Table of Contents

Chapter no. Title Page No.

ABSTRACT III

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT IV

LIST OF TABLES V

LIST OF FIGURES VI

ABBREVIATIONS VII

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 4

2.1 Research Gap 7

2.2 Research Objective 7

2.3 Methodology 7

3. DRIVE SYSTEM CONFIGURATION 9

3.1 Three-Phase Inverter Operation 9

3.2 Six-Step Commutation 9

3.3 Influence of Phase Sequence 14

V
 4. PROPOSED CONTROL DRIVE SYSTEM 18

4.1 Universal Control Drive Circuit 18

4.2 Control Algorithm 21

5 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 25

6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 32

REFERENCES 33

4. PROPOSED CONTROL DRIVE SYSTEM 18

VI
 List of Figures

S.No. Title Page No.

1.1 Schematic diagram of BLDC motor. 1

1.2 Waveform of PWM signals of the three phases. 2

1.3 Graph representing the generation of PWM signals. 3

2.1 Methodology for Universal Control drive. 8

3.1 Three-Phase Inverter circuit with star motor connection. 9

3.2 Voltage and Current flow through Phase A and Phase B. 12

3.3 Voltage and Current flow through Phase B and Phase C. 12

3.4 Voltage and Current flow through Phase C and Phase A. 13

4.1 Universal control drive circuit of BLDC motor. 18

4.2 Components of Universal Drive Encoder. 19

4.3 Components of Drive system ABC. 19

4.4 Gate driver circuit. 20

4.5 Gate Signal circuit. 20

4.6 Control Algorithm Block. 21

VII
5.1 Output Waveform of the rotor speed and electromagnetic torque. 25

5.2 Output Waveform of the Stator currents (Phase ABC). 26

5.3 Output Waveform of the hall signals. 26

5.4 Output Waveform of the back EMFs 27

5.5 Circuit of BLDC motor with Change in Phases (Phase ACB) 27

5.6 Output Waveform of the speed and torque without UDE. 28

5.7 Output Waveform of the Stator currents without UDE. 28

5.8 Output Waveform of the speed and torque with UDE. 29

5.9 Output Waveform of the Stator currents with UDE. 30

5.10 Output Waveform of the Hall signals with UDE. 30

5.11 Output Waveform of the back EMFs with UDE. 31

VIII
IX
 List of Tables

S.No. Title Page No.

3.1 Truth Table for Hall Signals and BEMF 10

3.2 Truth Table for BEMF and Switches 11

3.3 Inverter Phase connection ABC 15

3.4 Inverter Phase connection ACB 15

3.5 Inverter Phase connection BCA 16

3.6 Inverter Phase connection BAC 16

3.7 Inverter Phase connection CAB 17

3.8 Inverter Phase connection CBA 17

X
 ABBREVIATION

S.No. Short form Full form

1. BLDC Brushless DC Motor.

2. DSP Digital Signal Processor.

3. PWM Pulse Width Modulation.

4. DC & AC Direct Current & Alternating Current.

5. PMSM Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine.

6. MOSFET Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor.

7. IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor.

8. BEMF Back Electromotive Force.

9. PID Proportional, Integration, Differentiation.

10. UDE Universal Drive Encoder.

XI
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

A BLDC motor is an electronically commutated DC motor that operates on the

Electromagnetic Induction principle. The stator is made of laminated iron core with
winding coils, and the rotor is made of permanent magnets. As the stator produces a
rotating magnetic field, it interacts with the rotor's permanent magnets, causing the rotor
to rotate. The rotation will reach its maximum potential when the magnetic field in the
stator synchronizes with the magnetic field in the rotor. Hence the name DC
synchronous machine. Fig.1.1 shows schematic representation of BLDC motor. For the
closed-loop operation a feedback system should be used. The gate signals required for
the inverter circuit are produced by the motor's Hall sensors providing feedback.

Fig.1.1 Schematic diagram of BLDC motor.

