System Development Life Cycle

A systems analysis team is brought in to review an existing system and suggest a number of
improvements.

System Development Life Cycle:

SDLC is a systematic series of action by which system analysts approach their goal to install
a new or revised system. The steps involved in systems analysis are:
 Analysis
 Design
 Development and testing
 Implementation
 Documentation
 Evaluation
 1.1 Analysis:
The analysis stage involves examining the existing system in detail. The basic steps can be
summarised as follows:
1. Research or collect data from the current system
2. Describe of the current system – establishing the inputs, outputs and processing being
done
Feasibility study

3. Identify of the problem with the current system

4. Agree the objectives with the clients
5. Identify and agree customer requirements
6. Interpret customer requirements
7. Produce a cost-benefit analysis
8. Identify suitable hardware and software
9. Produce a data flow diagram

Collection of Information / Fact finding / Information gathering: is concerned with researching

about the existing system. We need to find how things are done at the moment before we can suggest
an improvement. The four common methods used in fact finding are:

1. Observation: to watch the daily work of the personnel.

Advantages:
i. No planning is necessary and it doesn’t involve working with other people.
ii. It is possible to see exactly what is done.
iii. It is a relatively inexpensive method.
Disadvantages:
i. People are uncomfortable being watched and may work in a different way.
ii. If workers perform tasks that violate standard procedures, they may not do this while being
watched.

2. Interview: Involves a one-to-one question-and-answer session between the analyst and the
employee/customer.
Advantage: The questions do not have to be fixed in advance; the analyst can change them
according to the answers the interviewees give.
Disadvantages:
i. Interviewing takes a lot of time.
ii. It is relatively expensive, due to the use of the analyst’s time.
iii. The interviewee cannot remain anonymous.
3. Workers and/or customers filling questionnaires to gather facts in a fast way.
Advantages:
i. These are much less time-consuming than interviews.
ii. Individuals can remain anonymous if they want.
iii. It is relatively inexpensive method.
Disadvantages:
i. Often the number of returned questionnaires is low.
ii. Analyst can’t change questions halfway through.
iii. There is no immediate way to clarify a vague or incomplete answer to a question.

4. Looking at existing paperwork: All documents that are used within a system need to be
examined. The documents may be, for example, bills, invoices, letters, order forms, payslips, etc.
The analyst will be looking for answers to questions such as: How is the data collected? What
data is collected? What happens to this data after it has been collected?
Advantages:
i. The analyst can see for themselves how the paper system operates.
ii. A lot can be discovered about an organisation by examining the documents that it uses.
Disadvantages:
i. It can be very time consuming.
ii. Because of the analyst's time, it is a relatively expensive method.
iii. The documentation is often difficult to understand, so it may be necessary to ask someone to
explain it. This means that we are back to the interview again.

1.2 Design:
Having analysed the existing system, the next stage is to design the key parts of the recommended
system. A list of tasks is summarized here:
 Design the data capture forms / input forms
 Design screen layouts
 Design the outputs in the form of screen displays and printed reports
 Producing system flowcharts and/or pseudo code
 Select/design validation rules that need to be used
 Design the file structures and tables (field names, field types, field lengths, field
description, selection of key field, how the data files will be linked, etc)
 Produce any algorithms or program flowcharts
 designing a testing strategy plan
1.2.1 Data capture forms:
These forms allow the data to be input into the system.

Paper-based forms need to:

 have a heading to make the purpose of the form clear
 make it clear to the person filing the form where they must place their answers
 make use of text boxes, which will limit the amount of information collected
 make use of character boxes where each box allows one character only
 make use of tick boxes to make choices easier
 make sure there is sufficient space to write answers
 use clear fonts and clear text colours to ensure the form is easy to read.

