UNIT-1

INTRODUCTION:

 Machine learning is a branch of artificial intelligence that enables algorithms

to uncover hidden patterns within datasets, allowing them to make predictions
on new, similar data without explicit programming for each task.
 Traditional machine learning combines data with statistical tools to predict
outputs, yielding actionable insights.
 This technology finds applications in diverse fields such as image and speech
recognition, natural language processing, recommendation systems, fraud
detection, portfolio optimization, and automating tasks.
 Recommender systems use historical data to personalize suggestions. Netflix,
for example, employs collaborative and content-based filtering to recommend
movies and TV shows based on user viewing history, ratings, and genre
preferences.
 Reinforcement learning further enhances these systems by enabling agents to
make decisions based on environmental feedback, continually refining
recommendations.
 Machine learning’s impact extends to autonomous vehicles, drones, and
robots, enhancing their adaptability in dynamic environments. This approach
marks a breakthrough where machines learn from data examples to generate
accurate outcomes, closely intertwined with data mining and data science.

Difference between Machine Learning and Traditional Programming

The Difference between Machine Learning and Traditional Programming is as follows:
Traditional
Machine Learning Programming Artificial Intelligence

Machine Learning is a
Artificial Intelligence
subset of artificial In traditional
involves making the machine
intelligence(AI) that focus programming, rule-based
as much capable, So that it
on learning from data to code is written by the
can perform the tasks that
develop an algorithm that developers depending on
typically require human
can be used to make a the problem statements.
intelligence.
prediction.
 Traditional
Machine Learning Programming Artificial Intelligence

Machine Learning uses a Traditional programming AI can involve many

data-driven approach, It is is typically rule-based different techniques,
typically trained on and deterministic. It including Machine Learning
historical data and then used hasn’t self-learning and Deep Learning, as well
to make predictions on new features like Machine as traditional rule-based
data. Learning and AI. programming.

Sometimes AI uses a
Traditional programming combination of both Data
ML can find patterns and
is totally dependent on and Pre-defined rules, which
insights in large datasets that
the intelligence of gives it a great edge in
might be difficult for
developers. So, it has solving complex tasks with
humans to discover.
very limited capability. good accuracy which seem
impossible to humans.

Machine Learning is the AI is a broad field that

Traditional programming
subset of AI. And Now it is includes many different
is often used to build
used in various AI-based applications, including
applications and software
tasks like Chatbot Question natural language processing,
systems that have
answering, self-driven car., computer vision, and
specific functionality.
etc. robotics.

DEFINITION
What is Machine Learning?
 Machine learning (ML) is a type of Artificial Intelligence (AI) that allows
computers to learn without being explicitly programmed. It involves feeding
data into algorithms that can then identify patterns and make predictions on
new data. Machine learning is used in a wide variety of applications, including
image and speech recognition, natural language processing, and recommender
systems.
Definition of Learning
 A computer program is said to learn from experience E concerning some class of
tasks T and performance measure P, if its performance at tasks T, as measured by P,
improves with experience E.
Examples
 Handwriting recognition learning problem
o Task T : Recognizing and classifying handwritten words
within images
o Performance P : Percent of words correctly classified
o Training experience E : A dataset of handwritten words with
given classifications
 A robot driving learning problem
o Task T : Driving on highways using vision sensors
 o Performance P : Average distance traveled before an error
o Training experience E : A sequence of images and steering
commands recorded while observing a human driver
TYPES OF MACHINE LEARNING
 Machine learning is the branch of Artificial Intelligence that focuses on developing
models and algorithms that let computers learn from data and improve from previous
experience without being explicitly programmed for every task.
 ML teaches the systems to think and understand like humans by learning from the
data.
 we will explore the various types of machine learning algorithms that are
important for future requirements.
 Machine learning is generally a training system to learn from past experiences and
improve performance over time.
 Machine learning helps to predict massive amounts of data. It helps to deliver fast
and accurate results to get profitable opportunities.
Types of Machine Learning
There are several types of machine learning, each with special characteristics and
applications. Some of the main types of machine learning algorithms are as follows:
1. Supervised Machine Learning
2. Unsupervised Machine Learning
3. Semi-Supervised Machine Learning
4. Reinforcement Learning

