Topic1 - Population and

Settlement

1. Demographic status 7. Smart Cities

2. Population problems 8. Smart Villages
3. Demographic Dividend
4. Solutions
5. Migration
6. Urbanisation
Previous Year Questions
● Highlight the underlying geographical factors that influence the ● With a brief background of quality of urban life in India,
distribution of India's population introduce the objectives and strategy of the ‘Smart City
● Physical geography has a close relationship with Asia's population
distribution. Discuss some examples where such a relation does not
Programme’.
hold good. ● Major cities of India are becoming more vulnerable to
● What is the concept of a 'demographic winter'? Is the world moving flood conditions. Discuss.
towards such a situation? Elaborate. ● Account for the huge flooding of million cities in India
● Discuss the significance of India's demographic dividend in her including the smart ones like Hyderabad and Pune.
economic development
● Discuss the main objectives of Population Education and point out the
Suggest lasting remedial measures.
measures to achieve them in India in detail. ● Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the three megacities of
● Discuss the major factors responsible for migration of population into the country but the air pollution is a much more serious
Assam and state its probable socio-economic consequences. problem in Delhi as compared to the other two. Why is
● Why did human development fail to keep pace with economic this so?
development in India?
● Smart cities in India cannot sustain without smart
● What are the factors responsible for the out-migration of rural youths
from Assam? Do you think this is a positive and an inevitable process? villages. Discuss this statement in the backdrop of
● How is efficient and affordable urban mass transport key to the rapid rural urban integration.
economic development of India? ● Smart cities in India cannot sustain without smart
● The growth of cities as I.T. hubs have opened up new avenues of villages. Discuss.
employment but have also created new problems. Substantiate this
● Discussion of the various social problems which
statement with examples.
● What are the main socio-economic implications arising out of the originated out of the speedy process of urbanization in
development of IT industries in major cities of India? India.
Distribution of Population

History of settlement
Reference Question - Highlight the underlying geographical factors that influence the distribution of India's population

India occupies 2.4% of the land area of

the world but it is the home of ~18% of HISTORICAL
the world's population. POPULATION
India's population is unevenly GROWTH
distributed with majority of population
concentrated in

● Urban pockets
● North Indian plains
● Coastal Plains

Factors of distribution of population

Steady Rapid
● Physical Factors - Suitable Growth is
Growth Growth
climate, Availability of water, slowing
Accessibility Population
down
Explosion
● Human Factors - flat lands
(Terrain), suitable conditions for
agriculture, Industrial
development, Cultural
importance/History of settlement,
Urbanisation
Ref Q - Physical geography has a close relationship with Asia's population distribution. Discuss some examples where such a relation does not hold good.

Urbanisation – Singapore is very populated despite

adverse equatorial weather, similarly Dubai is very
populated
Political Factors - Capital cities like Dhaka, Jakarta, etc
are more populated. Business areas like Shanghai,
Hongkong, Tokyo are very populated
Transportation and Tourism hub like Dubai - More
populated despite having adverse weather conditions.
More mineral wealth is also a factor there.
Similarly, Sri Lanka’s port cities like Colombo

Mesopotamian Valley (Iraq) and areas near the Palestine

have high population due to long history of settlement

Population Distribution in Punjab and Bengal was

significantly changes due to migration, despite the
similar physical conditions

Environmental Reasons - New cities are being made

resistant to climate change impact. Jakarta to Nusantara
Critical Thinking Assgn. - Despite being rich in natural resources, many regions in the world such as parts of Siberia and the Congo Basin have low population
densities, whereas areas like the Ganges Plain and Nile Valley are densely populated despite facing environmental stress. Critically examine the key
factors—both physical and human—that explain this contrasting population distribution. Support your answer with suitable examples.
Type of Merits Demerits
Population
Density

Arithmetic - Simple and easy to calculate - Ignores land usability

Density
- Useful for general comparisons between - Can be misleading in regions with uninhabitable
countries areas (e.g., deserts, mountains)

Physiological - Better indicator of pressure on agricultural land - Requires accurate arable land data
Density
- Useful for analyzing food security - Not useful for urban-industrial regions

Agricultural - Indicates level of agricultural development - Ignores non-agricultural population, so valid only is
Density the main economy is agriculture

- Reflects efficiency of farming practices - Varies widely due to technology differences

Economic - Shows population pressure relative to economic - Complex to calculate

Density productivity

- Useful for development planning - Needs detailed and updated economic data

Nutritional - Highlights food adequacy - Depends on accurate food production stats