Hall effect sensors are often used in BLDC motors to determine the position of
the rotor. These sensors detect the magnetic field of the rotor and provide feedback to
the Gate drivers. Three Hall sensors will be positioned at intervals of 120° electrical
angle. The first Hall sensor is placed to align with a known electrical position, which is
often the zero-crossing point of the BEMF waveform. The subsequent Hall sensors are
placed at 120-degree intervals from the first sensor. This positioning detects the
magnetic field of the rotor at its specific electrical and mechanical angle. This angle is
often referred to the zero-crossing point of the BEMF waveform. The Hall sensors must
be properly aligned for accurate position sensing. Hall sensors provide rotor
information in binary codes, in which six positions are determined by six codes. First

1
three codes show the rotor is exactly placed in that corresponding phases. The other
three codes tell the rotor is placed in between any two phases of the motor. The gate
driver circuit is responsible for controlling the power switches (MOSFETs and IGBTs).
The drive circuit controls the current flow to the switches, allowing control over the
rotor's speed and direction. The gate driver divides the inverter into two stages: high-
side switches and low-side switches for each phase of the motor. Operation of these
switches is determined based on the feedback from the Hall sensors. However, the ON
and OFF of these switches is dependent on their duty cycle, which is controlled by the
PID controller. The PID controller provides the required PWM signals to the Three-
Phase inverter. Pulse Width Modulation is a control strategy used to regulate pulsating
signals for commutation. The key parameter is the duty cycle, which represents the ratio
of time the signal is ON (high) to the total period of the signal. Duty cycle is expressed
as a percentage and is calculated as follows:

𝑻𝑶𝑵
𝑫𝒖𝒕𝒚 𝑪𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 (%) = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 (1)
𝑻

Where 𝑇𝑂𝑁 is On Time and T is Total time period. The frequency of PWM determines
how fast a PWM completes a period. Frequency of PWM can be calculated by:

𝟏
𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 (𝒇) = (2)
𝑻

Here a sine wave is compared to a repeating sequential wave, leading to the generation
of a square wave that is supplied to the inverter. The width of this square wave
corresponds to the ON time of the switches in their respective phases.

Fig.1.2 Waveform of PWM signals of the three phases.

2
 A PID controller provides the PWM signals based on the feedback from the
motor. This configuration allows the PID controller to calculate and supply the required
duty cycle for generating PWM signals. This PID coupled PWM circuit is implemented
in the closed loop operation of a BLDC motor to provide precise control over rotor
speed. Fig.1.3, explains the generation of the PWM signals by comparing the sine wave
of the input voltage with a sequential wave. Here the sine wave is the reference wave
signal and the repeating sequence wave is the carrier wave signal.

Fig.1.3 Graph representing the generation of PWM signals.

3
 CHAPTER 2

Literature Review
H Maghfiroh et al [2021] The research details about the BLDC motor driver is
engineered to maintain a stable motor speed at a designated level. The motor speed is
regulated by inputting Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) values, with each PWM value
corresponding to a distinct speed setting. The designed driver employs an Isolated Gate
Driver with a PC817 optocoupler. Testing is conducted on the BLDC motor under both
no-load conditions and varying loads. Conversely, in load variation tests, the results
show speed variations corresponding to different loads. As the load increases, the
motor's speed reduction is more pronounced, and the time taken to reach the setpoint is
extended.

KB Tawfiq et al [2023] This paper presents a mathematical design and analysis of

three-phase inverters applied in electric drive applications. The focus of the paper lies
in providing a comprehensive analysis of the dc-link voltage and current ripples in
three-phase inverters. Additionally, the study delves into determining the minimum dc-
link capacitor required to effectively manage the ripple current and voltage associated
with these inverters.

Neethu U. and Jisha V. R. [2012] The comparative study discussed on brushless DC

motor speed control. The BLDC motor mathematical model is created and used to
evaluate the performance of the controllers. Initially, a PI controller is created to control
the speed of the given BLDC motor. The controller is then upgraded to PID, and the
BLDC motor's performance is verified. Later, a fuzzy logic-based controller is created
to control the speed of the given BLDC motor. Unlike PI and PID controllers, fuzzy
logic-based controllers do not require tuning. Extensive simulations show that the
performance of the fuzzy logic controller outperforms all other controllers.

SK BISWAS [2016] The study gives a brief explanation about the power electronics
device which converts DC power to AC power at required output voltage and frequency
level is known as inverter. Inverters can be broadly classified into single level inverter
and multilevel inverter. Multilevel inverter as compared to single level inverters have
advantages like minimum harmonic distortion and can operate on several voltage
levels.