Types of Machine Learning

1. Supervised Machine Learning
 Supervised learning is defined as when a model gets trained on a “Labelled Dataset”.
Labelled datasets have both input and output parameters.
 In Supervised Learning algorithms learn to map points between inputs and correct
outputs. It has both training and validation datasets labelled.
 Supervised Learning
Let’s understand it with the help of an example.
Example: Consider a scenario where you have to build an image classifier to differentiate
between cats and dogs. If you feed the datasets of dogs and cats labelled images to the
algorithm, the machine will learn to classify between a dog or a cat from these labeled images.
When we input new dog or cat images that it has never seen before, it will use the learned
algorithms and predict whether it is a dog or a cat. This is how supervised learning works,
and this is particularly an image classification.
There are two main categories of supervised learning that are mentioned below:
 Classification
 Regression
Classification
Classification deals with predicting categorical target variables, which represent discrete
classes or labels. For instance, classifying emails as spam or not spam, or predicting
whether a patient has a high risk of heart disease. Classification algorithms learn to map the
input features to one of the predefined classes.
Here are some classification algorithms:
 Logistic Regression
 Support Vector Machine
 Random Forest
 Decision Tree
 K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN)
 Naive Bayes
Regression
Regression, on the other hand, deals with predicting continuous target variables, which
represent numerical values. For example, predicting the price of a house based on its size,
location, and amenities, or forecasting the sales of a product. Regression algorithms learn to
map the input features to a continuous numerical value.
Here are some regression algorithms:
  Linear Regression
 Polynomial Regression
 Ridge Regression
 Lasso Regression
 Decision tree
 Random Forest
Advantages of Supervised Machine Learning
 Supervised Learning models can have high accuracy as they are trained
on labelled data.
 The process of decision-making in supervised learning models is often
interpretable.
 It can often be used in pre-trained models which saves time and resources when
developing new models from scratch.
Disadvantages of Supervised Machine Learning
 It has limitations in knowing patterns and may struggle with unseen or
unexpected patterns that are not present in the training data.
 It can be time-consuming and costly as it relies on labeled data only.
 It may lead to poor generalizations based on new data.
Applications of Supervised Learning
Supervised learning is used in a wide variety of applications, including:
 Image classification: Identify objects, faces, and other features in images.
 Natural language processing: Extract information from text, such as sentiment,
entities, and relationships.
 Speech recognition: Convert spoken language into text.
 Recommendation systems: Make personalized recommendations to users.
 Predictive analytics: Predict outcomes, such as sales, customer churn, and stock
prices.
 Medical diagnosis: Detect diseases and other medical conditions.
 Fraud detection: Identify fraudulent transactions.
 Autonomous vehicles: Recognize and respond to objects in the environment.
 Email spam detection: Classify emails as spam or not spam.
 Quality control in manufacturing: Inspect products for defects.
 Credit scoring: Assess the risk of a borrower defaulting on a loan.
 Gaming: Recognize characters, analyze player behavior, and create NPCs.
 Customer support: Automate customer support tasks.
 Weather forecasting: Make predictions for temperature, precipitation, and other
meteorological parameters.
 Sports analytics: Analyze player performance, make game predictions, and
optimize strategies.
2. Unsupervised Machine Learning
 Unsupervised Learning Unsupervised learning is a type of machine learning
technique in which an algorithm discovers patterns and relationships
using unlabeled data. Unlike supervised learning, unsupervised learning doesn’t
involve providing the algorithm with labeled target outputs.
 The primary goal of Unsupervised learning is often to discover hidden patterns,
similarities, or clusters within the data, which can then be used for various purposes,
such as data exploration, visualization, dimensionality reduction, and more.
 Unsupervised Learning
Let’s understand it with the help of an example.
Example: Consider that you have a dataset that contains information about the purchases
you made from the shop. Through clustering, the algorithm can group the same purchasing
behavior among you and other customers, which reveals potential customers without
predefined labels. This type of information can help businesses get target customers as well
as identify outliers.
There are two main categories of unsupervised learning that are mentioned below:
 Clustering
 Association
Clustering
Clustering is the process of grouping data points into clusters based on their similarity. This
technique is useful for identifying patterns and relationships in data without the need for
labeled examples.
Here are some clustering algorithms:
 K-Means Clustering algorithm
 Mean-shift algorithm
 DBSCAN Algorithm
 Principal Component Analysis
 Independent Component Analysis
Association
Association rule learning is a technique for discovering relationships between items in a
dataset. It identifies rules that indicate the presence of one item implies the presence of
another item with a specific probability.
Here are some association rule learning algorithms:
 Apriori Algorithm
 Eclat
 FP-growth Algorithm
Advantages of Unsupervised Machine Learning
 It helps to discover hidden patterns and various relationships between the data.
 Used for tasks such as customer segmentation, anomaly detection, and data
exploration.
 It does not require labeled data and reduces the effort of data labeling.
Disadvantages of Unsupervised Machine Learning
 Without using labels, it may be difficult to predict the quality of the model’s
output.
  Cluster Interpretability may not be clear and may not have meaningful
interpretations.
 It has techniques such as autoencoders and dimensionality reduction that can be
used to extract meaningful features from raw data.
Applications of Unsupervised Learning
Here are some common applications of unsupervised learning:
 Clustering: Group similar data points into clusters.
 Anomaly detection: Identify outliers or anomalies in data.
 Dimensionality reduction: Reduce the dimensionality of data while preserving
its essential information.
 Recommendation systems: Suggest products, movies, or content to users based
on their historical behavior or preferences.
 Topic modeling: Discover latent topics within a collection of documents.
 Density estimation: Estimate the probability density function of data.
 Image and video compression: Reduce the amount of storage required for
multimedia content.
 Data preprocessing: Help with data preprocessing tasks such as data cleaning,
imputation of missing values, and data scaling.
 Market basket analysis: Discover associations between products.
 Genomic data analysis: Identify patterns or group genes with similar
expression profiles.
 Image segmentation: Segment images into meaningful regions.
 Community detection in social networks: Identify communities or groups of
individuals with similar interests or connections.
 Customer behavior analysis: Uncover patterns and insights for better
marketing and product recommendations.
 Content recommendation: Classify and tag content to make it easier to
recommend similar items to users.
 Exploratory data analysis (EDA): Explore data and gain insights before
defining specific tasks.
3. Semi-Supervised Learning
Semi-Supervised learning is a machine learning algorithm that works between
the supervised and unsupervised learning so it uses both labelled and unlabelled data. It’s
particularly useful when obtaining labeled data is costly, time-consuming, or resource-
intensive. This approach is useful when the dataset is expensive and time-consuming. Semi-
supervised learning is chosen when labeled data requires skills and relevant resources in
order to train or learn from it.
We use these techniques when we are dealing with data that is a little bit labeled and the
rest large portion of it is unlabeled. We can use the unsupervised techniques to predict
labels and then feed these labels to supervised techniques. This technique is mostly
applicable in the case of image data sets where usually all images are not labeled.
 Semi-Supervised Learning
Let’s understand it with the help of an example.
Example: Consider that we are building a language translation model, having labeled
translations for every sentence pair can be resources intensive. It allows the models to learn
from labeled and unlabeled sentence pairs, making them more accurate. This technique has
led to significant improvements in the quality of machine translation services.
Types of Semi-Supervised Learning Methods
There are a number of different semi-supervised learning methods each with its own
characteristics. Some of the most common ones include:
 Graph-based semi-supervised learning: This approach uses a graph to
represent the relationships between the data points. The graph is then used to
propagate labels from the labeled data points to the unlabeled data points.
 Label propagation: This approach iteratively propagates labels from the
labeled data points to the unlabeled data points, based on the similarities
between the data points.
 Co-training: This approach trains two different machine learning models on
different subsets of the unlabeled data. The two models are then used to label
each other’s predictions.
 Self-training: This approach trains a machine learning model on the labeled
data and then uses the model to predict labels for the unlabeled data. The model
is then retrained on the labeled data and the predicted labels for the unlabeled
data.
 Generative adversarial networks (GANs): GANs are a type of deep learning
algorithm that can be used to generate synthetic data. GANs can be used to
generate unlabeled data for semi-supervised learning by training two neural
networks, a generator and a discriminator.
Advantages of Semi- Supervised Machine Learning
 It leads to better generalization as compared to supervised learning, as it takes
both labeled and unlabeled data.
 Can be applied to a wide range of data.
Disadvantages of Semi- Supervised Machine Learning
 Semi-supervised methods can be more complex to implement compared to
other approaches.
  It still requires some labeled data that might not always be available or easy to
obtain.
 The unlabeled data can impact the model performance accordingly.
Applications of Semi-Supervised Learning
Here are some common applications of semi-supervised learning:
 Image Classification and Object Recognition: Improve the accuracy of models
by combining a small set of labeled images with a larger set of unlabeled
images.
 Natural Language Processing (NLP): Enhance the performance of language
models and classifiers by combining a small set of labeled text data with a vast
amount of unlabeled text.
 Speech Recognition: Improve the accuracy of speech recognition by leveraging
a limited amount of transcribed speech data and a more extensive set of
unlabeled audio.
 Recommendation Systems: Improve the accuracy of personalized
recommendations by supplementing a sparse set of user-item interactions
(labeled data) with a wealth of unlabeled user behavior data.
 Healthcare and Medical Imaging: Enhance medical image analysis by utilizing
a small set of labeled medical images alongside a larger set of unlabeled images.
4. Reinforcement Machine Learning
Reinforcement machine learning algorithm is a learning method that interacts with the
environment by producing actions and discovering errors. Trial, error, and delay are the
most relevant characteristics of reinforcement learning. In this technique, the model keeps
on increasing its performance using Reward Feedback to learn the behavior or pattern.
These algorithms are specific to a particular problem e.g. Google Self Driving car,
AlphaGo where a bot competes with humans and even itself to get better and better
performers in Go Game. Each time we feed in data, they learn and add the data to their
knowledge which is training data. So, the more it learns the better it gets trained and hence
experienced.
Here are some of most common reinforcement learning algorithms:
 Q-learning: Q-learning is a model-free RL algorithm that learns a Q-function,
which maps states to actions. The Q-function estimates the expected reward of
taking a particular action in a given state.
 SARSA (State-Action-Reward-State-Action): SARSA is another model-free
RL algorithm that learns a Q-function. However, unlike Q-learning, SARSA
updates the Q-function for the action that was actually taken, rather than the
optimal action.
 Deep Q-learning: Deep Q-learning is a combination of Q-learning and deep
learning. Deep Q-learning uses a neural network to represent the Q-function,
which allows it to learn complex relationships between states and actions.
 Reinforcement Machine Learning
Let’s understand it with the help of examples.
Example: Consider that you are training an AI agent to play a game like chess. The agent
explores different moves and receives positive or negative feedback based on the outcome.
Reinforcement Learning also finds applications in which they learn to perform tasks by
interacting with their surroundings.
Types of Reinforcement Machine Learning
There are two main types of reinforcement learning:
Positive reinforcement
 Rewards the agent for taking a desired action.
 Encourages the agent to repeat the behavior.
 Examples: Giving a treat to a dog for sitting, providing a point in a game for a
correct answer.
Negative reinforcement
 Removes an undesirable stimulus to encourage a desired behavior.
 Discourages the agent from repeating the behavior.
 Examples: Turning off a loud buzzer when a lever is pressed, avoiding a penalty
by completing a task.
Advantages of Reinforcement Machine Learning
 It has autonomous decision-making that is well-suited for tasks and that can
learn to make a sequence of decisions, like robotics and game-playing.
 This technique is preferred to achieve long-term results that are very difficult to
achieve.
 It is used to solve a complex problems that cannot be solved by conventional
techniques.
Disadvantages of Reinforcement Machine Learning
 Training Reinforcement Learning agents can be computationally expensive and
time-consuming.
 Reinforcement learning is not preferable to solving simple problems.
 It needs a lot of data and a lot of computation, which makes it impractical and
costly.
Applications of Reinforcement Machine Learning
Here are some applications of reinforcement learning:
 Game Playing: RL can teach agents to play games, even complex ones.
 
Robotics: RL can teach robots to perform tasks autonomously.