Computer-based data capture forms have the following features:

 use of text boxes to capture key data clearly
 use of on-screen help when completing the form
 use of drop-down/ combo boxes where there are limited choices
 use of radio buttons and tick boxes, requiring a single click of a mouse to select
 automatic validation of data as it is entered
 control buttons (such as next form, clear entry, save, etc.)
 double entry boxes (with verification rules) to check correctness of key data.
 Buttons to aid navigation

Navigation aids:
 Back/previous record button
 Forward/next record button
 New record button
 Submit/save button
 First record button
 Last record button
 Exit button/return to homepage button
 Move to top of page if long form
 Search facility
1.2.2 Screen displays and printed reports:
Screen outputs should be designed:
 to make sure the size of all the output fields is correct
 so that any instructions/descriptions are clear
 so that the full screen is utilised
 so that colours and fonts make the output clear.

1.2.3 System flowcharts:

System flowcharts are used to show how data flows through a system and also how decisions are
made. They make use of special symbols.

1.2.4 Data Verification:

Verification is a way of preventing errors when data is copied from one medium to another. There
are two common ways:

(a) Visual check:

This is checking for errors by comparing entered data on the screen with the data in the original
document.
(b) Double-data entry:
Data is entered twice, using two people. The computer compares the two entries, either after data
entry or during the data entry process, and identifies any differences.

1.2.5 Data Validation:

It is the process of checking, by the computer, of data at the input stage to detect any data that is
incomplete or unreasonable. For example,

(a) Range Check:

Checks whether data is within given/acceptable values.
Example: A person's age should be in the range>0 but <150.

(b) Limit check:

Similar to range check except that only one of the boundaries is checked.

(c) Length Check:

Checks if the input data contains the required number of characters.
Example: If a field needs six digits then inputting a five- or seven-digit number, should cause an
error message,

(d) Character/type Check:

Checks that the input data does not contain invalid characters.
Example: A person's name should not contain any numbers.

(e) Format / Picture Check:

Each position within a data item is tested against the item’s pattern to ensure that only valid values
are present.
Example: Date should be in the form dd/mm/yyyy.

(f) Presence Check: checks that the data has been entered.

(g) Consistency Check: checks to see that fields match each other.
Example:
If 'Mr' has been typed into a field called title then the gender field must contain either 'M' or 'Male'

(h) Lookup list Check:

The computer-based system can check the input data against known values by looking up a record
in the files to ensure that the input is valid.

(i) Check Digit:

It is an extra digit appended to a code number. The digit is generated from the code number itself
by applying an algorithm to it.
Check digits can identify three types of error:
 if two digits have been inverted during input, e.g. 13597 typed in instead 13579.
 an incorrect digit entered twice, e.g. 13559 typed in instead of 13579.
 a digit missed out altogether, e.g. 1359 typed in instead of 13579.

1.2.6 File structures:

The fields used in the files need to take the following into account:
 field length
 field name (suitable names should be chosen)
 data type.
A data dictionary is used to show suitable field names. An example of a data dictionary:
 Field name Field length Field type Suitable validation
check
product_code 8 Alphanumeric length check
manufacturer_year 4 Numeric range check
product_name 20 Alphanumeric None
colour 2 Alphanumeric look-up check

1.2.7 Design and testing strategy/plan:

It is necessary to produce a testing strategy or plan to ensure all the possible scenarios have been
tested.

1.3 Development and Testing:

Once the design stage is completed, it is then necessary to create the system and fully test it.

1.3.1 Development:
After the data structures have been designed, they will need to be created using the software or
programming language recommended by the systems analyst. The programmer will produce the
program code needed to solve the problem.

5.3.3 Testing strategies:

After testing each module the whole system is tested. Even though each individual module may
work satisfactory, when they are all put together there may be data clashes, etc.
A system is tested by using both test data and live data.

Test data: Types of test data:

 Normal data is data that is acceptable or valid to the system.
 Extreme data are the values at either end of the acceptable range.
 Abnormal data is data which is not acceptable or valid.
 Live data: This is data that has been used in the existing system. It will be used because
the outputs are already known.