Density
- Important for food security analysis - Ignores food import/export

Urban Density - Useful for urban planning - Requires precise urban area data

- Indicates congestion and infrastructure needs - Ignores rural pressures

 Population Growth - Demographic parameters

Demographic parameters include data ● Death Rate: The total death numbers in a given area
during a time per 1000 population
points such as age distribution, gender ● Birth Rate: The total number of live births in a given
area during a time per 1000 people
ratio, fertility rates, mortality rates, ● Growth Rate: It is determined by the gap between
the birth rate and the death rate
migration patterns, and population ● Infant Mortality Rate: The numeral babies who died
density. before reaching 1 year of age per 1000 live births
● Maternal Mortality: The numeral women who die at
childbirth per 1,00,000 live births
Such demographic parameters are useful ● Life Expectancy: The estimated number of years a
person is expected to live
in policy making related with resource ● Sex Ratio: The total number of females per 1000
allocation and understanding the current males in a specific region
● Total Fertility Rate (TFR) denotes the total number
and future needs of the population. of children a woman is expected to give birth to in
her lifetime
● Literacy rate - Person aged seven and above, who
can both read and write with understanding in any
language, is treated as literate
Demographic transition theory
can be used to describe and
predict the future population of
any area. The theory tells us that
population of any region changes
from high births and high deaths
to low births and low deaths as
society progresses from rural
agrarian and illiterate to urban
industrial and literate society.
These changes occur in stages
which are collectively known as
the demographic cycle.
●The first stage has high fertility and high mortality because people reproduce more to compensate for
the deaths due to epidemics and variable food supply. The population growth is slow and most of the
people are engaged in agriculture where large families are an asset. Life expectancy is low, people are
mostly illiterate and have low levels of technology. Two hundred years ago all the countries of the world
were in this stage.
●Fertility remains high in the beginning of second stage but it declines with time. This is accompanied
by reduced mortality rate. Improvements in sanitation and health conditions lead to decline in mortality.
Because of this gap the net addition to population is high.
●In the last stage, both fertility and mortality decline considerably. The population is either stable or
grows slowly. The population becomes urbanised, literate and has high technical know- how and
deliberately controls the family size.
●This shows that human beings are extremely flexible and are able to adjust their fertility.
 India’s Population growth Rate
● Period of Stagnant Population (1901-1921) -
High birth rate counterbalanced by high death
rate. The Census of 1921 recorded a negative
growth rate hence the year 1921 is called the
year of the ‘Demographic Divide’.
● Period of steady growth (1921-1951) - The high
birth rate continued. The mortality rate started
showing a downward trend due to improvements
in health and sanitation conditions along with a
developed distribution system. Hence it was
mortality-induced growth.
● Period of rapid high growth (1951-1981) -
There was a steep fall in the mortality rate but the
fertility rate remained high resulting in a very high
rate of population growth. It is referred to as the
period of population explosion which was the
result of fertility-induced growth.
● Period of high growth with definite signs of
slowing down(1981- 2011) - The highest-ever
growth rate of 22.2 % was recorded in 1971-1981
after the declining trend in population growth
started. The recent Census of 2021 reported
addition of fewer people than its previous decade.
This indicates a positive result of official efforts of
birth control and people’s enhanced awareness
led to an inclination towards smaller families
India’s Population growth Rate
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR STILL HIGH
POPULATION GROWTH IN INDIA -
● High Fertility Rates:
○ High reproductive age population
(Youth bulge refers to a demographic
pattern where a large share of the
population is comprised of children and
young adults),
○ Desire for male child → continue
○ Cultural and Social Factors
● Declining Mortality Rates - due to better
access to medicines
● Limited Access to Family Planning - lack of
access to modern contraceptives
● Poverty and Education → more hands to
feed
● Early marriage + Child Marriage = increased
reproductive span
2. State of the World Population 2025 (11th June 2025)

What is the news?

● State of the World Population 2025 report

has been release by the United Nations
Population Fund (UNFPA).
● Title of the report-“State of the World
Population 2025: The Real Fertility Crisis”.
Main highlights of the report regarding India
1. India is now the most populous country
with current population at 146.39 crore.
2. India’s population is expected to peak at 170
crore in around 40 years, before beginning
to decline.
3. Total Fertility Rate (TFR) in India is 1.9,
below the replacement level of 2.1.
4. 68% of India’s population is in the 15–64
age group.
Definition - A graphical representation of age-sex composition of a
population, with males on the left and females on the right.

Types & Interpretations:

1. Expanding (Progressive) Population
📍 Example: Nigeria (2003)
🔸 Triangular shape, wide base
🔸 High birth rate, youthful population

2. Stationary (Constant) Population

📍 Example: Australia (2003)
🔸 Bell-shaped pyramid
🔸 Birth ≈ Death rate → Population stabilizes

3. Declining (Regressive) Population

📍 Example: Japan (2003)
🔸 Narrow base, top-heavy
🔸 Low birth rate, ageing population

Key Insights from Age-Sex Pyramids:

● Population Growth Trend
● Sex Ratio by Age Groups
● Demographic Transition Stage (DTM)
● Migration, Ethnicity Data Integration
● Economic Indicators: Employment, Living Standards
Reference Question - What is the concept of a 'demographic winter'? Is the world moving towards such a situation? Elaborate.

The term “demographic winter” refers to a situation where birth rates

fall significantly below the replacement level, leading to an aging
population, a shrinking workforce, and economic challenges.

