH₃); Lead (Pb)

National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAQMP)

• Initiated in: 1984 by CPCB.
• Objective: Continuous monitoring of air pollution trends and policy evaluation.
• Pollutants Monitored: PM10, PM2.5, SO₂, NO₂, CO, O₃, NH₃, Pb.
• Monitoring Stations: 450+ stations in 300+ cities across India.
• Data Collection: 24-hour monitoring of PM10, SO₂, NO₂ at key locations.
• Tech Integration: Uses SAFAR (System of Air Quality & Weather Forecasting and
Research) for real-time pollution tracking.

Plastic pollution
Categories of Plastics
Code Plastic Type Properties Common Uses
1 PET (Polyethylene - Transparent, lightweight, and Water bottles, food
Terephthalate) shatterproof. packaging, textiles.
- Good barrier to gases and moisture.
- Recyclable but degrades after
repeated use.

2 HDPE (High-Density - High strength-to-density ratio, Milk jugs, detergent

Polyethylene) chemical-resistant, and opaque. bottles, pipes.
- Resistant to UV radiation and
weathering.
- Easily recyclable.
3 PVC (Polyvinyl - Durable, rigid or flexible, and Pipes, cable insulation,
Chloride) resistant to chemicals and flooring.
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weathering.
- Contains chlorine, making it
difficult to recycle and potentially
harmful when burned.
4 LDPE (Low-Density - Flexible, lightweight, and resistant Plastic bags, squeeze
Polyethylene) to moisture. bottles, wraps.
- Less rigid and weaker than HDPE.
- Recyclable but less commonly
recycled.
5 PP (Polypropylene) - Tough, heat-resistant, and chemical- Food containers,
resistant. automotive parts, ropes.
- Lightweight and has a high melting
point.
- Easily recyclable.
6 PS (Polystyrene) - Lightweight, rigid or foamed (as Disposable cutlery,
expanded polystyrene or EPS). - packaging, insulation.
Brittle and poor barrier to gases.
- Difficult to recycle and often ends
up in landfills.
7 Other (Miscellaneous) - Includes a wide range of plastics CDs, baby bottles,
like polycarbonate (PC), polylactic bioplastics.
acid (PLA), and composites.
- Properties vary widely depending on
the specific plastic.

Environmental Damage Caused by Plastics

Environmental Why it’s Damaging Impact

Issue

Non- Plastics are synthetic polymers - Accumulation in landfills and ecosystems. -

Biodegradability that do not undergo natural Fragmentation into microplastics, causing persistent
biodegradation due to their stable environmental contamination.
chemical structure.

Marine Pollution Annually, millions of tons of - Entanglement: Marine organisms are entrapped in
plastic waste enter marine plastic debris, leading to injury or mortality.
environments, impacting aquatic
- Ingestion: Plastic is mistaken for food, causing digestive
ecosystems.
blockages and toxicity.

- Ecosystem disruption: Plastics alter aquatic habitats,

introducing leached chemicals.

Microplastics Mechanical breakdown, UV - Water contamination: Microplastics infiltrate water

radiation, and hydrodynamic bodies and food chains.
forces reduce plastics to
- Bioaccumulation: Microplastics transfer through trophic
microplastic particles (<5mm).
levels, impacting higher organisms, including humans.

- Toxicity: Microplastics absorb and release persistent

organic pollutants and heavy metals.
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Soil Plastics leach additives (e.g., - Decreased fertility: Alters soil porosity, inhibiting
Contamination phthalates, BPA) into the soil, nutrient retention and water infiltration.
impairing soil composition and
- Chemical leaching: Harmful substances contaminate
biological activity.
crops and groundwater.

- Soil ecosystem disruption: Microplastics inhibit

microbial and invertebrate soil populations.

Harm to Wildlife Plastics, through ingestion or - Ingestion: Toxic effects from plastics lead to internal
entanglement, directly affect injury, malnutrition, and death.
terrestrial and marine species.
- Entanglement: Increases risk of injury or drowning for
marine and terrestrial animals.

- Habitat degradation: Plastics obstruct natural

environments and disrupt ecological functions.

Release of Toxic Plastics contain and release - Water contamination: Chemicals leach into aquatic
Chemicals chemical additives like phthalates, ecosystems, bioaccumulating in organisms.
BPA, and flame retardants, which
- Health risks: Endocrine disruption, carcinogenesis, and
are hazardous to biotic systems.
developmental effects in humans and wildlife.