Autonomous Vehicles: RL can help self-driving cars navigate and make
decisions.
 Recommendation Systems: RL can enhance recommendation algorithms by
learning user preferences.
 Healthcare: RL can be used to optimize treatment plans and drug discovery.
 Natural Language Processing (NLP): RL can be used in dialogue systems and
chatbots.
 Finance and Trading: RL can be used for algorithmic trading.
 Supply Chain and Inventory Management: RL can be used to optimize supply
chain operations.
 Energy Management: RL can be used to optimize energy consumption.
 Game AI: RL can be used to create more intelligent and adaptive NPCs in video
games.
 Adaptive Personal Assistants: RL can be used to improve personal assistants.
 Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR): RL can be used to create
immersive and interactive experiences.
 Industrial Control: RL can be used to optimize industrial processes.
 Education: RL can be used to create adaptive learning systems.
 Agriculture: RL can be used to optimize agricultural operations.
ALGORITHMS FOR MACHINE LEARNING

 Linear regression

 Logistic regression

 Decision tree

 SVM algorithm

 Naive Bayes algorithm

 KNN algorithm

 K-means

 Random forest algorithm

 Dimensionality reduction algorithms

 Gradient boosting algorithm and AdaBoosting algorithm

1.Linear Regression

To understand the working functionality of Linear Regression, imagine how you would
arrange random logs of wood in increasing order of their weight. There is a catch; however –
you cannot weigh each log. You have to guess its weight just by looking at the height and
girth of the log (visual analysis) and arranging them using a combination of these visible
parameters. This is what linear regression in machine learning is like.
In this process, a relationship is established between independent and dependent variables by
fitting them to a line. This line is known as the regression line and is represented by a linear
equation Y= a *X + b.

In this equation:

 Y – Dependent Variable

 a – Slope

 X – Independent variable

 b – Intercept

The coefficients a & b are derived by minimizing the sum of the squared difference of
distance between data points and the regression line.

2. Logistic Regression

Logistic Regression is used to estimate discrete values (usually binary values like 0/1) from a
set of independent variables. It helps predict the probability of an event by fitting data to a
logit function. It is also called logit regression.

These methods listed below are often used to help improve logistic regression models:

 include interaction terms

 eliminate features

 regularize techniques

 use a non-linear model

3. Decision Tree

Decision Tree algorithm in machine learning is one of the most popular algorithm in use
today; this is a supervised learning algorithm that is used for classifying problems. It works
well in classifying both categorical and continuous dependent variables. This algorithm
divides the population into two or more homogeneous sets based on the most significant
attributes/ independent variables.

4. SVM (Support Vector Machine) Algorithm

SVM algorithm is a method of a classification algorithm in which you plot raw data as points
in an n-dimensional space (where n is the number of features you have). The value of each
feature is then tied to a particular coordinate, making it easy to classify the data. Lines called
classifiers can be used to split the data and plot them on a graph.
5. Naive Bayes Algorithm

A Naive Bayes classifier assumes that the presence of a particular feature in a class is
unrelated to the presence of any other feature.

Even if these features are related to each other, a Naive Bayes classifier would consider all of
these properties independently when calculating the probability of a particular outcome.

A Naive Bayesian model is easy to build and useful for massive datasets. It's simple and is
known to outperform even highly sophisticated classification methods.

6. KNN (K- Nearest Neighbors) Algorithm

This algorithm can be applied to both classification and regression problems. Apparently,
within the Data Science industry, it's more widely used to solve classification problems. It’s a
simple algorithm that stores all available cases and classifies any new cases by taking a
majority vote of its k neighbors. The case is then assigned to the class with which it has the
most in common. A distance function performs this measurement.

KNN can be easily understood by comparing it to real life. For example, if you want
information about a person, it makes sense to talk to his or her friends and colleagues!

Things to consider before selecting K Nearest Neighbours Algorithm:

 KNN is computationally expensive

 Variables should be normalized, or else higher range variables can bias the
algorithm

 Data still needs to be pre-processed.

7. K-Means

It is an unsupervised learning algorithm that solves clustering problems. Data sets are
classified into a particular number of clusters (let's call that number K) in such a way that all
the data points within a cluster are homogenous and heterogeneous from the data in other
clusters.

How K-means forms clusters:

 The K-means algorithm picks k number of points, called centroids, for each
cluster.

 Each data point forms a cluster with the closest centroids, i.e., K clusters.

 It now creates new centroids based on the existing cluster members.

  With these new centroids, the closest distance for each data point is determined.
This process is repeated until the centroids do not change.

8. Random Forest Algorithm

A collective of decision trees is called a Random Forest. To classify a new object based on its
attributes, each tree is classified, and the tree “votes” for that class. The forest chooses the
classification having the most votes (over all the trees in the forest).

Each tree is planted & grown as follows:

 If the number of cases in the training set is N, then a sample of N cases is taken at
random. This sample will be the training set for growing the tree.

 If there are M input variables, a number m<<M is specified such that at each node,
m variables are selected at random out of the M, and the best split on this m is used
to split the node. The value of m is held constant during this process.

 Each tree is grown to the most substantial extent possible. There is no pruning.

9. Dimensionality Reduction Algorithms

In today's world, vast amounts of data are being stored and analyzed by corporates,
government agencies, and research organizations. As a data scientist, you know that this raw
data contains a lot of information - the challenge is to identify significant patterns and
variables.

Dimensionality reduction algorithms like Decision Tree, Factor Analysis, Missing Value
Ratio, and Random Forest can help you find relevant details.

10. Gradient Boosting Algorithm and AdaBoosting Algorithm

Gradient Boosting Algorithm and AdaBoosting Algorithm are boosting algorithms used when
massive loads of data have to be handled to make predictions with high accuracy. Boosting is
an ensemble learning algorithm that combines the predictive power of several base estimators
to improve robustness.

In short, it combines multiple weak or average predictors to build a strong predictor. These
boosting algorithms always work well in data science competitions like Kaggle, AV
Hackathon, CrowdAnalytix. These are the most preferred machine learning algorithms today.
Use them, along with Python and R Codes, to achieve accurate outcomes.

PROBLEMS SOLVED BY MACHINE LEARNING

  Applications of Machine learning are many, including external (client-centric)
applications such as product recommendation, customer service, and demand
forecasts, and internally to help businesses improve products or speed up manual and
time-consuming processes.
 Machine learning algorithms are typically used in areas where the solution requires
continuous improvement post-deployment. Adaptable machine learning solutions are
incredibly dynamic and are adopted by companies across verticals.

Here we are discussing nine Machine Learning use cases –

1. Identifying Spam
 Spam identification is one of the most basic applications of machine learning. Most of
our email inboxes also have an unsolicited, bulk, or spam inbox, where our email
provider automatically filters unwanted spam emails.

But how do they know that the email is spam?

 They use a trained Machine Learning model to identify all the spam emails based on
common characteristics such as the email, subject, and sender content.
 If you look at your email inbox carefully, you will realize that it is not very hard to
pick out spam emails because they look very different from real emails. Machine
learning techniques used nowadays can automatically filter these spam emails in a
very successful way.
  Spam detection is one of the best and most common problems solved by Machine
Learning. Neural networks employ content-based filtering to classify unwanted emails
as spam. These neural networks are quite similar to the brain, with the ability to
identify spam emails and messages.

2. Making Product Recommendations

 Recommender systems are one of the most characteristic and ubiquitous machine
learning use cases in day-to-day life.
 These systems are used everywhere by search engines, e-commerce websites
(Amazon), entertainment platforms (Google Play, Netflix), and multiple web &
mobile apps.
 Prominent online retailers like Amazon and eBay often show a list of recommended
products individually for each of their consumers.
 These recommendations are typically based on behavioral data and parameters such
as previous purchases, item views, page views, clicks, form fill-ins, purchases, item
details (price, category), and contextual data (location, language, device), and
browsing history.
 These recommender systems allow businesses to drive more traffic, increase customer
engagement, reduce churn rate, deliver relevant content and boost profits.
 All such recommended products are based on a machine learning model’s analysis of
customer’s behavioral data. It is an excellent way for online retailers to offer extra
value and enjoy various upselling opportunities using machine learning.