The population replacement rate, often around 2.1 children per

woman, is the total fertility rate needed for a population to maintain its
size from one generation to the next without migration. If the fertility
rate falls below this level, a population will eventually decline
Reference Question - Discuss the main objectives of Population Education and point out the measures to achieve them in India in detail.

Population Problems in India

Population pressure on resources Low levels of development
● Scarcity of clean water ● Poor literacy rates particularly amongst the
● Land fragmentation females
● Pressure on Health, Education, Energy, transport and
● Poor digital and financial literacy
urban infrastructure Infrastructure
● Together this causes inequality ● Lack of good education
● Poor health infrastructure
● High disease burden
High inequality

● Regional inequality
○ Southern states are more developed compared to the High unemployment and skilling
northern states like UP Bihar
● Gender inequality ● Due to high illiteracy and low level of skill
○ According to the World Bank India has one of the lowest development people fail to find well paying
female labour force participation rates
○ Wage disparity in females jobs
● Rural versus urban inequality causing high rural to ● This further causes poor levels of Health And
urban migration literacy resulting in the vicious cycle of
● Inequality Between castes and tribes poverty
Reference Question - Discuss the significance of India's demographic dividend in her economic development.
India's demographic dividend may soon turn to demographic disaster in absence of proper education, skilling and employment opportunities.

Demographic Dividend
What is Demographic Dividend?

● According to United Nation population

fund, Demographic Dividend is defined
as, the economic growth potential that
can result from change in population
age structure where shares of the
working age population is greater than
non-working age share. India would
experience this phase between 2018 -
2055. This phase will be available at
different times in different states.
● In India, working age population is 15-59
Reference Question - Discuss the significance of India's demographic dividend in her economic development.
India's demographic dividend may soon turn to demographic disaster in absence of proper education, skilling and employment opportunities.

Demographic Dividend
How to prevent demographic dividend
from being demographic disaster?
5 main pillars -
1. Good food and nutrition
a. National food Security Act
b. midday meal
2. Good health to increase labour
productivity
a. Ayushmann Bharat
3. Good education and knowledge
based economy
a. Right to education
b. New education policy
4. Good skilling and upskilling
a. Skill India mission
5. Good employment
HW - “Full literacy now includes digital, financial and entrepreneurial skills” . Discuss in the light of national skill development policies.

Population Problems - Solutions (Specific Areas)

Literacy (Status) Advantages of literacy
● According to the census of India , a person aged seven and ● Inclusive Growth
above who can both read and write with understanding in ○ Financial Inclusion
any language is treated as literate. ● Good governance
● The literacy rate in the country is 74.04 per cent, 82.14 for ○ Participation of people
males and 65.46 for females ○ Grassroot democracy
● Literacy rate is directly proportional to the development of the ● Women empowerment
state. Literate populations tend to show better health ● Yielding demographic dividend
indicators and they are easily accommodated into the labour ○ Economic growth
force ● Improvement in quality of life
Digital Literacy and social well being
● Helps in using modern technology ○ Brotherhood and bonding
● Increases accountability and transparency in governance in society
● Ensures better public service delivery ● Biodiversity protection and
● Essential for knowledge based economy environmental conservation
Financial Literacy ● Less problems of Internal
● Ability of the person to understand basic financial tools to security
make informed financial decisions ● Better disaster management
● Key components - budgeting, savings and investing, credit ● Increase in morals and ethics of
management and financial planning society
1. Functional Literacy (22 May 2025)
What is ‘Functional literacy’?

● The term "Functional Literacy" is defined under the ULLAS

initiative launched by the Ministry of Education.
Definition of Functional Literacy
● "Functional literacy" means the ability of an individual to
read and write with understanding, and perform basic
arithmetic calculations, which is necessary for daily life Objectives of ULLAS:
activities. ● Achieve Universal Literacy
ULLAS (Understanding of Lifelong Learning for All in Society) and Numeracy.
● Initiative by the Ministry of Education, Government of India. ● Promote critical life skills like
● Launched to promote lifelong learning, especially adult financial literacy, legal literacy,
education and literacy. health and wellness.
● Implemented in alignment with the National Education ● Foster a culture of learning
Policy (NEP) 2020. among all age groups.
Target group ● Use technology to bridge the
● Aged People who are 15 and above from all backgrounds literacy gap.
who missed formal schooling. ● Encourage sense of duty or
Kartavya Bodh’ towards
functional literacy.
Ref Q. Critically examine whether growing population is the cause of poverty OR poverty is the main cause of population increase in India

Population Problem – Poverty (24th Jan

2025)
Historically, the idea
that growing
population contributes
Rapidly growing
to poverty stems from Population
the Malthusian theory
of population Children seen as
economic assets + large Pressure on
• Increasing family seen as social
security resources
population will
outstrip the
food/resources 🡪
per capita resource
scarcity Poor family planning due Overexploitation
to less literacy + High
• Higher poverty infant mortality due to and resource
poor healthcare depletion
increases
population due to
various
socio-economic
Low economic
factors High Poverty
growth
Ref Q. Why did human development fail to keep pace with economic development in India?