- Air pollution: Incineration produces toxic byproducts,

such as dioxins and furans.
Human Health Plastics, especially microplastics, - Food chain contamination: Microplastics enter the
Risks contribute to exposure to toxic human food chain through seafood, water, and crops.
chemicals and environmental
- Health risks: Toxic plastic additives are linked to
pollutants. reproductive and neurological disorders.
- Inhalation of airborne microplastics: Respiratory and
cardiovascular health issues linked to airborne particles.

Biodegradable Plastics
• Biodegradable plastics are plastics that decompose naturally into non-toxic components
such as water carbon dioxide and biomass under the action of microorganisms such as
bacteria and fungi within a specified period under environmental conditions

Types of Biodegradable Plastics

Type Description and Examples Properties

Starch-based Derived from natural starch sources like - Biodegradable in soil and water.
Plastics corn, potatoes, or wheat. - Flexible and low-cost production.
Examples: Thermoplastic Starch (TPS). - Limited water resistance.
- Suitable for food packaging.
Polyhydroxyalk Bioplastics produced by bacteria through - Biodegradable in marine environments.
anoates (PHA) fermentation processes. - Strong, flexible, water and UV-resistant.
Examples: Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), - High production cost.
Polyhydroxyvalerate (PHV).
- Medical and packaging uses.
Polylactic Acid Made from renewable resources such as - Clear, rigid, and compostable.
(PLA) corn starch or sugarcane.
- Requires industrial composting for effective
Examples: PLA (Polylactic Acid). degradation.
- Low melting point.
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Polycaprolacton A biodegradable polyester, typically - Low melting point, flexible.

e (PCL) synthesized from petrochemical - Degrades in composting and natural
derivatives but eco-friendly.
environments.
Examples: Used in medical and plastic - Used in controlled drug delivery and tissue
film applications. engineering.
Cellulose-based Derived from cellulose, a natural polymer - Biodegradable in natural environments.
Plastics found in plant cell walls. - Transparent, flexible, moisture-resistant.
Examples: Cellophane, Cellulose acetate. - Derived from renewable resources.

Degradation Mechanism
• Biodegradable plastics break down via microbial digestion aided by
o Enzymatic Action Microorganisms secrete enzymes to degrade the polymer
chains
o Hydrolysis and Oxidation Breakdown through water and oxygen exposure
o Photodegradation Sunlight exposure accelerates degradation

Advantages of Biodegradable Plastics

• Mitigation of Plastic Pollution: Biodegradable plastics undergo microbial
degradation, breaking down into non-toxic byproducts such as carbon dioxide, water,
and biomass, reducing persistent environmental contamination.
• Reduction in Carbon Footprint: Bio-based biodegradable plastics utilize renewable
biomass feedstocks like corn starch and sugarcane, leading to lower greenhouse gas
emissions compared to fossil fuel-derived plastics.
• Environmental Safety and Microplastic Reduction: Unlike conventional plastics,
biodegradable polymers do not fragment into secondary microplastics, preventing
bioaccumulation and trophic transfer in ecosystems.
• Circular Economy and Sustainable Waste Management: Biodegradable plastics can
be industrial composted, contributing to organic waste valorization, reducing landfill
dependency, and supporting biodegradable waste management policies.

Challenges and Concerns of Biodegradable Plastics

• High Production Costs and Market Viability: Biodegradable plastics involve
complex polymer synthesis, requiring higher capital investment and specialized
processing, making them economically uncompetitive against mass-produced
petroleum-based plastics.
• Limited Industrial Composting and Degradation Constraints: Many biodegradable
plastics require specific thermophilic composting conditions (temperature above 50°C,
regulated humidity, and presence of aerobic microbial consortia) for complete
degradation, infeasible in open environments.
• Ambiguities in Biodegradability and Greenwashing Risks: Certain polymers labeled
as biodegradable or oxo-biodegradable undergo partial oxidation and fragmentation
instead of true microbial degradation, leading to persistent microplastic residues in
marine and terrestrial environments.
• Agricultural Land Use and Resource Competition: Large-scale production of bio-
based biodegradable plastics increases demand for agricultural feedstocks, competing
with food security and exacerbating deforestation, monoculture expansion, and water-
intensive farming practices.
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Plastic Waste Management Rules
Regulatory Framework
• Governing Act: Environment Protection Act, 1986.
• Implementing Agencies: Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), State Pollution
Control Boards (SPCBs), and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs).
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change (MoEFCC).