4
A Mohammad et al [2016] This paper gives detailed note about the three-phase
inverter is designed for operating a brushless dc motor. Following the operating
principle of a brushless dc motor, required switching is done by a microcontroller
(Arduino uno). Necessary gate driver circuit is also designed for proper operation of
the inverter. The practical result matches with the simulation result and the motor runs
successfully.

P Suganthi et al [2017] The proposed method explains the stability of the system is
achieved through the application of classical PID controllers and fuzzy logic
controllers. Two fuzzification methods, Sugeno and Mamdani, are considered, with the
Mamdani method being deemed more suitable. A theta angle value is provided as the
gate signal for the BLDC motor. The feedback controllers are directly linked to the
inverter to compute the error, which is then directly fed into the BLDC motor to attain
the desired output speed. Various dynamic characteristics of the BLDC motor, including
speed, current, and back electromotive force (EMF), are thoroughly analysed using
MATLAB simulation.

MA Shamseldin, AA EL-Samahy [2014] The paper discusses about the three distinct
robust controller techniques are introduced for enhancing the performance of brushless
DC (BLDC) motors. The primary objective is to assess the capability of each control
method in compelling the rotor to adhere to a predetermined speed/position trajectory,
irrespective of variations in parameters and external disturbances. The initial technique
employs a conventional PID controller, while the second technique involves the
utilization of a genetic algorithm to fine-tune PID controller parameters based on three
different cost functions. Lastly, a self-tuning fuzzy PID controller is developed and
subjected to testing. The evaluation encompasses both speed regulation and speed
tracking, revealing that the proposed self-tuning fuzzy PID controller exhibits superior
performance compared to the alternatives.

BK Lee, M Ehsani [2001] The study introduces an advanced brushless DC motor

(BLDCM) drive tailored for cost-effective and high-performance electric propulsion
systems in electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). The system
incorporates streamlined power converter topologies with a focus on reducing
components, along with an optimal Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control strategy to

5
achieve the desired dynamic and static speed and torque characteristics. The paper
meticulously outlines the theoretical underpinnings and operational principles of the
proposed low-cost BLDCM drive, presenting a thorough comparison of its performance
with a conventional counterpart through insightful simulation results. Additionally, the
study includes the construction of an IGBT inverter featuring a high-speed Digital
Signal Processor (DSP), specifically the TI TMS320 F243, to offer experimental
validation of the proposed approach.

W Salah et al [2011] This paper introduces an innovative Pulse Width Modulation

(PWM) switching strategy designed to mitigate torque ripples in Brushless DC (BLDC)
motors, relying on sensored rotor position control. The approach is implemented
through a PIC microcontroller, which generates adapted PWM signals for the power
inverter bridge. These modified PWM signals are effectively applied to the upcoming
phase current, resulting in a slight delay in its current rise during commutation.
Experimental findings demonstrate that the current waveforms under the modified
PWM exhibit greater smoothness compared to conventional PWM techniques.
Consequently, the output torque displays reduced ripple contents.

J Jezný et al [2013] The paper focuses on the application of Hall Effect sensors for
position measurement. These sensors respond to changes in a magnetic array by altering
their output analogue voltage. The static characteristics are investigated for both
polarities of a permanent magnet, serving as the source of the magnetic array. The Hall
Effect sensor, with its capability to detect magnetic changes, offers a contactless and
precise method for measuring position.

M Crescentini et al [2021] This study explores the world of Hall-effect current sensors,
which are crucial for measuring current in different applications like power electronics,
cars, and smart buildings. These sensors are gaining popularity because they are small,
cost-effective, consume low power, and work well with standard technologies. The
study covers the basics, from how Hall-effect sensors operate to designing the
semiconductor device and practical implementation techniques. It focuses on sensors
made with standard silicon technologies, discussing different ways to convert the
measured current into a magnetic field and the associated electronic components.

6
2.1 Research Gap:

Research on the speed control of BLDC motors encompasses a wide range of methods,
incorporating advanced control strategies, fault-tolerant mechanisms, optimization for
diverse operating conditions, sensor-less control techniques, coordination in multi-
motor systems, challenges in real-time implementation, mitigation of harmonic
distortion and electromagnetic interference, integration of energy regeneration and
storage, adaptability to various motor topologies, considerations for cybersecurity, and
life cycle analysis for sustainability. Addressing these gaps in research has the potential
to enhance efficiency, reliability, and sustainability in electric vehicle propulsion
systems.