Population Problem – Human

Development (8th may 2025)
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): Human
development is "the process of enlarging people’s choices" 🡪
allowing them to "lead a long and healthy life, to be educated,
to enjoy a decent standard of living", as well as "political
freedom, other guaranteed human rights and various
ingredients of self-respect"
The 2025 Human Development Report titled “A
Matter of Choice: People and Possibilities in the Age
● Human Development Report is published by United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) since 1990. of AI”, emphasizes the impact of artificial
UNDP is a UN agency created by General Assembly of intelligence on the future of human development. It
United Nations. In its Human Development Report it reports a significant global slowdown in human
publishes Human Development Index which is a development progress, marking the weakest pace
comprehensive approach to measure development since 1990, excluding the 2020–2021 pandemic
of a country. years. The report also presents the Human
● HDI indicators were developed for UNDP by a Development Index (HDI) scores and rankings
Pakistani economist Mahbub- ul- Haq(in association for the year 2023. Notably, it highlights that 60% of
with Indian economist Amartya Sen). people in low- and medium-HDI countries expect
● HDI score of countries is given between 0(worst) to AI to increase their productivity, underlining both
1(best). the opportunities and challenges posed by emerging
technologies.
Economic Growth Economic Development Human Development
•Increase in GDP •Increase in overall standard •Widest scope 🡪 Overall well
•Narrow Scope of living, well being and being and capabilities of
•Quantitative change quality of life individuals
•Wide Scope 🡪 includes •Covers political freedom,
poverty reduction, inclusive expansion of choices and not
growth, environmental just material wealth
sustainability
•Qualitative change
Aspect Human Development Economic Growth Economic Development
Definition Process of enlarging people’s Increase in a country's output Broad improvement in living
choices and improving of goods and services standards, including economic
well-being (health, education, (GDP/GNP) growth, social indicators, and
dignity) institutional changes
Focus People-centric (quality of life) Income/output-centric Holistic (economic + social
progress)
Key Indicators HDI – includes health, GDP, GNP, per capita income GDP + literacy, life
education, and income expectancy, poverty levels,
inequality
Nature Qualitative and quantitative Purely quantitative Both qualitative and
quantitative
Scope Broader – includes freedom, Narrow – only economic Intermediate – considers
dignity, and opportunities output social transformation along
with growth
Goal Enhancing human capabilities Higher national income Sustainable improvement in
and freedoms economic and social
well-being
2. Human Development Report 2025 (8th may 2025)
India’s performance on HDI 2023

● India ranks 130th(in 2023), improving from 133rd in 2022.

● India’s HDI value increased from 0.676 in 2022 to 0.685 in
2023(India remains in medium human development category).
● Life expectancy in India reached 72 years in 2023(the highest
recorded since the inception of the index).
● Children in India now stay in school for 13 years on average,
up from 8.2 years in 1990, driven by initiatives like the Right to
Education Act and National Education Policy (2020).
● India’s Gross National Income (GNI) per capita is $2,230 in
2023, reflecting moderate economic growth.
● Among BRICS members, India trailed Brazil (89th), Russia
(59th), China (75th), and South Africa (110th).
Amongst neighbours of India
● China (78th), Sri Lanka (89th), and Bhutan (125th) rank above
India
● Bangladesh (130th) is on par.
● Nepal (145th), Myanmar (150th), and Pakistan (168th) are
ranked below India.
SDG
(No Poverty) and (Hunger) for (Good Health)

(Educated) (Genders) (Want) (Clean Energy), (Economic Growth) and (Industry)

(Reduced) (cities) and (Recycling)

(Action) (Below) (Land)