As a result of testing, data/file structures, validation routines, input methods, output formats may
need to be amended/improved.
1.4 Implementation:
After the system is fully tested, the systems analyst will want to get the system up and running. His
next steps will be
 to train staff on the new system,
 transfer paper files or electronic files to the new system and
 choose a method of changeover to the new system.

Methods of changeover:
1. Direct changeover:
New system replaces the existing system immediately. This method can only be used when the new
system has been thoroughly tested. Once the old system is closed down it cannot be reintroduced.
Advantages:
i. The benefits are immediate.
ii. Costs are reduced – since only one system is used there is no need to pay for two sets of staff.
iii. There is less likelihood of malfunction since the new system will have been fully tested.

Disadvantages:
i. If there are problems, there is no backup system.
ii. It can be difficult to make improvements to the new system and keep it working.

2. Parallel running:
The old and new systems are run side by side for a time before the new system takes over
altogether.
Advantages:
i. If the new system fails, the old system is still available as a backup.
ii. Staff can be trained to use the new system gradually.

Disadvantages:
i. Two sets of workers have to be paid to keep both system running.
ii. It takes a lot longer to fully implement than direct changeover.

3. Pilot running:
Pilot running is the method adopted by large organisations. The new system is implemented in one
branch of the organisation whilst the other branches continue with their existing system. Workers
from other branches can be taught on the new system before it is introduced to their branch.
Advantages:
i. If the system does not work properly, not all branches are affected.
ii. The later branches benefit by learning from the mistakes made in earlier branches.
iii. The costs are less than parallel running.

Disadvantages:
i. It is a slow method of implementation compared with direct changeover.
ii. It is more expensive than direct changeover, since each pilot scheme needs to be evaluated before
the next stage is introduced.

4. Phased implementation:
Phased Implementation involves the introduction of the new system one part at a time. When the
system is working perfectly another aspect can be moved onto the new system until all aspects have
been transferred to the new system.
Advantages:
i. If the latest part fails, it is only necessary to go back in the system to the point of failure.
ii. Workers have time to get used to the new system.
iii. Don’t have to pay two sets of staff.

Disadvantages:
i. It is a slow method of implementation compared with direct changeover.
ii. If the new system doesn’t work properly, it is not possible to fall back on the old system.
iii. It is more expensive than direct changeover, since it is necessary to evaluate each phase before
moving to the next stage.

1.5 Documentation:
1.5.1 User Documentation:
It is provided to help users operate the new system. It is written in non technical terms. It includes:
 Purpose of the system
 Limitations of the system
 Hardware and software requirements
 Input and output formats
 How to save files, do a search, sort data, etc
 Sample runs
 Error messages
 Trouble-shooting guide
  Frequently Asked Questions
 Tutorials

1.5.2 Technical Documentation:

It is designed to help programmers and analysts who need to make improvements to the system or
repair/maintain the system. It will include:
 Purpose of the system
 Limitations of the system
 Program listing/coding
 Programming language used
 Program flowcharts
 System flowcharts
 Hardware and software requirements
 File structures
 Known bugs in the system
 Sample runs (with test data and results)
 List of variables
 Validation routines

1.6 Evaluation:
After the system has been developed, tested and implemented, it must be evaluated. There are a
number of stages in the evaluation process.
A system is usually evaluated against a set of criteria:
 Is the system reliable?
 Does the system do what it was intended to do?
 Is the system easy to use?
 Is the new system efficient?
 Is the solution appropriate?

Evaluation of a new system is done by:

 Comparing the solution with the original task requirements;
 Identifying any limitations to the system;
 Identifying any necessary improvements;
 Obtaining feedback from users;
 Using test results;
 Comparing the performance of the new system with performance of the old.
Some results from the evaluation may require changes to either hardware or software.
Hardware may need to be updated because:
 of feedback from end users
 new hardware comes on the market, making change necessary
 there are changes within the company which require new devices to be added or updated.

Software may need to be updated because:

 of feedback from end users
 changes to the company structure or how the company works may need modifications to the
software
 changes in legislation may need modifications to the software.