2.2 Research Objective:

The objective of this project is to design and develop a generalized control drive for all
types of permanent magnet motors. The designed inverter circuit should efficiently
drive the BLDC motor and be capable of accommodating its electrical attributes,
including voltage, current, speed, and torque. The inverter should accept the gate
signals from the gate driver circuit and should provide the necessary switching
sequence for the speed control of the motor effectively.

2.3 Methodology:

The methodology outlined in this study details the steps taken to detect the Phases
between a Three-Phase Inverter and a Brushless DC (BLDC) motor. The literature
review covers the functioning of a three-phase inverter, hall sensors, and gate driver
circuits. Specifically, the design of a three-phase inverter circuit is highlighted, intended
for speed and torque control with the incorporation of a PID controller. The control
algorithm, responsible for determining the switching sequence, is thoroughly examined
and implemented within the gate driver circuit. It also involves determining the
appropriate switching sequence to implement for the corresponding phase sequence.
Following this, simulations are conducted, and the obtained results, along with output
waveforms, demonstrate the efficient operation of the designed control drive circuit.

7
 Literature Review

Control Drive Design

Switching Sequence
Calculation

Control Algorithm

Simulation

Result and Analysis

Fig.2.1 Methodology for Universal Control Drive.

8
 CHAPTER 3

DRIVE SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

3.1 Three-Phase Inverter Operation:

The Three-Phase inverter has three half bridge construction and each half bridge
regulates each one of the phases. The three-phase inverter is composed of six
semiconductor devices, such as IGBTs or MOSFETs, along with a DC power source
supply and filter circuits. The filter circuits, constructed with inductors and capacitors,
play a role in refining the output signal. The pulses are given to the gates of the switches.
In this type of inverter, it is again classified into two modes for conduction. They are
180° mode conduction and 120° mode conduction. Most of the motor applications use
120° mode of operation. The difference between these two modes is that, in 180° mode
there are no time gap between the commutation of the switches. This may lead to short
circuit. To avoid this condition, 120° mode is implemented in the three-phase inverter
for motor operations. Fig.3.1 shows the basic construction of the three-phase inverter.

Fig.3.1 Three-Phase Inverter circuit with star motor connection.

3.2 Six-Step Commutation:

Six-step commutation, also known as trapezoidal commutation, is a

commutation technique used to control three-phase brushless DC (BLDC) permanent

9
magnet motor. It controls the stator currents to achieve a motor speed and direction of
rotation.

The Hall sensors regulates signals and delivers it to the gate driver and provides
feedback in the binary code language. Based on these codes the BEMF waveform is
attained.

This switching sequence is a standard pattern for every type of motor. The default Hall
sequence number for BLDC operation is [5 4 6 2 3 1]. The below truth table 1 and 2
shows the sequence pattern:

Table 3.1 Truth Table for Hall Signals and BEMF

S.No. Hall Sensor Binary Codes EMF A EMF B EMF C

1 001 0 -1 +1

2 010 +1 0 -1

3 011 -1 0 +1

4 100 -1 +1 0

5 101 0 +1 -1

6 110 +1 -1 0

10
 Table 3.2 Truth Table for BEMF and Switches

Phase A Phase B Phase C

EMF EMF EMF
S1 S4 S3 S6 S5 S2
A B C

0 -1 +1 0 0 0 1 1 0

+1 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 1

-1 0 +1 0 1 0 0 1 0

-1 +1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

0 +1 -1 0 0 1 0 0 1

+1 -1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

The above tables represent the switching sequence occurs in a BLDC motor.