(Peaceful) (Partnership)
Approaches to Human Development
Approach Description Example Scheme (National/Assam)
Focuses on human development as tied
Orunodoi Scheme (2020): Gives ₹1,250 monthly to 19.1 lakh
Income Approach to income levels, equating higher
families in Assam for essentials like food.
(5th Jan 2024) income with greater freedom and
Minimum Income Schemes like NYAY
development.
Emphasizes government expenditure
Ayushman Bharat Scheme (2018): Offers up to ₹5 lakh per family
on education, health, and social
for healthcare.
Welfare Approach amenities, viewing people as recipients
Atal Amrit Abhiyan (2016, ongoing): Provides ₹2 lakh health
of welfare to maximize human
insurance per family in Assam.
development.
Proposed by the ILO, prioritizes six
Jal Jeevan Mission (2019): Ensures piped water to rural
Basic Needs basic needs—health, education, food,
households, covering over 80% by 2025.
Approach water supply, sanitation, and
Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana (PMGKAY) - Food for all
housing—over human choice.
National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: Targets 50% Gross
Enrollment Ratio in higher education by 2035.
Associated with Prof. Amartya Sen, Mukhya Mantri Nijut Moina (MMNM) Scheme (2024): Supports
focuses on building human capabilities girls’ education in Assam to reduce child marriage.
Capability Approach
in health, education, and resource Chief Minister’s Atmanirbhar Asom Abhijan (2023): Provides
access to enhance development. ₹2-5 lakh to 2 lakh youth for entrepreneurial ventures in Assam.
Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan (2020, ongoing): Boosts income
through job creation and manufacturing incentives
 Initiatives by Government to increase Human Development (OYO)
Orunodoi Scheme: Provides ₹1,250 monthly to impoverished families,
1. Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY) focusing on women's empowerment
- Offers up to ₹5 lakh per family per year for Chief Minister’s Atmanirbhar Asom Abhijan: Offers ₹2-5 lakh to 2 lakh
secondary and tertiary care hospitalization youth for entrepreneurial ventures, with ongoing registration promoting
2. Jal Jeevan Mission - To provide safe and self-reliance.
adequate drinking water to all rural households Mukhya Mantri Nijut Moina (MMNM) Scheme: Supports girls' education
by 2024 (extended efforts ongoing in 2025). to combat child marriage, showing increased school retention.
3. Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan - integrates earlier Pragyan Bharati Scooty Scheme: Awards scooters to meritorious girls,
schemes like Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and with over 22,000 distributed by 2025 to enhance access to education.
Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan. It Atal Amrit Abhiyan: Provides up to ₹2 lakh annual health insurance for
focuses on teacher training, digital education critical illnesses, reducing medical costs for many.
(e.g., DIKSHA platform), and inclusive Sneha Sparsha Scheme: Funds specialized treatments for families below
education for marginalized groups the poverty line, improving health outcomes.
4. Skill India Mission Kanaklata Mahila Sabalikaran Achoni (KMSA): Empowers women
5. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) through financial support and training to start businesses.
6. National Education Policy (NEP) - to boost Kushal Konwar Briddha Pension Scheme: Offers monthly pensions to
educational attainment and skills senior citizens over 60, enhancing their quality of life.
7. Digital India Initiative Swami Vivekananda Youth Empowerment (SVAYEM) Yojana: Supports
8. Poshan Abhiyan - To eradicate malnutrition youth in income-generating activities, reducing unemployment.
among children, pregnant women, and lactating Assam Punya Tirtha Yojana: Facilitates pilgrimages while preserving
mothers religious heritage, benefiting residents with incomes under ₹2.5 lakh.
What are the factors responsible for the out-migration of rural youths from Assam? Do you think this is a positive and an inevitable process?
Discuss the major factors responsible for migration of population into Assam and state its probable socio-economic consequences.

Migration - Causes

International Organisation for Migration

(IOM): A migrant is a person who moves
away from his or her place of usual
residence, whether within a country or
across an international border, temporarily
or permanently, and for a variety of reasons.
What are the factors responsible for the out-migration of rural youths from Assam? Do you think this is a positive and an inevitable process?
Discuss the major factors responsible for migration of population into Assam and state its probable socio-economic consequences.

Migration - Consequences
Positive Outcomes Negative Outcomes
1. Migrant laborers are often discriminated against
1. Labour Demand and Supply → cheap and 2. Internal security challenges can increase
efficient labour → Economic growth a. Example influx of Rohingya refugees in
2. Economic Remittances to source region India
3. Illegal occupation of land
3. Skill Development → even the unskilled a. Example encroachment of land by the
migrants help in exchange of skills illegal migrants in Assam
4. Quality of Life due improves due to economic 4. Population Explosion and the Influx of workers in
the place of destination increases competition for
contribution from migrants the job, houses, school facilities etc and a large
5. Social impact → Cosmopolitan culture, population puts too much pressure on natural
pluralism resources, amenities, and services.
5. Illiterate and Under Skilled migrations are not only
6. Migrants get access to food and nutrition in unfit for most jobs, because of a lack of basic
new region → Overall food and nutrition knowledge and life skills but are also prone to the
security increases victimization of exploitation, trafficking,
psychological abuse, and gender-based violence
7. Demographic Advantage → source region in the case of female migration.
experiences low population pressure while 6. Increased Slums Because migrants are not able
to get affordable housing
destination region experiences the 7. Brain Drain
demographic advantage
External Migration
● External migration refers to the movement of people from one country to
another for the purpose of changing their place of residence. It involves
crossing international borders and can be either voluntary or forced. External
migration has a significant impact on both the sending and receiving countries
● Reasons for the external migration – Same as the push-pull factors
● Impacts of External Migration –
○ Positive Impacts - Economic Growth, Cultural Exchange, Skill Acquisition and Knowledge
Transfer, Innovation and Entrepreneurship, Workforce and Skills Enhancement, Global
Connections and Networks
○ Negative Impacts - Brain Drain, Exploitation and Vulnerability, Dependency on Remittances,
Social Tensions, Loss of Human Capital Investment, Social Challenges
Term Meaning How It Differs from
Migration

Refugee A person forced to flee their Not all migrants are refugees;
country due to war, refugees migrate out of
persecution, or disaster compulsion, often across
borders

Asylum Someone who has applied for May migrate, but their status
Seeker protection as a refugee but is based on legal recognition
whose status hasn’t been
confirmed

Emigration Leaving one’s country to settle One side of migration

in another (outward movement)