3. Customer Segmentation
 Customer segmentation, churn prediction and customer lifetime value (LTV)
prediction are the main challenges faced by any marketer.
 Businesses have a huge amount of marketing relevant data from various sources such
as email campaigns, website visitors and lead data.
 Using data mining and machine learning, an accurate prediction for individual
marketing offers and incentives can be achieved. Using ML, savvy marketers can
eliminate guesswork involved in data-driven marketing.
 For example, given the pattern of behavior by a user during a trial period and the past
behaviors of all users, identifying chances of conversion to paid version can be
predicted. A model of this decision problem would allow a program to trigger
customer interventions to persuade the customer to convert early or better engage in
the trial.

4. Image & Video Recognition

 Advances in deep learning (a subset of machine learning) have stimulated rapid
progress in image & video recognition techniques over the past few years.
 They are used for multiple areas, including object detection, face recognition, text
detection, visual search, logo and landmark detection, and image composition.
 Since machines are good at processing images, Machine Learning algorithms can
train Deep Learning frameworks to recognize and classify images in the dataset with
much more accuracy than humans.
 Similar to image recognition, companies such
as Shutterstock, eBay, Salesforce, Amazon, and Facebook use Machine Learning for
video recognition where videos are broken down frame by frame and classified as
individual digital images.
5. Fraudulent Transactions
 Fraudulent banking transactions are quite a common occurrence today. However, it is
not feasible (in terms of cost involved and efficiency) to investigate every transaction
for fraud, translating to a poor customer service experience.
 Machine Learning in finance can automatically build super-accurate predictive
maintenance models to identify and prioritize all kinds of possible fraudulent
activities.
 Businesses can then create a data-based queue and investigate the high priority
incidents.
 It allows you to deploy resources in an area where you will see the greatest return on
your investigative investment. Further, it also helps you optimize customer
satisfaction by protecting their accounts and not challenging valid transactions.
 Such fraud detection using machine learning can help banks and financial
organizations save money on disputes/chargebacks as one can train Machine Learning
models to flag transactions that appear fraudulent based on specific characteristics.

6. Demand Forecasting
 The concept of demand forecasting is used in multiple industries, from retail and e-
commerce to manufacturing and transportation.
 It feeds historical data to Machine Learning algorithms and models to predict the
number of products, services, power, and more.
 It allows businesses to efficiently collect and process data from the entire supply
chain, reducing overheads and increasing efficiency.
 ML-powered demand forecasting is very accurate, rapid, and transparent. Businesses
can generate meaningful insights from a constant stream of supply/demand data and
adapt to changes accordingly.

7. Virtual Personal Assistant

 From Alexa and Google Assistant to Cortana and Siri, we have multiple virtual
personal assistants to find accurate information using our voice instruction, such as
calling someone, opening an email, scheduling an appointment, and more.
 These virtual assistants use Machine Learning algorithms for recording our voice
instructions, sending them over the server to a cloud, followed by decoding them
using Machine Learning algorithms and acting accordingly.

8. Sentiment Analysis
 Sentiment analysis is one of the beneficial and real-time machine learning
applications that help determine the emotion or opinion of the speaker or the writer.
 For instance, if you’ve written a review, email, or any other form of a document, a
sentiment analyzer will be able to assess the actual thought and tone of the text.
 This sentiment analysis application can be used to analyze decision-making
applications,
 review-based websites, and more.

9. Customer Service Automation

 Managing an increasing number of online customer interactions has become a pain
point for most businesses. It is because they simply don’t have the customer support
staff available to deal with the sheer number of inquiries they receive daily.
 Machine learning algorithms have made it possible and super easy for chatbots and
other similar automated systems to fill this gap. This application of machine learning
 enables companies to automate routine and low priority tasks, freeing up their
employees to manage more high-level customer service tasks.
 Machine Learning technology can access the data, interpret behaviors and recognize
the patterns easily. This could also be used for customer support systems that can
work identical to a real human being and solve all of the customers’ unique queries.
 The Machine Learning models behind these voice assistants are trained on human
languages and variations in the human voice because it has to efficiently translate the
voice to words and then make an on-topic and intelligent response.
 If implemented the right way, problems solved by machine learning can streamline
the entire process of customer issue resolution and offer much-needed assistance
along with enhanced customer satisfaction.

TOOLS FOR MACHINE LEARNING

 Machine learning is one of the most revolutionary technologies that is making

lives simpler. It is a subfield of Artificial Intelligence, which analyses the data,
build the model, and make predictions.
 Due to its popularity and great applications, every tech enthusiast wants to learn
and build new machine learning Apps.
 It is important to master machine learning tools. Mastering machine learning
tools will enable you to play with the data, train your models, discover new
methods, and create algorithms.
 There are different tools, software, and platform available for machine learning,
and also new software and tools are evolving day by day. Although there are
many options and availability of Machine learning tools, choosing the best tool
per your model is a challenging task.

1. TensorFlow
 TensorFlow is one of the most popular open-source libraries used to train and build
both machine learning and deep learning models. It provides a JS library and was developed
by Google Brain Team.

It is much popular among machine learning enthusiasts, and they use it for building
different ML applications. It offers a powerful library, tools, and resources for numerical
computation, specifically for large scale machine learning and deep learning projects.

It enables data scientists/ML developers to build and deploy machine learning

applications efficiently. For training and building the ML models, TensorFlow provides a high-
level Keras API, which lets users easily start with TensorFlow and machine learning.

Features:
o TensorFlow enables us to build and train our ML models easily.
o It also enables you to run the existing models using the TensorFlow.js
o It provides multiple abstraction levels that allow the user to select the correct resource
as per the requirement.
o It helps in building a neural network.
o Provides support of distributed computing.
o While building a model, for more need of flexibility, it provides eager execution that
enables immediate iteration and intuitive debugging.
o This is open-source software and highly flexible.
o It also enables the developers to perform numerical computations using data flow
graphs.
o Run-on GPUs and CPUs, and also on various mobile computing platforms.
o It provides a functionality of auto diff (Automatically computing gradients is called
automatic differentiation or auto diff).
o It enables to easily deploy and training the model in the cloud.
o It can be used in two ways, i.e., by installing through NPM or by script tags.
o It is free to use.

2. PyTorch
 PyTorch is an open-source machine learning framework, which is based on the
Torch library. This framework is free and open-source and developed by FAIR(Facebook's
AI Research lab).

It is one of the popular ML frameworks, which can be used for various applications,
including computer vision and natural language processing.

PyTorch has Python and C++ interfaces; however, the Python interface is more
interactive. Different deep learning software is made up on top of PyTorch, such as PyTorch
Lightning, Hugging Face's Transformers, Tesla autopilot, etc.

It specifies a Tensor class containing an n-dimensional array that can perform tensor
computations along with GPU support.

Features:

Below are some top features:

o It enables the developers to create neural networks using Autograde Module.

o It is more suitable for deep learning researches with good speed and flexibility.
o It can also be used on cloud platforms.
o It includes tutorial courses, various tools, and libraries.
o It also provides a dynamic computational graph that makes this library more popular.
o It allows changing the network behaviour randomly without any lag.
o It is easy to use due to its hybrid front-end.
o It is freely available.

3. Google Cloud ML Engine

 While training a classifier with a huge amount of data, a computer system might not
perform well. However, various machine learning or deep learning projects requires millions
or billions of training datasets.

Or the algorithm that is being used is taking a long time for execution. In such a case,
one should go for the Google Cloud ML Engine. It is a hosted platform where ML developers
and data scientists build and run optimum quality machine, learning models.

It provides a managed service that allows developers to easily create ML models with
any type of data and of any size.

Features:

Below are the top features:

o Provides machine learning model training, building, deep learning and predictive
modelling.
o The two services, namely, prediction and training, can be used independently or
combinedly.
o It can be used by enterprises, i.e., for identifying clouds in a satellite image, responding
faster to emails of customers.
o It can be widely used to train a complex model.

4. Amazon Machine Learning (AML)

 Amazon provides a great number of machine learning tools, and one of them
is Amazon Machine Learning or AML.

Amazon Machine Learning (AML) is a cloud-based and robust machine learning

software application, which is widely used for building machine learning models and making
predictions.

it integrates data from multiple sources, including Redshift, Amazon S3, or RDS.

Features

Below are some top features:

o AML offers visualization tools and wizards.

o Enables the users to identify the patterns, build mathematical models, and make
predictions.
o It provides support for three types of models, which are multi-class classification,
binary classification, and regression.
o It permits users to import the model into or export the model out from Amazon Machine
Learning.
o It also provides core concepts of machine learning, including ML models, Data sources,
Evaluations, Real-time predictions and Batch predictions.
o It enables the user to retrieve predictions with the help of batch APIs for bulk requests
or real-time APIs for individual requests.