Let us take the first code of the hall sensor signals. The code 001 corresponds to the
electrical state of the Hall sensors when the rotor is in position 1 that is the rotor is
located nearly to the phase A. This means the first sensor is high (1), and the other two
are low (0), indicating rotor position 1. This code tells that the phase C and phase B
should be energised to rotate the rotor. The (+&-) represents the positive and negative
cycles of the phases. Equivalently, the other codes represent their respective rotor
positions. These codes provide information about which of the phases should be
energised to further rotate the rotor. From the BEMF signals either it is positive or
negative the six switches are operated in a controlled manner. And at any instance only
two switches are closed and the other four switches remains open. Let us assume that
the two phases A and B undergoes conduction of switches. Switch S1 and S6 are closed
and the other switches are open. The current flows from DC source and goes through
the switch S1 and reaches the motor’s stator coil. This stage is the positive cycle of

11
Phase A and then it comes to switch S6, completing the negative cycle. Same cyclic
process occurs for the corresponding phases. Fig.3.2 shows the voltage and current flow
through phase A and phase B. Fig.3.3 shows the current flow through phase B and phase
C. Fig.3.4 shows the current flow through phase C and phase A.

Fig.3.2 Voltage and Current flow through Phase A and Phase B

Fig.3.3 Voltage and Current flow through Phase B and Phase C

12
 Fig.3.4 Voltage and Current flow through Phase C and Phase A

The positive and negative cycle of the phases determines the direction of the rotor’s
motion. The above table shows the positive and negative cycles which are for clockwise
rotation of the rotor. And for anti-clockwise rotation the cyclic process works in vice
versa.

13
3.3 Influence of Phase Sequence:

When an inverter's three phases are properly connected to their corresponding

motor phases, the wiring usually follows a specific color-coding system. However,
there can be instances where the colour coding is inconsistent or unclear, leading to
confusion for those working with control drives. To tackle these situations, technicians
often use a trial-and-error approach, where they manually test different wire
connections to identify the correct setup. This involves experimenting with different
combinations to ensure the motor operates correctly without any issues. Therefore, if
the phases are not matching, a number of issues could arise. Phase mismatch can lead
to significant issues, including decreased motor performance, increased heat
generation, noise, and potential damage to the motor and inverter and sometimes lead
to short circuit. Sometimes, even if the motor is running, it might not achieve the
expected speed and torque due to incorrect switching sequences, and in some cases, it
might rotate in the wrong direction. Incorrect phase alignment can create mechanical
imbalances in the motor, leading to increased noise and vibration. This additional stress
can shorten the lifespan of the motor and its associated components.

There are six possible patterns for connecting the phases from the inverter to the motor.
To ensure the motor runs smoothly without any reduction in speed or torque, regardless
of how these connections are made, a specialized switching sequence must be created
for each pattern. This approach guarantees optimal motor performance even if the phase
connections vary.

The below table shows the six different connections and their sequence patterns.

14
Table 3.3 Inverter Phase connection ABC - Hall Sequence number will be [546231]

Hall BEMF Phase A Phase B Phase C

Signal
EMF A EMF B EMF C S1 S4 S3 S6 S5 S2

001 0 -1 +1 0 0 0 1 1 0

010 +1 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 1

011 -1 0 +1 0 1 0 0 1 0

100 -1 +1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

101 0 +1 -1 0 0 1 0 0 1

110 +1 -1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

Table 3.4 Inverter Phase connection ACB - Hall Sequence number will be [645132]

Hall BEMF Phase A Phase C Phase B

Signal
EMF A EMF B EMF C S1 S4 S3 S6 S5 S2

010 +1 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 1

001 0 -1 +1 0 0 0 1 1 0

011 -1 0 +1 0 1 0 0 1 0

100 -1 +1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

110 +1 -1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

101 0 +1 -1 0 0 1 0 0 1

15
Table 3.5 Inverter Phase connection BCA - Hall Sequence number will be [315462]

Hall BEMF Phase B Phase C Phase A

Signal
EMF A EMF B EMF C S1 S4 S3 S6 S5 S2

010 +1 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 1

100 -1 +1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

110 +1 -1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

001 0 -1 +1 0 0 0 1 1 0

011 -1 0 +1 0 1 0 0 1 0

101 0 +1 -1 0 0 1 0 0 1

Table 3.6 Inverter Phase connection BAC - Hall Sequence number will be [326451]