Immigration Entering a new country to live The receiving side of

permanently migration

Diaspora People who live outside their Result of migration, but refers
ancestral homeland but to a settled, often long-term
maintain cultural ties community

Trafficking Illegal movement of people, Involves movement, but is

often for forced labor or coercive and criminal, not
exploitation voluntary like many migrations

Nomadism Regular movement without a Not migration in the

fixed home, often traditional conventional sense of
permanent relocation

Repatriation Returning to one’s home A return phase of migration,

country not outward migration itself
Assam’s Population Growth rate
Assam Population Distribution (From
Swadesh Darshan)
• There is a marked variations in respect of population concentration • Among the 33 districts of Assam the growth rate in 14 districts are
in the plains and the hilly districts. In the thirty plain districts of higher than the state’s average growth rate. The districts having
Assam, on average, the population density is 397 per km2. On the higher growth rate than the state’s average are – Dhubri (24.4%),
other hand, the three hilly districts have only 12 persons per km2 Morigaon (23.4%), Mankachar (23.3%), Goalpara (22.8%), Nagaon
i.e. sparsely populated (dispersed pattern of settlement) (22.1%), Hailakandi (21.5%), Barpeta (21.4%), Karimganj (20.8%),
Cachar (20.2%), Darrang (19.5%), Kamrup Metro (19.5%), Dhemaji
• In all the 33 districts of Assam there is a spatial variation so far the (20.3%), Karbi Anglong (10.4%) and Lakhimpur (17.1%).
distribution and the density of population is concerned. • While the growth rate of population in Kamrup Metro, Dhemaji,
Karbi Anglong and Lakhimpur have been ascertained to be the
• On the south bank of Brahmaputra, east of Golaghat district of result of inter-district and inter-state migration, the other ten
Assam and in the north bank east of the Bornadi all the districts district’s unnatural growth rate may be termed as suspected
(except the town areas) exhibit sparse population. illegal migration from neighbouring countries mainly
• On the other hand, in the central Brahmaputra Valley region districts Bangladesh and Nepal.
(except the BTC districts) are densely populated. • They settle down in the charlands and riverine islands and are
• All the three hilly districts are sparsely populated due to the terrain associated with the production of Rabi crops. Another section
character of the land and other amenities of life. unorganised, untrained labourers works generally in the
construction activities. These labourers are cheaper and ready to
• In BTC the three districts namely Chirang, Baksa and Udalguri, work and mainly resides temporarily in city slums. They are
except Kokrajhar, are sparsely populated. generally protected by troop commander called ‘Matabbor’ on
commission basis against daily wage. A section of such immigrants
• All the districts of Barak Valley are densely populated. As on today deals in vegetables and poultry in the form of vendors visiting door
no district of Barak Valley is having less than 300 people per square to door in the city areas.
kilometre. Maximum concentration occur in the Karimganj District.
Occupational Structure - India
• Workforce Composition:
• Main workers: Those working for at least 6 months a year.
• Marginal workers: Those working less than 6 months a year.
• Non-workers: 60% of the population.
• Sectoral Distribution:
• Primary Sector (54.6%): Cultivators and agricultural laborers dominate rural
areas.
• Secondary Sector (3.8%): Household industries are minimal.
• Tertiary Sector (41.6%): Urban areas increasingly shift to trade, services,
and industrial jobs.
• Regional Trends:
• High participation in agriculture in Himachal Pradesh and Nagaland.
• Urban areas like Delhi and Chandigarh show dominance in services.
Occupational Structure - Assam
• Sectoral Distribution:
• Primary activities 52.4 per cent (agriculture 40 and agricultural labour 12.4 p.c.)
• Secondary activities 14.0 per cent
• Tertiary activities 24.3 per cent
• Quaternary activities 6.3 per cent
• Quaternary activities in the ‘Knowledge Sector’ are specialised tertiary activities that
require their own categorization. From mutual fund managers to tax advisors, software
engineers, and statisticians, need for and consumption of information-based services has
increased dramatically. This group includes employees who work in offices, elementary
schools, and college classrooms, hospitals and physicians’ offices, theatres, accountancy,
and brokerage businesses. Quaternary tasks, like some tertiary services, can be
outsourced. They aren’t reliant on resources, aren’t influenced by the environment, and
aren’t always market-driven.
• Quinary activities 3.0 per cent
• Quinary activities focus on the creation, reorganisation, and evaluation of fresh and
innovative ideas, and also interpretation of data and new technology usage and
assessment. ‘Gold collar’ professions are a subset of the tertiary sector that reflect the
particular and highly compensated abilities of top business executives, government
officials, scientific researchers, legal and financial advisors, and others.
Reference Question - With a brief background of quality of urban life in India, introduce the objectives and strategy of the ‘Smart City Programme’.
Discussion of the various social problems which originated out of the speedy process of urbanization in India.