5. NET

Accord.Net is .Net based Machine Learning framework, which is used for scientific
computing. It is combined with audio and image processing libraries that are written in C#.

This framework provides different libraries for various applications in ML, such
as Pattern Recognition, linear algebra, Statistical Data processing. One popular package of
the Accord.Net framework is Accord. Statistics, Accord.Math, and
Accord.MachineLearning.
Features

Below are some top features:

o It contains 38+ kernel Functions.

o Consists of more than 40 non-parametric and parametric estimation of statistical
distributions.
o Used for creating production-grade computer audition, computer vision, signal
processing, and statistics apps.
o Contains more than 35 hypothesis tests that include two-way and one way ANOVA
tests, non-parametric tests such as the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and many more.

6. Apache Mahout

Apache Mahout is an open-source project of Apache Software Foundation, which is

used for developing machine learning applications mainly focused on Linear Algebra.

It is a distributed linear algebra framework and mathematically expressive Scala DSL,

which enable the developers to promptly implement their own algorithms. It also provides
Java/Scala libraries to perform Mathematical operations mainly based on linear algebra and
statistics.

Features:

Below are some top features:

o It enables developers to implement machine learning techniques, including

recommendation, clustering, and classification.
o It is an efficient framework for implementing scalable algorithms.
o It consists of matrix and vector libraries.
o It provides support for multiple distributed backends(including Apache Spark)
o It runs on top of Apache Hadoop using the MapReduce paradigm.

7. Shogun

Shogun is a free and open-source machine learning software library, which was created
by Gunnar Raetsch and Soeren Sonnenburg in the year 1999.
 This software library is written in C++ and supports interfaces for different languages
such as Python, R, Scala, C#, Ruby, etc., using SWIG(Simplified Wrapper and Interface
Generator).

The main aim of Shogun is on different kernel-based algorithms such as Support Vector
Machine (SVM), K-Means Clustering, etc., for regression and classification problems. It also
provides the complete implementation of Hidden Markov Models.

Features:

Below are some top features:

o The main aim of Shogun is on different kernel-based algorithms such as Support Vector
Machine (SVM), K-Means Clustering, etc., for regression and classification problems.
o It provides support for the use of pre-calculated kernels.
o It also offers to use a combined kernel using Multiple kernel Learning Functionality.
o This was initially designed for processing a huge dataset that consists of up to 10 million
samples.
o It also enables users to work on interfaces on different programming languages such as
Lua, Python, Java, C#, Octave, Ruby, MATLAB, and R.

8. Oryx2

It is a realization of the lambda architecture and built on Apache Kafka and Apache
Spark.

It is widely used for real-time large-scale machine learning projects. It is a framework

for building apps, including end-to-end applications for filtering, packaged, regression,
classification, and clustering.

It is written in Java languages, including Apache Spark, Hadoop, Tomcat, Kafka, etc.
The latest version of Oryx2 is Oryx 2.8.0.

Features:

Below are some top features:

 o It has three tiers: specialization on top providing ML abstractions, generic lambda
architecture tier, end-to-end implementation of the same standard ML algorithms.
o The original project of Oryx2 was Oryx1, and after some upgrades, Oryx2 was
launched.
o It is well suited for large-scale real-time machine learning projects.
o It contains three layers which are arranged side-by-side, and these are named as Speed
layer, batch layer, and serving layer.
o It also has a data transport layer that transfer data between different layers and receives
input from external sources.

9. Apache Spark MLlib

Apache Spark MLlib is a scalable machine learning library that runs on Apache Mesos,
Hadoop, Kubernetes, standalone, or in the cloud.

it can access data from different data sources. It is an open-source cluster-computing

framework that offers an interface for complete clusters along with data parallelism and fault
tolerance.

For optimized numerical processing of data, MLlib provides linear algebra packages
such as Breeze and netlib-Java. It uses a query optimizer and physical execution engine for
achieving high performance with both batch and streaming data.

Features

Below are some top features:

o MLlib contains various algorithms, including Classification, Regression, Clustering,

recommendations, association rules, etc.
o It runs different platforms such as Hadoop, Apache Mesos, Kubernetes, standalone, or
in the cloud against diverse data sources.
o It contains high-quality algorithms that provide great results and performance.
o It is easy to use as it provides interfaces In Java, Python, Scala, R, and SQL.

10. Google ML kit for Mobile

 For Mobile app developers, Google brings ML Kit, which is packaged with the
expertise of machine learning and technology to create more robust, optimized, and
personalized apps.

This tools kit can be used for face detection, text recognition, landmark detection, image
labelling, and barcode scanning applications. One can also use it for working offline.

Features:

Below are some top features:

o The ML kit is optimized for mobile.

o It includes the advantages of different machine learning technologies.
o It provides easy-to-use APIs that enables powerful use cases in your mobile apps.
o It includes Vision API and Natural Language APIS to detect faces, text, and objects,
and identify different languages & provide reply suggestions.

APPLICATIONS:

Machine learning is a buzzword for today's technology, and it is growing very rapidly day by
day. We are using machine learning in our daily life even without knowing it such as Google
Maps, Google assistant, Alexa, etc. Below are some most trending real-world applications of
Machine Learning:
1. Image Recognition:

Image recognition is one of the most common applications of machine learning. It is used to
identify objects, persons, places, digital images, etc. The popular use case of image recognition
and face detection is, Automatic friend tagging suggestion:

Facebook provides us a feature of auto friend tagging suggestion. Whenever we upload a photo
with our Facebook friends, then we automatically get a tagging suggestion with name, and the
technology behind this is machine learning's face detection and recognition algorithm.

It is based on the Facebook project named "Deep Face," which is responsible for face
recognition and person identification in the picture.

2. Speech Recognition

While using Google, we get an option of "Search by voice," it comes under speech recognition,
and it's a popular application of machine learning.

Speech recognition is a process of converting voice instructions into text, and it is also known
as "Speech to text", or "Computer speech recognition." At present, machine learning
algorithms are widely used by various applications of speech recognition. Google
assistant, Siri, Cortana, and Alexa are using speech recognition technology to follow the
voice instructions.

3. Traffic prediction:

If we want to visit a new place, we take help of Google Maps, which shows us the correct path
with the shortest route and predicts the traffic conditions.

It predicts the traffic conditions such as whether traffic is cleared, slow-moving, or heavily
congested with the help of two ways:

o Real Time location of the vehicle form Google Map app and sensors
o Average time has taken on past days at the same time.

Everyone who is using Google Map is helping this app to make it better. It takes information
from the user and sends back to its database to improve the performance.

4. Product recommendations:

Machine learning is widely used by various e-commerce and entertainment companies such
as Amazon, Netflix, etc., for product recommendation to the user. Whenever we search for
some product on Amazon, then we started getting an advertisement for the same product while
internet surfing on the same browser and this is because of machine learning.

Google understands the user interest using various machine learning algorithms and suggests
the product as per customer interest.

As similar, when we use Netflix, we find some recommendations for entertainment series,
movies, etc., and this is also done with the help of machine learning.

5. Self-driving cars:

One of the most exciting applications of machine learning is self-driving cars. Machine
learning plays a significant role in self-driving cars. Tesla, the most popular car manufacturing
company is working on self-driving car. It is using unsupervised learning method to train the
car models to detect people and objects while driving.

6. Email Spam and Malware Filtering:

Whenever we receive a new email, it is filtered automatically as important, normal, and spam.
We always receive an important mail in our inbox with the important symbol and spam emails
in our spam box, and the technology behind this is Machine learning. Below are some spam
filters used by Gmail:

o Content Filter
o Header filter
o General blacklists filter
o Rules-based filters
o Permission filters
Some machine learning algorithms such as Multi-Layer Perceptron, Decision tree,
and Naïve Bayes classifier are used for email spam filtering and malware detection.

7. Virtual Personal Assistant:

We have various virtual personal assistants such as Google assistant, Alexa, Cortana, Siri.
As the name suggests, they help us in finding the information using our voice instruction. These
assistants can help us in various ways just by our voice instructions such as Play music, call
someone, Open an email, Scheduling an appointment, etc.