Hall BEMF Phase B Phase A Phase C

Signal
EMF A EMF B EMF C S1 S4 S3 S6 S5 S2

010 +1 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 1

100 -1 +1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

110 +1 -1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

001 0 -1 +1 0 0 0 1 1 0

011 -1 0 +1 0 1 0 0 1 0

101 0 +1 -1 0 0 1 0 0 1

16
Table 3.7 Inverter Phase connection CAB - Hall Sequence number will be [623154]

Hall BEMF Phase C Phase A Phase B

Signal
EMF A EMF B EMF C S1 S4 S3 S6 S5 S2

100 -1 +1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

001 0 -1 +1 0 0 0 1 1 0

101 0 +1 -1 0 0 1 0 0 1

010 +1 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 1

110 +1 -1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

011 -1 0 +1 0 1 0 0 1 0

Table 3.8 Inverter Phase connection CBA - Hall Sequence number will be [513264]

Hall BEMF Phase C Phase B Phase A

Signal
EMF A EMF B EMF C S1 S4 S3 S6 S5 S2

100 -1 +1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

010 +1 0 -1 1 0 0 0 0 1

110 +1 -1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

001 0 -1 +1 0 0 0 1 1 0

101 0 +1 -1 0 0 1 0 0 1

011 -1 0 +1 0 1 0 0 1 0

17
 CHAPTER 4

PROPOSED CONTROL DRIVE SYSTEM

4.1 Universal Control Drive Circuit:

The control drive circuit for 1KW BLDC motor is designed in MATLAB
SIMULINK. A 48V input voltage is applied to the control voltage source component.
The circuit incorporates a PID controller responsible for generating PWM signals.
These PWM signals are then fed to the voltage source element, which, in turn, adjusts
the voltage or current supplied to the BLDC motor, facilitating precise speed control.
Fig.4.1 depicts the universal control drive circuit designed in MATLAB.

Fig.4.1 Universal control drive circuit of BLDC motor.

A BLDC motor of rated power 1KW is chosen. Closed loop operation is

employed to control the speed. The speed of the motor is compared with its reference
value and the speed error is processed. The output of this controller is considered as the
reference torque. This control process is executed by PID controller.

The Universal Drive Encoder (UDE) houses gate driver systems for the six
configurations discussed earlier. Each system reads Hall sensor signals and produces
corresponding gate signals. The control algorithm block determines a switch number,
which is then used by the encoder to set a threshold. This threshold determines the

18
appropriate gate signals that are then provided to the inverter. Fig.4.2 shows the
components of the UDE.

Fig.4.2 Components of Universal Drive Encoder.

Each drive system includes several subsystems where feedback from Hall
sensor signals is transformed into electromotive forces (EMFs). These EMFs are then
converted into gate signals that control the six switches in the inverter circuit. Fig.4.3
show the components of Drive system ABC.

Fig.4.3 Components of Drive system ABC.

Fig.4.4, shows the gate driver circuit which is responsible for the generation of
gate signals to the switch. The circuit uses logical operators to produce the positive
BEMF and negative BEMF waveform. Fig.4.5, show the gate signal circuit which uses

19
the BEMF waveform for phase detection. This circuit decides which two of the switches
should operate at the time of instance.

Fig.4.4 Gate driver circuit.

Fig. 4.5 Gate Signal circuit.

20
4.2 Control Algorithm:

The control algorithm block decides which driver subsystem should operate
based on feedback from the BLDC motor. Although Hall sensors supply feedback to
generate gate signals, the control algorithm block uses current feedback to set the
threshold for the Universal Drive Encoder. This block determines which switch should
be ON for the corresponding phase connection of the inverter. Fig.4.6, shows the
components present inside the Control Algorithm Block.

Fig.4.6 Control Algorithm Block

In this setup, the current values are converted to integral values and then to
Boolean values. The Boolean values are used as the input variable u for the MATLAB
Function block, with the output variable y serving as a threshold for the Universal Drive
Encoder. The algorithm has a condition where u must be zero; otherwise, the value of
y increments by one until it reaches six, indicating the motor is running in the correct
switching sequence.

The algorithm is implemented in the MATLAB Function block. The following code
serves as the control algorithm for operating the Universal Control Drive.

21
function y = fcn(u)
% This function adjusts 'y' based on the input 'u'.
% 'y' increments when 'u' transitions from 0 to 1, or if
'u' remains 1 for at least 0.5 seconds.
% The maximum value for 'y' is 6.