Urbanisation - Problems
As per the Census of India 2011, more than 31% of the
population lived in cities, and by 2030, that number is
predicted to rise to 41%
Problems with India’s urbanisation
1. High Population Pressure on existing public
services - due to continuous rural-urban migration
a. slums, crime, unemployment, urban poverty, pollution,
congestion, ill-health
2. Unplanned Development - Urban areas expands
into the adjoining rural areas
3. Overflowing slums
a. Ghettoization on the basis on class,
language, religion, etc. 🡪 'Class
Ghettoization' 7. Nuclear family + Individualistic culture → Generation gap
4. Inadequate housing - People often have to live in 8. Increasing social media + poor work life balance → mental
filthy circumstances in densely populated areas health is deteriorated
5. Welfare programs are non inclusive in nature and 9. Inequality and poor wages → Increase in crime
often exclude the migratory population 10. Deterioration of environment
Urban Areas – Classification and Definition
The following standards are used in India Why Urbanisation in Increasing in
to categorise urban settlements: India?
● According to the 2011 census, there ● Industrialisation
should be more than 5000 people living
there. ● Commercialisation
● At least 75% of working men should be ● Better employment and declining
employed in non-primary industries. agricultural income
● The town area committee should have ● Modernisation
informed the urban area, which should ● Rural-Urban change
have a municipality, corporation, or Not only in India, but across the world it
canton board.
● More than 400 people should live in is expected that 68% of world’s
each square km. population is going to reside in cities by
2050.
Urbanisation – Some common Terms associated with it
Term Definition Example (World) Example (India)
Outlying residential areas surrounding a major city, Suburbs of New York City Gurugram (developed as
Suburbs
often with lower population density. (e.g., Jersey City) a suburb of Delhi)
Two similar cities that are geographically close and
Minneapolis‚ St. Paul Hyderabad,
Twin Cities have grown together while maintaining separate
(USA) Secunderabad
identities.
A large city that forms the core of a metro area and Nearly all the capital
Metro Guwahati
drives economic and social activity. cities
Metropolitan A region comprising a central city and its surrounding Greater London Area
Delhi NCR
Area suburbs and towns, socio-economically linked. (UK)
An extended urban area formed by the merging of
Conurbation The Ruhr (Germany)
multiple towns and cities.
A vast, continuous urban region formed by the
Megalopolis BosWash Corridor (USA)
convergence of multiple metropolitan areas.
Very large cities, typically with populations over 10 Shanghai, New York, Sao
Megacities Mumbai, Delhi
million, often global in influence. Paulo
Cities that are disproportionately larger and more
Primate Cities Paris (France) Mumbai
important than any other city in the country.
Urban Planning Chandigarh - city
Disciplines focused on designing and regulating land Barcelona's Superblocks
and Town planning by Le
use, infrastructure, and urban development. (Spain)
Planning Corbusier
Urbanisation – Problems - Slums
● Any compact housing cluster of 20 households with poor ● Education and Public health: They have to rely on public
infrastructure and inadequate sanitation facilities is referred schools and hospitals which majorly are in an archaic state.
to as a slum as per the 2011 census definition. Whereas others have good convents and private hospitals
24/7 with world-class facilities.
● SOCIAL-CULTURAL IMPLICATIONS:

● Gated communities: The rise of gated communities manifest

● Water supply and sewerage problem: Slum dwellers have to
rely on tankers which is also not regular and the issue of
into concrete structures surrounded by lower-middleclass, tanker mafias exists.
poor ghettos/slums 🡪 socio-cultural divide
● Social Immobility: lack of opportunity leads to the
● Infrastructure: There is a visible difference in terms of street
lights, roads, community gardens etc.
informalization of ghettos in terms of employment which
results in a lack of upward social mobility. ● Economy: The slums and suburbs serve as employees of the
cosmopolitan population as household workers, and
● Unconnected with home: Due to the nature of the job, they
employees of companies owned by cosmopolitan people.
remain socially and politically unattached from their
hometown thus further delineating them from society. ● In formalisation of employment: mainly employed as rag
pickers or low-paying uncertain jobs like fruit thela etc.
● Double Jeopardy: Slums are habited by lower castes,
minorities, and the poor from rural areas hence caste and ● Urban crime: Due to lack of basic amenities, opportunities,
religious ghettoization further augment their alienation. alienation, and in formalisation of employment, the youth are
more prone to crime exposure.
● Mental Health
Reference Question - With a brief background of quality of urban life in India, introduce the objectives and strategy of the ‘Smart City Programme’.