These virtual assistants use machine learning algorithms as an important part.

These assistant record our voice instructions, send it over the server on a cloud, and decode it
using ML algorithms and act accordingly.

8. Online Fraud Detection:

Machine learning is making our online transaction safe and secure by detecting fraud
transaction. Whenever we perform some online transaction, there may be various ways that a
fraudulent transaction can take place such as fake accounts, fake ids, and steal money in the
middle of a transaction. So to detect this, Feed Forward Neural network helps us by checking
whether it is a genuine transaction or a fraud transaction.

For each genuine transaction, the output is converted into some hash values, and these values
become the input for the next round. For each genuine transaction, there is a specific pattern
which gets change for the fraud transaction hence, it detects it and makes our online
transactions more secure.

9. Stock Market trading:

Machine learning is widely used in stock market trading. In the stock market, there is always a
risk of up and downs in shares, so for this machine learning's long short term memory neural
network is used for the prediction of stock market trends.

10. Medical Diagnosis:

In medical science, machine learning is used for diseases diagnoses. With this, medical
technology is growing very fast and able to build 3D models that can predict the exact position
of lesions in the brain.

11. Automatic Language Translation:

if we visit a new place and we are not aware of the language then it is not a problem at all, as
for this also machine learning helps us by converting the text into our known languages.
Google's GNMT (Google Neural Machine Translation) provide this feature, which is a Neural
Machine Learning that translates the text into our familiar language, and it called as automatic
translation.

5 MARK
1.What is machine learning?

2.discuss about types of machine learning?

3.what is applications of machine learning?

10 MARK

1. What is machine learning? Explain about types of machine learning?

2. Explain about Algorithms for machine learning?

3. Explain about Tools for machine learning?

MCQ

1. What is Machine learning?

a) The selective acquisition of knowledge through the use of computer programs
b) The selective acquisition of knowledge through the use of manual programs
c) The autonomous acquisition of knowledge through the use of computer programs
d) The autonomous acquisition of knowledge through the use of manual programs
Answer: c
Explanation: Machine learning is the autonomous acquisition of knowledge through the use
of computer programs.
2. K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN) is classified as what type of machine learning algorithm?
a) Instance-based learning
b) Parametric learning
c) Non-parametric learning
d) Model-based learning
Answer: a
Explanation: KNN doesn’t build a parametric model of the data. Instead, it directly classifies
new data points based on the k nearest points in the training data.
3. Which of the following is not a supervised machine learning algorithm?
a) K-means
b) Naïve Bayes
c) SVM for classification problems
d) Decision tree
Answer: a
Explanation: Decision tree, SVM (Support vector machines) for classification problems and
Naïve Bayes are the examples of supervised machine learning algorithm. K-means is an
example of unsupervised machine learning algorithm.
4. What’s the key benefit of using deep learning for tasks like recognizing images?
a) They need less training data than other methods.
b) They’re easier to explain and understand than other models.
c) They can learn complex details from the data on their own.
d) They work faster and are more efficient computationally.
Answer: c
Explanation: Deep learning is great at figuring out intricate details from data, especially in
tasks like recognizing images.
5. Which algorithm is best suited for a binary classification problem?
a) K-nearest Neighbors
b) Decision Trees
c) Random Forest
d) Linear Regression
Answer: b
Explanation: Decision Trees are versatile and can be used for classification problems,
particularly for binary classification, where the output is divided into two classes.
6. What is the key difference between supervised and unsupervised learning?
a) Supervised learning requires labeled data, while unsupervised learning does not.
b) Supervised learning predicts labels, while unsupervised learning discovers patterns.
c) Supervised learning is used for classification, while unsupervised learning is used for
regression.
d) Supervised learning is always more accurate than unsupervised learning.
Answer: a
Explanation: The presence or absence of labeled data in the training set distinguishes
supervised and unsupervised learning approaches.
7. Which type of machine learning algorithm falls under the category of “unsupervised
learning”?
a) Linear Regression
b) K-means Clustering
c) Decision Trees
d) Random Forest
Answer: b
Explanation: K-means Clustering is an example of unsupervised learning used for clustering
unlabeled data based on similarities.
8. Which of the following statements is true about AdaBoost?
a) It is particularly prone to overfitting on noisy datasets
b) Complexity of the weak learner is important in AdaBoost
c) It is generally more prone to overfitting
d) It improves classification accuracy
Answer: c
Explanation: AdaBoost is generally not more prone to overfitting but is less prone to
overfitting. And it is prone to overfitting on noisy datasets. If you use very simple weak
learners, then the algorithms are much less prone to overfitting and it improves classification
accuracy. So Complexity of the weak learner is important in AdaBoost.
9. Which one of the following models is a generative model used in machine learning?
a) Support vector machines
b) Naïve Bayes
c) Logistic Regression
d) Linear Regression
Answer: b
Explanation: Naïve Bayes is a type of generative model which is used in machine learning.
Linear Regression, Logistic Regression and Support vector machines are the types of
discriminative models which are used in machine learning.
10. An artificially intelligent car decreases its speed based on its distance from the car in front
of it. Which algorithm is used?
a) Naïve-Bayes
b) Decision Tree
c) Linear Regression
d) Logistic Regression
Answer: c
Explanation: The output is numerical. It determines the speed of the car. Hence it is not a
classification problem. All the three, decision tree, naïve-Bayes, and logistic regression are
classification algorithms. Linear regression, on the other hand, outputs numerical values
based on input. So, this can be used.
11. Which of the following statements is false about Ensemble learning?
a) It is a supervised learning algorithm
b) It is an unsupervised learning algorithm
c) More random algorithms can be used to produce a stronger ensemble
d) Ensembles can be shown to have more flexibility in the functions they can represent
Answer: b
Explanation: Ensemble learning is not an unsupervised learning algorithm. It is a supervised
learning algorithm that combines several machine learning techniques into one predictive
model to decrease variance and bias. It can be trained and then used to make predictions. And
this ensemble can be shown to have more flexibility in the functions they can represent.
12. Which of the following statements is true about stochastic gradient descent?
a) It processes one training example per iteration
b) It is not preferred, if the number of training examples is large
c) It processes all the training examples for each iteration of gradient descent
d) It is computationally very expensive, if the number of training examples is large
Answer: a
Explanation: Stochastic gradient descent processes one training example per iteration. That is
it updates the weight vector based on one data point at a time. All other three are the features
of Batch Gradient Descent.
13. Decision tree uses the inductive learning machine learning approach.
a) False
b) True
Answer: b
Explanation: Decision tree uses the inductive learning machine learning approach. Inductive
learning enables the system to recognize patterns and regularities in previous knowledge or
training data and extract the general rules from them. A decision tree is considered to be an
inductive learning task as it uses particular facts to make more generalized conclusions.
14. What elements describe the Candidate-Elimination algorithm?
a) depends on the dataset
b) just a set of candidate hypotheses
c) just a set of instances
d) set of instances, set of candidate hypotheses
Answer: d
Explanation: A set of instances is required. A set of candidate hypotheses are given. These
are applied to the training data and the list of accurate hypotheses is output in accordance
with the candidate-elimination algorithm.
15. Which of the following statements is not true about boosting?
a) It mainly increases the bias and the variance
b) It tries to generate complementary base-learners by training the next learner on the
mistakes of the previous learners
c) It is a technique for solving two-class classification problems
d) It uses the mechanism of increasing the weights of misclassified data in preceding
classifiers
Answer: a
Explanation: Boosting does not increase the bias and variance but it mainly reduces the bias
and the variance. It is a technique for solving two-class classification problems. And it tries to
generate complementary base-learners by training the next learner (by increasing the weights)
on the mistakes (misclassified data) of the previous learners.
16. How are the points in the domain set given as input to the algorithm?
a) Vector of features
b) Scalar points
c) Polynomials
d) Clusters
Answer: a
Explanation: The variables are converted into a vector of features, and then given as an input
to the algorithm. The vector is of the size (number of features x number of training data sets).
The output of the learner is usually given as a polynomial.
17. To which input does the learner has access to?
a) Testing Data
b) Label Data
c) Training Data
d) Cross-Validation Data
Answer: c
Explanation: The learner gets access to a particular set of data on which it trains. This data is
called as training data. Testing Data is used for testing of the learner’s outputs. The best
outputs are then used on the cross-validation data. The label data is a representation of
different types of the dependent variables.
18. The set which represents the different instances of the target variable is known as ______
a) domain set
b) training set
c) label set
d) test set
19. What is the learner’s output also called?
a) Predictor, or Hypothesis, or Classifier
b) Predictor, or Hypothesis, or Trainer
c) Predictor, or Trainer, or Classifier
d) Trainer, or Hypothesis, or Classifier
Answer: a
Explanation: The output is called a predictor when it is used to predict the type or the
numerical value of the target variable. It is called a hypothesis when it is a
general statement about the data set. It is called a classifier when it is used to classify the
training set in two or more types.
20. It is assumed that the learner has prior knowledge about the probability distribution which
generates the instances in a training set.
a) True
b) False
Answer: b
Explanation: The learner has no prior knowledge about the distribution. It is assumed that the
distribution is completely arbitrary. It is also assumed that there is a function which
“correctly” labels the training examples. The learner’s job is to find out this function.
21. The labeling function is known to the learner in the beginning.
a) True
b) False
Answer: b
Explanation: The function is unknown to the learner as this is what the learner is trying to
find out. In the beginning, the learner just knows about the training set and the corresponding
label set.
22.The papaya learning algorithm is based on a dataset that consists of three variables –
color, softness, tastiness of the papaya. Which is more likely to be the target variable?
a) Tastiness
b) Softness
c) Papaya
d) Color
Answer: a
Explanation: The tastiness is dependent on how ripe the papaya is. The ripeness is determined
by the color and softness. Hence color and softness are the independent variables and the
tastiness is the dependent variable or target variable.
23. The error of classifier is measured with respect to _________
a) variance of data instances
b) labeling function
c) probability distribution
d) probability distribution and labeling function
Answer: d
Explanation: The error is the probability of choosing a random instance from the data set and
then misclassifying it using the labeling function.
24. What is not accessible to the learner?
a) Training Set
b) Label Set
c) Labeling Function
d) Domain Set
Answer: c
Explanation: The learner has access to the domain set, from which it extracts the training set.
The label set is also given. Then the algorithm is applied to the training set to teach the
learner, a function to determine the correct label of a given instance. This is the labeling
function.
25. What are the possible values of A, B, and C in the following diagram?