% Persistent variable to keep track of the last value of

'u'
persistent last_u
% Persistent variable to keep track of the current value
of 'y'
persistent current_y
% Persistent variable to track how long 'u' has been 1
persistent time_u_is_1
% Persistent variable to track the last time the function
was called
persistent last_time

% Get the current time

current_time = now; % Returns the current time in MATLAB
time units

% Initialize 'last_u', 'current_y', 'time_u_is_1', and

'last_time' if they haven't been initialized yet
if isempty(last_u)
last_u = 0; % Assume the initial state of 'u' is 0
end
if isempty(current_y)
current_y = 1; % 'y' starts from 1
end
if isempty(time_u_is_1)
time_u_is_1 = 0; % Initialize the time counter for 'u'
being 1
end

22
if isempty(last_time)
last_time = current_time; % Initialize the last function
call time
end

% Calculate the time difference in seconds since the last

call
time_diff = (current_time - last_time) * 86400; %
Convert MATLAB time units to seconds

% If 'u' is 1, update the time counter

if u == 1
time_u_is_1 = time_u_is_1 + time_diff;
else
time_u_is_1 = 0; % Reset the time counter if 'u' is not
1
end
% If 'u' transitions from 0 to 1 and 'current_y' is less
than 6, increment 'y'
if last_u == 0 && u == 1 && current_y < 6
current_y = current_y + 1; % Increment 'y' up to 6
end
% If 'u' stays 1 for at least 0.5 seconds and 'current_y'
is less than 6, increment 'y'
if time_u_is_1 >= 0.5 && current_y < 6
current_y = current_y + 1;
time_u_is_1 = 0; % Reset time counter after incrementing
end
% Update 'last_u' and 'last_time'
last_u = u;
last_time = current_time;
% Return the current value of 'y'
y = current_y;
end

23
In an ideal switching sequence, the initial current spike reaches 120 Ah before
stabilizing to a range between 6 and 6.5 Ah within milliseconds. This initial spike of
120 Ah occurs due to the torque needed to start the motor, which is normal and safe
because a filter circuit and current limiters are in place to prevent short circuits.
Initially, the algorithm sets u to zero and y to one and starts the model. If u becomes
one, the value of y is incremented by one, so the new output value becomes two. The
algorithm then checks whether u is zero or one over a span of 0.5 seconds. If u
remains one during this 0.5-second interval, y increments by 1 again, making the
value three.
This process continues until y reaches six, after which the incrementing stops. This
logic helps ensure the motor achieves the correct switching sequence over time.

24
 CHAPTER 5
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The resulting graphs demonstrate the motor's parameters when it starts operating
in switch number 1. Here's how the phase combinations correspond to the switch
numbers:
• Switch Number 1: Engages the inverter when the phase combination is ABC.
• Switch Number 2: Activates the inverter for phase combination ACB.
• Switch Number 3: Triggers the inverter for phase combination BCA.
• Switch Number 4: Controls the inverter for phase combination BAC.
• Switch Number 5: Powers the inverter for phase combination CAB.
• Switch Number 6: Drives the inverter for phase combination CBA.

Each switch number dictates a specific phase sequence for the inverter, impacting the
behaviour and control of the motor.
Fig.5.1, which shows the output waveform generated by the BLDC motor in the Phase
Combination ABC, displays both the rotor speed in RPM and the electromagnetic
torque.

Fig.5.1 Output Waveform of the rotor speed and electromagnetic torque.

Fig.5.2 illustrates the output waveform of the stator currents for a BLDC motor in the
Phase combination ABC.

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 Fig.5.2 Output Waveform of the Stator currents (Phase ABC)

Fig.5.3, shows the Hall signals from the motor, indicating the rotor position. Each
waveform represents each one of the three phases.

Fig.5.3 Output Waveform of the hall signals.

Fig.5.4, shows the output waveform of the gate driver circuit which is the BEMF of
the respective phases of the motor.

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 Fig.5.4 Output Waveform of the back EMFs

When the phases between the inverter and the motor are incorrectly connected,
resulting in an ACB pattern instead of the expected sequence, the Universal Drive
Encoder quickly detects this mismatch through current feedback. It then automatically
adjusts the switch number from 1 to 2, correcting the phase configuration in a fraction
of a second. Fig.5.5 shows the misconnected phase connection ACB of the BLDC
motor.

Fig.5.5 Circuit of BLDC motor with Change in Phases (Phase ACB)

Fig.5.6 illustrates the output waveform generated by the BLDC motor in the Phase
Combination ACB without the use of a Universal Drive Encoder. This graph displays

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the rotor speed and the electromagnetic torque, revealing a waveform that lacks
uniformity and shows significant fluctuations.