Urbanisation - Solution - Smart City Program

Strategies:
Objectives of Smart India Programme: ● Pan-city initiative: Eg: Applying smart solutions in the
● Providing basic infrastructure: In synergy with transport sector
AMRUT it includes smart solutions towards providing ● Area based approach: It develop areas step-by-step
affordable housing, efficient urban mobility, Assured based on three models of area-based developments:
○ Retrofitting: It is development of an existing built
water & electricity supply, Sanitation & Solid Waste
area greater than 500 acres so as to achieve the
Management, Affordable Housing, Robust IT
objective of smart cities mission to make it more
connectivity, health and education, e-governance & efficient and livable e.g. Local Area Development
citizen participation, Safety & security of citizens, (Ahmedabad).
Economic Activities & Livelihood Opportunities ○ Redevelopment: It is replacing existing built
● Improving the Quality of life environment in an area of more than 50 acres and
● Clean and sustainable environment to enable co-creation of a new layout, especially
● Applying Smart Solutions to urban problems: It is enhanced infrastructure, mixed land use and
application of IT&C to municipal services and increased density e.g. Bhendi Bazar, Mumbai
○ Greenfield: It is developing a previously vacant
infrastructure to make them better. Eg: Safe city project
area of more than 250 acres using innovative
with City-wide intelligent video surveillance network,Real planning, plan financing and plan implementation
time, online systems of monitoring water quality etc. tools with provision for affordable housing,
● To set examples to be replicated both within and outside especially for the poor e.g. Net Town, Kolkata.
the Smart City and catalyze the creation of similar Smart Smart City Programme envisages to provide smart solutions and
Cities. clean & safe environment to every citizen. Thus Smart City
Programme is a huge step towards improving the quality of urban
life.
Reference Question - How is efficient and affordable urban mass transport key to the rapid economic development of India?.

Urbanisation - Solutions - Others

● In-situ Slum rehabilitation program To Improve Urban Environment
● One Nation One Ration Card for nutritional security ● Energy and Green Buildings - It aims to
● PM SVANidhi to empower street vendors holistically with achieve energy efficient street lighting in
credit facilities the city, green building adoption and
● Smart City Mission to improve urban infrastructure promotion.
● SDG Goal 11 - Make cities resilient inclusive and
● Urban Planning must include green cover
and biodiversity
sustainable
● Adequate public transport in order to
improve air quality
Role of Urban mass transport ● Waste Management - It aims to manage
● Supports clusters and agglomerations, otherwise landfills and dump sides on scientific lines
growth of large city is going to get hindered by so that a minimum amount of toxic gases
availability of private vehicle and polluting gases get discharged into the
atmosphere. Further dry waste recovered &
● Saves precious time wasted in traffic jams
recycled leading to waste minimization.
● Enhances labour force participation ● Rejuvenating urban water bodies
● Reduces the pollution ○ Water bodies stabilize urban climate
● Reduces the stress due to long hours of driving and ○ Vegetation around the water bodies
traffic jams maintains the temperature
Reference Question - Smart cities in India cannot sustain without smart villages. Discuss this statement in the backdrop of rural urban integration.
Q - Smart cities in India cannot sustain without smart villages. Discuss.

Smart Villages
Why smart villages are required?
● Almost 70% of the Indian population
lives in villages.
● The lack of job opportunities in villages
coupled with less remunerative farming
(except in the case of large land
holdings) compels village youth to
migrate to cities → Pressure on the city
resources increases
● Due to the continuous unidirectional
migration to cities → In the long term, Government schemes for smart villages
this leads to desertion from villages,
The concept of Smart Village is based on Mahatma
dilution of village culture, reduced land
under cultivation and, consequently, Gandhi's idea of Adarsh Gram and Swaraj
farm output. ● Sansad Adarsh Gram Yojana (SAGY) was
● So in order to maintain good urban launched in addition to Smart Cities and Digital
development it is of utmost importance India, as a development programme for India.
to maintain smart village so that this ● Aspirational Block program and Aspirational
unidirectional migration can be stopped District program
Reference Question - Smart cities in India cannot sustain without smart villages. Discuss this statement in the backdrop of rural urban integration.
Q - Smart cities in India cannot sustain without smart villages. Discuss.

Smart Villages - Plan of Action

● Creation of opportunities for youths in villages

○ BPO/KPO in villages
● Farming should be made a remunerative occupation
● Benefits of schemes such as crop insurance, soil
health card, etc. must reach the grassroots.
● Digital India unskilled India mission must reach to the
villages
● more cooperative ventures in Pottery, metal craft,
weaving, jewellery making, wood craft, shell craft,
cane craft, embroidery, glass craft and paper craft
● Villages traditionally preserve large number of water
bodies like ponds, wells, bawadis, canals etc. Training
villagers in water harvesting methods, rejuvenating
ponds/wells to improve water storage
Climate Change impact on Urban Areas in India
● Costal cities 🡪 SL rise 🡪 Coastal flooding Solutions –
● Urban Heat Increase 🡪 More energy 1. Sustainable Urbanisation
consumption 🡪 more heat strokes + 2. Integrating disaster management into
Health Hazard 🡪 High OOP expenditure + developmental planning
Difficult work environment 3. Sponge cities
● Extreme climatic events increase 🡪 4. Smart cities 🡪 uses technology to make
disruption in services 🡪 more losses and sustainable cities
damages due to disasters like urban 5. Waste Management
flooding 6. Urban Green spaces
● Chronic water scarcity due to high 7. Green Building code 🡪 energy efficient
consumption construction
● High energy consumption 🡪 pressure on 8. Write Govt schemes –
1. Smart cities
resources 2. Aspirational Districts
● Disproportionate impact on vulnerable 3. AMRUT
sections 🡪 rising inequality