a) A – Training Set, B – Domain Set, C – Cross-Validation Set

b) A – Training Set, B – Test Set, C – Cross-Validation Set
c) A – Training Set, B – Test Set, C – Domain Set
d) A – Test Set, B – Domain Set, C – Training Set
Answer: b
Explanation: Domain Set comprises of the total input data set. It is usually divided into a
training set, a test set and a cross-validation set in the ratio 3:1:1. Since the learner learns
about the data set from the training set, the later is usually larger than the test and cross-
validation set.
26.Which of the following statements is false about Ensemble learning?
a) It is a supervised learning algorithm
b) More random algorithms can be used to produce a stronger ensemble
c) It is an unsupervised learning algorithm
d) Ensembles can be shown to have more flexibility in the functions they can represent
Answer: c
Explanation: Ensemble learning is not an unsupervised learning algorithm. It is a supervised
learning algorithm that combines several machine learning techniques into one predictive
model to decrease variance and bias. It can be trained and then used to make predictions. And
this ensemble can be shown to have more flexibility in the functions they can represent.
27. Ensemble learning is not combining learners that always make similar decisions; the aim
is to be able to find a set of diverse learners.
a) True
b) False
Answer: a
Explanation: Ensemble learning aims to find a set of diverse learners who differ in their
decisions so that they complement each other. There is no point in combining learners that
always make similar decisions.
28. Which of the following is not a multi – expert model combination scheme to generate the
final output?
a) Global approach
b) Local approach
c) Parallel approach
d) Serial approach
Answer: d
Explanation: Multi – expert combination methods have base – learners that work in parallel.
Global approach and Local approach are the two subdivisions of this parallel approach. Serial
approach is a multi – stage combination method.
29. The global approach is also known as learner fusion.
a) False
b) True
Answer: b
Explanation: The global approach also called as learner fusion. Where given an input, all base
– learners generate an output and all these outputs are combined by voting or averaging. This
represents integration (fusion) functions where for each pattern, all the classifiers contribute
to the final decision.
30. Which of the following statements is true about multi – stage combination methods?
a) The next base – learner is trained on only the instances where the previous base – learners
are not accurate enough
b) It is a selection approach
c) It has base – learners that work in parallel
d) The base – learners are sorted in decreasing complexity
Answer: a
Explanation: It is a serial approach; the next base – learner is trained or tested on only the
instances where the previous base – learners are not accurate enough. A multi – stage
combination method is neither a parallel approach nor a selection approach. The base –
learners are sorted in increasing complexity.
31. Which of the following is not an example of a multi – expert combination method?
a) Voting
b) Stacking
c) Mixture of experts
d) Cascading
Answer: d
Explanation: Cascading is not a multi – expert combination example and is a multi – stage
combination method. It is based on the concatenation of several classifiers, which use all the
information collected from the output from a given classifier as additional information for the
next classifier in the cascade. Voting, stacking and a mixture of experts are the example of
multi – expert combination methods.
32. Which of the following statements is false about the base – learners?
a) The base – learners are chosen for their accuracy
b) The base – learners are chosen for their simplicity
c) The base – learners has to be diverse
d) Base – learners do not require them to be very accurate individually
Answer: a
Explanation: When we generate multiple base – learners, we want them to be reasonably
accurate but do not require them to be very accurate individually. Hence the base – learners
are not chosen for their accuracy, but for their simplicity. However, the base – learners have
to be diverse.
33. Different algorithms make different assumptions about the data and lead to different
classifiers in generating diverse learners.
a) True
b) False
Answer: a
Explanation: Different algorithms make different assumptions about the data and lead to
different classifiers. For example one base – learner may be parametric and another may be
nonparametric. When we decide on a single algorithm, we give importance to a single
method and ignore all others.
34. Ensembles tend to yield better results when there is a significant diversity among the
models.
a) False
b) True
Answer: b
Explanation: Ensembles tend to yield better results when there is a significant diversity
among the models. Many ensemble methods, therefore, try to promote diversity among the
models they combine.
35. The partitioning of the training sample cannot be done based on locality in the input
space.
a) False
b) True
36. Which of the following is represented by the below figure?

a) Stacking
b) Mixture of Experts
c) Bagging
d) Boosting
Answer: b
Explanation: The figure shows a Mixture of Experts. It is based on the divide – and – conquer
principle and mixture of experts trains individual models to become experts in different
regions of the feature space. Then, a gating network decides which combination of ensemble
learners is used to predict the final output of any instance.
36. Given the target value of a mixture of expert combinations is 0.8. The predictions of three
experts and the probability of picking them are 0.6, 0.4, 0.5 and 0.8, 0.5, 0.7 respectively.
Then what is the simple error for training?
a) 0.13
b) 0.15
c) 0.18
d) 0.2
Answer: c
Explanation: We know the simple error for training:
E = ∑ipi(d – yi)2 where d is the target value and pi is the probability of picking expert i, and
yi is the individual prediction of expert i. Given d = 0.8, y1 = 0.6, y2 = 0.4, y3 = 0.5 and p1 =
0.8, p2 = 0.5, p3 = 0.7
Then E = p1(d – y1)2 + p2(d – y2)2 + p3(d – y3)2
= 0.8(0.8 – 0.6)2 + 0.5(0.8 – 0.4)2 + 0.7(0.8 – 0.5)2
= 0.8(0.2)2 + 0.5(0.4)2 + 0.7(0.3)2
= 0.8 * 0.04 + 0.5 * 0.16 + 0.7 * 0.09
= 0.032 + 0.08 + 0.063
= 0.18
37. The ABC company has released their Android app. And 80 people have rated the app on
a scale of 5 stars. Out of the total people 15 people rated it with 1 star, 20 people rated it with
2 stars, 30 people rated it with 3 stars, 10 people rated it with 4 stars and 5 people rated it
with 5 stars. What will be the final prediction if we take the average of individual
predictions?
a) 2
b) 3
c) 4
d) 5
Answer: b
Explanation: Given that we are taking the average of individual predictions to make the final
prediction.
Average = ∑ (Rating * Number of people) / Total number of people
= ((1 * 15) + (2 * 20) + (3 * 30) + (4 * 10) + (5 * 5)) / 80
= (15 + 40 + 90 + 40 + 25) / 80
= 210 / 80
= 2.625
And the nearest integer is 3. So the final prediction will be 3.
38. Consider there are 5 employees A, B, C, D, and E of ABC company. Where people A, B
and C are experienced, D and E are fresher. They have rated the company app as given in the
table. What will be the final prediction if we are taking the weighted average?