Fig.5.6 Output Waveform of the speed and torque without UDE.

Fig.5.7 illustrates the output waveform of the stator currents for a BLDC motor in the
Phase combination ACB without using a Universal Drive Encoder. The graph
indicates that the stator currents for the three phases rise drastically, suggesting a high
risk of a short circuit in the circuit.

Fig.5.7 Output Waveform of the Stator currents without UDE.

Fig.5.8 illustrates the output waveform produced by the BLDC motor in the Phase
Combination ACB, as managed by the designed Universal Drive Encoder, displays
both the rotor speed in RPM and the electromagnetic torque.

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 Fig.5.8 Output Waveform of the speed and torque with UDE.
A slight ripple in both the rotor speed and torque may occur initially because the
switching sequence isn't correct. However, once the Universal Drive Encoder corrects
the switching sequence, the speed and torque stabilize to their normal levels, reaching
the expected values.
The same thing occurs with other parameters such as stator currents, Hall signals, and
back electromotive forces (BEMFs). Initially, there's some disturbance, but once it's
corrected, the waveforms return to their normal state.
Fig.5.9, illustrates the output waveform of the stator currents for a BLDC motor in the
Phase combination ACB.

Fig.5.9 Output Waveform of the Stator currents with UDE.

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Fig.5.10, shows the Hall signals from the motor, indicating the rotor position. Each
waveform represents each one of the three phases and Fig.5.11, shows the output
waveform of the gate driver circuit which is the BEMF of the respective phases of the
motor. Here, the initial broadening of the waveform is caused by the Universal Drive
Encoder (UDE).

Fig.5.10 Output Waveform of the Hall signals with UDE.

Fig.5.11 Output Waveform of the back EMFs with UDE.

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The output waveforms confirm that the designed Universal Control Drive successfully
operates the selected 1KW BLDC motor. The integrated Universal Drive Encoder
functions as intended, supplying the necessary switching sequence to the inverter
circuit for the appropriate phase combinations. However, there are issues with the
UDE's operation, particularly with switches beyond the first and second ones. In
instances where the switching sequence is incorrect, the stator current momentarily
exceeds 500Ah, causing the control algorithm to struggle in determining the
threshold. Even when the threshold is correctly set, the current feedback often
surpasses the reference value significantly, prompting the UDE to advance to the next
switch prematurely. This results in an error in sequence, leading to a short circuit of
the Control Drive. Implementing the current limitation in the UDE can solve the
problem of determining the threshold for the relevant phase combinations.

31
 CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

The project's conclusion is that connecting a three-phase inverter to another motor

reduces the inverter's efficiency, which in turn decreases the motor's torque and speed.
Initially, phase detection between the inverter and the motor is critical, which
complicates the commutation process due to the uncertainty regarding which phase is
linked to the first and respective hall sensors. Due to the reliance of the switching
sequence on binary codes supplied by the hall sensors, the subsequent corresponding
sequence is incorrect if the detected two phases—that is, if the positive and negative
phases—are improperly interconnected. In order to overcome these issues, a universal
control drive that regulates the switching sequence will be developed for all varieties
of permanent magnet motors. By analysing the six possible patterns of phase
combinations, the developed control algorithm determines which switching sequence
should be employed to manage the motor-controller connections. Thus, the proper
phase alignment is maintained to ensure optimal motor operation. To address the issue
of inappropriate current feedback affecting the determination of the threshold for the
UDE, it is essential to impose a limit on the current by setting a low reference safe
value. This limitation ensures that the current remains within a safe range, enabling
the UDE to establish a more precise and rapid threshold.
Due to the unique nature of the undertaking, the finalization of this task requires a
considerable amount of time. Implementing a current limiter for the UDE is necessary
to keeping the current from reaching dangerous levels. This ensures that the control
algorithm can quickly provide the threshold to the UDE, allowing it to achieve the
desired rotor speed and torque.

The future scope of this project involves converting this Simulink model into a
working prototype. Additionally, there's potential to develop the control algorithm
using back EMF for feedback, but managing back EMF-based feedback can be
challenging. This enhancement could be explored in future iterations of the project.

32
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