Evolution of Plastic Waste Management Rules in India

Year Rules Key Features

2011 Plastic Waste - Introduced Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR).
(Management & - Prohibited plastic carry bags <40 microns thickness.
Handling) Rules, 2011 - Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) made responsible for plastic waste
management.
2016 Plastic Waste - Increased minimum thickness of plastic carry bags to 50 microns.
Management Rules, 2016 - Mandated segregation at source & waste processing by ULBs.
- Producers, importers & brand owners made responsible for collecting
plastic waste.
2018 Plastic Waste - Prohibited non-recyclable multi-layered plastics (MLP). -
Management Strengthened EPR compliance by manufacturers.
(Amendment) Rules,
2018
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2021 Plastic Waste - Ban on Single-Use Plastics (SUPs) from July 1, 2022. - Increased
Management minimum thickness of plastic carry bags from 50 to 75 microns
(Amendment) Rules, (effective from September 30, 2021). - Introduced Plastic Waste
2021 Processing Certificates (PWPCs) for recyclers.
2022 Plastic Waste - Increased minimum thickness of plastic carry bags from 75 to
Management (Second 120 microns (effective from December 31, 2022). - Strengthened EPR
Amendment) Rules, 2022 with mandatory plastic credit system. - Plastic manufacturers must
ensure 50% recycling by 2024 & 100% by 2026.
2023 Guidelines on - Mandatory standards for biodegradable plastic certification (IS
Biodegradable Plastics 17899:2022 by BIS). - Promotes compostable plastics as alternatives
to Single-Use Plastics (SUPs).

Key Features of Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2022

Ban on Single-Use Plastics (SUPs)
• Effective from: July 1, 2022.
• Prohibited Items: Plastic cutlery, straws, carry bags <120 microns,
wrapping films, candy sticks, PVC banners.
• Implemented through: Plastic Waste Monitoring Portal.
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for Plastics
• EPR covers:
o Producers, Importers, Brand Owners (PIBOs) responsible for
collection & recycling.
o Mandatory plastic credit system – Companies must ensure plastic
neutrality.
o 50% plastic recycling by 2024, 100% by 2026.
Phasing Out Multi-Layered Plastics (MLP)
• MLPs are plastics with multiple polymer layers (e.g., chips & biscuit
packets, tetra packs).
• MLPs must be either: recyclable, energy recoverable, or compostable.

Challenges in Plastic Waste Management in India

• Low Recycling Rate – Only 9% of plastic waste is recycled in India.
• Unregulated Informal Sector – 60%+ of plastic waste is managed by ragpickers
without safety measures.
• Lack of Alternatives – Biodegradable plastics are costly & not widely available.
• Microplastic Pollution – Contaminates soil, water, and marine ecosystems.
• Ineffective Implementation of EPR – Poor tracking of plastic credits & EPR
compliance.

Government Initiatives for Plastic Waste Management

• Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM-U 2.0) – Focus on plastic-free cities & waste
segregation at source.
• India Plastic Pact (2021) – Targets 100% plastic packaging recycling by 2030.
• Un-Plastic India Campaign – Public awareness program to reduce SUP use.
• Galvanizing Organic Bio-Agro Resources Dhan (GOBAR-Dhan) – Encourages bio-
plastic & biodegradable alternatives.
• National Marine Litter Policy (Draft 2021) – Aims to reduce ocean plastic pollution by
50% by 2030.
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India’s Plastic Waste Statistics
• India generates ~3.5 million metric tonnes (MMT) of plastic waste annually.
• 50% of plastic waste is Single-Use Plastic (SUP).
• Only 9% of plastic waste is recycled, 12% incinerated, and 79% landfilled.

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)

Definition & Regulatory Framework
• Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): Encompasses household, commercial,
institutional, and industrial non-hazardous waste generated in urban areas.
• Regulatory Framework:
o Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 under Environment Protection Act,
1986.
o Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (for incineration
emissions).
o Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2022 (for plastic segregation & disposal).
• Implementing Agencies:
o Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) responsible for collection, segregation,
transportation, processing, and disposal.
o State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) for compliance monitoring.
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA).
• Legal Mandates: Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM-U 2.0), Extended Producer
Responsibility (EPR) for waste producers.

Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 – Key Provisions

• Segregation at Source: Mandates classification into:
1. Biodegradable Waste – Organic matter (kitchen & garden waste).
2. Non-Biodegradable Waste – Plastics, metals, glass, e-waste.
3. Domestic Hazardous Waste – Batteries, paints, chemicals.
• Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR):
o Producers (plastic, e-waste, battery manufacturers) mandated to take back
post-consumer waste and ensure recycling/disposal.
• Decentralized Waste Processing:
o ULBs must promote composting, biomethanation, waste-to-energy (WTE)
plants.
o Use of Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF) in cement kilns & industrial boilers.
• Landfill Restrictions:
o Only inert & non-recyclable waste permitted.
o Legacy waste to be remediated using biomining & bioremediation.
• Plastic Waste Management:
o Ban on single-use plastics (SUPs) under Plastic Waste Management Rules,
2022.
o Mandatory recycling targets for plastic producers under EPR framework.

Waste-to-Energy (WTE) & Resource Recovery Initiatives

• Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM-U 2.0): Targets zero-landfill cities by promoting
scientific waste disposal.
• Gobardhan Yojana: Promotes biogas production from organic waste.
• National Bio-Energy Mission: Incentivizes biomass-to-energy & RDF utilization.
• Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2022: Targets 100% recycling of plastic waste
by 2026; Promotes plastic-to-fuel (pyrolysis) plants;
• E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022: Formalization of e-waste processing sector.
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• Construction & Demolition (C&D) Waste Management Rules, 2016: Mandates
recycling of construction debris into aggregates & bricks; Promotes use of recycled
materials in road construction.

E-Waste Management Rules, 2022

Hazardous Substances in E-Waste
Substance Effects
Lead Causes neurotoxicity & kidney damage
Mercury Bioaccumulative toxin affecting aquatic ecosystems
Cadmium Carcinogenic, damages respiratory & renal systems
Brominated Flame Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), disrupt endocrine
Retardants functions

Definition & Regulatory Framework

• E-Waste (Electronic Waste): Any discarded electrical or electronic equipment
(EEE) containing hazardous or non-hazardous components.
• Governed under: E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022 under the Environment
Protection Act, 1986.
• Enforced by: Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and State Pollution Control
Boards (SPCBs).
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change (MoEFCC).

Key Provisions of E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022

Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) Framework
• Producers (Manufacturers, Importers, and Brand Owners - MIBOs) are legally
responsible for collecting, recycling, and disposing of e-waste.
• Annual EPR Targets: Mandates minimum recycling percentages, increasing
annually.
• Online EPR Portal: Introduced for tracking e-waste generation & disposal.
Prohibited E-Waste Handling Practices
• Open burning & acid leaching for metal recovery banned.
• Informal sector operations to be formalized under government regulations.
• Mandatory registration for recyclers & refurbishers under CPCB.
Producer & Manufacturer Obligations
• Take-Back & Buy-Back Schemes: Mandates producers to offer incentives for
consumers to return old products.
• Labeling Requirements:
o Products must include RoHS (Restriction of Hazardous Substances)
compliance labels.
o Hazardous material disclosure (Lead, Mercury, Cadmium, Brominated
Flame Retardants).
Recycling & Disposal Guidelines
• Authorized E-Waste Recyclers (AERs) must process 100% collected waste.
• Refurbishment Industry promoted to extend product life cycle.
• Mandatory Lithium-ion Battery Recycling included.

Challenges in E-Waste Management in India

• Dominance of Informal Sector: 90% of e-waste in India is handled by unregulated
scrap dealers using crude techniques.
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• Low Consumer Awareness: EPR mechanisms underutilized; Limited participation
in take-back schemes.
• Lack of Recycling Infrastructure: Few authorized e-waste recyclers; Low recycling
efficiency (~15-20%).
• Illegal E-Waste Imports: Basel Convention restrictions violated via smuggling of
electronic junk into India.

Government Initiatives & Policies

• E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022 – Strengthened EPR & recycling norms.
• Battery Waste Management Rules, 2022 – Covers lithium-ion batteries from EVs
& electronic devices.