Employee Weight Rating

A 0.4 3

B 0.4 2
 C 0.4 2

D 0.2 2

E 0.2 4
a) 2
b) 3
c) 4
d) 5
Answer: c
Explanation: We have,
Weighted average = ∑ (Weight * Rating)
= (0.4 * 3) + (0.4 * 2) + (0.4 * 2) + (0.2 * 2) + (0.2 * 4)
= 1.2 + 0.8 + 0.8 + 0.4 + 0.8
=4
41. What is present in the version space of the Find-S algorithm in the beginning?
a) Set of all hypotheses H
b) Both maximally general and maximally specific hypotheses
c) Maximally general hypothesis
d) Maximally specific hypothesis
Answer: d
Explanation: Initially, only the maximally specific hypothesis is contained. That is
generalized step by step after encountering every positive example. At any stage, the
hypothesis is the most specific hypothesis consistent with training data.
42. When does the hypothesis change in the Find-S algorithm, while iteration?
a) Any example (positive or negative) is encountered
b) Amy negative example is encountered
c) Positive Example inconsistent with the hypothesis is encountered
d) Any positive example is encountered
Answer: c
Explanation: Find-S algorithm does not care about any negative example. It only changes
when a positive example is encountered, which is inconsistent with the given hypothesis. The
attribute(s) which is inconsistent is changed into a more generalized form.
43. What is one of the assumptions of the Find-S algorithm?
a) No assumptions are made
b) The most specific hypothesis is also the most general hypothesis
c) All training data are correct (there is no noise)
d) Overfitting does not occur
Answer: c
Explanation: Since no negative examples are being considered, a huge part of the data is
discarded. In order to output an accurate hypothesis, the remaining dataset must be noise free
and adequate.
44. What is one of the advantages of the Find-S algorithm?
a) Computation is faster than other concept learning algorithms
b) All correct hypotheses are output
c) Most generalized hypothesis is output
d) Overfitting does not occur
Answer: a
Explanation: All negative data are discarded. Version Space consists of only one hypothesis,
whereas the version space of other algorithms consists of more than one hypothesis. At each
step, the version space is compared with the training data instance. So, for Find-S
computation is much faster.
45. How does the hypothesis change gradually?
a) Specific to Specific
b) Specific to General
c) General to Specific
d) General to General
Answer: b
Explanation: Initially, the hypothesis is most specific – consists of only phi. Gradually, after
encountering each new positive example, it generalizes with a change in attributes, to remain
consistent with training data.
46. S = <phi, phi, phi>Training data = <rainy, cold, white> => No (negative example). How
will S be represented after encountering this training data?
a) <phi, phi, phi>
b) <sunny, warm, white>
c) <rainy, cold, black>
d) <?, ?, ?>
Answer: a
Explanation: When a negative example is encountered, the Find-S algorithm ignores it.
Hence, the hypothesis remains unchanged. It will only a change, when a positive example
inconsistent with data is encountered.
47. What is one of the drawbacks of the Find-S algorithm?
a) Computation cost is high
b) Time-ineffective
c) All correct hypotheses are not output
d) Most specific accurate hypothesis is not output
Answer: a
Explanation: The hypothesis generated is always the most specific one at each step. A more
generalized hypothesis can be there but it is not considered as negative examples are
discarded. Thus, hypotheses that are consistent with training data may not be output by the
learner.
48. Noise or errors in the dataset can severely affect the performance of the Find-S algorithm.
a) True
b) False
Answer: a
Explanation: The algorithm ignores negative examples. Since a huge part of the dataset is
discarded, the accuracy of the learned hypothesis becomes heavily dependent on the
remaining portion. If there is error or noise in this part, huge inaccuracies may occur.
49. S = <phi, phi, phi> Training data = <square, pointy, white> => Yes (positive example).
How will S be represented after encountering this training data?
a) <phi, phi, phi>
b) <square, pointy, white >
c) <circular, blunt, black>
d) <?, ?, ? >
Answer: b
Explanation: Initially, S contains phi, which implies that no example is positive. It encounters
a positive example, which is inconsistent with the current hypothesis. So, it generalizes
accordingly to approve the new example. It thus takes the values of the training instance.
50. The algorithm accommodates all the maximally specific hypotheses.
a) True
b) False
Answer: b
Explanation: S contains phi initially. Then it gradually generalizes, with new training
examples. But it only generalizes in a particular order and never backtracks. It never
considers a different branch which may lead to a different target concept.
UNIT 2
INTRODUCTION TO RPA

Robotic process automation (RPA), also known as software robotics, uses

intelligent automation technologies to perform repetitive office tasks of human
workers, such as extracting data, filling in forms, moving files and more.

RPA combines APIs and user interface (UI) interactions to integrate and perform
repetitive tasks between enterprise and productivity applications. By deploying
scripts which emulate human processes, RPA tools complete autonomous
execution of various activities and transactions across unrelated software systems.

This form of automation uses rule-based software to perform business process

activities at a high-volume, freeing up human resources to prioritize more complex
tasks. RPA enables CIOs and other decision makers to accelerate their digital
transformation efforts and generate a higher return on investment (ROI) from their
staff.RPA and intelligent automation

In order for RPA tools in the marketplace to remain competitive, they will need to
move beyond task automation and expand their offerings to include intelligent
automation (IA). This type of automation expands on RPA functionality by
incorporating sub-disciplines of artificial intelligence, like machine learning,
natural language processing, and computer vision.

Intelligent process automation demands more than the simple rule-based systems
of RPA. You can think of RPA as “doing” tasks, while AI and ML encompass
more of the “thinking” and "learning," respectively. It trains algorithms using data
so that the software can perform tasks in a quicker, more efficient way.

How does RPA work?

According to Forrester, RPA software tools must include the following core
capabilities:

1. Low-code capabilities to build automation scripts

2. Integration with enterprise applications

 3. Orchestration and administration including configuration, monitoring and
security
Automation technology, like RPA, can also access information through legacy
systems, integrating well with other applications through front-end integrations.
This allows the automation platform to behave similarly to a human worker,
performing routine tasks, such as logging in and copying and pasting from one
system to another. While back-end connections to databases and enterprise web
services also assist in automation, RPA’s real value is in its quick and simple front-
end integrations

The benefits of RPA

There are multiple benefits of RPA, including:

• Less coding: RPA does not necessarily require a developer to configure;

drag-and-drop features in user interfaces make it easier to onboard non-
technical staff.

• Rapid cost savings: Since RPA reduces the workload of teams, staff can be
reallocated towards other priority work that does require human input,
leading to increases in productivity and ROI.

• Higher customer satisfaction: Since bots and chatbots can work around the
clock, they can reduce wait times for customers, leading to higher rates of
customer satisfaction.

• Improved employee morale: By lifting repetitive, high-volume workload

off your team, RPA allows people to focus on more thoughtful and strategic
decision-making. This shift in work has a positive effect on employee
happiness.

• Better accuracy and compliance: Since you can program RPA robots to
follow specific workflows and rules, you can reduce human error,
particularly around work which requires accuracy and compliance, like

Challenges of RPA

• While RPA software can help an enterprise grow, there are some obstacles,
such as organizational culture, technical issues and scaling.
 • Organizational culture
While RPA will reduce the need for certain job roles, it will also drive
growth in new roles to tackle more complex tasks, enabling employees to
focus on higher-level strategy and creative problem-solving. Organizations
will need to promote a culture of learning and innovation as responsibilities
within job roles shift. The adaptability of a workforce will be important for
successful outcomes in automation and digital transformation projects. By
educating your staff and investing in training programs, you can prepare
teams for ongoing shifts in priorities.
• Difficulty in scaling
While RPA can perform multiple simultaneous operations, it can prove
difficult to scale in an enterprise due to regulatory updates or internal
changes. According to a Forrester report, 52% of customers claim they
struggle with scaling their RPA program. A company must have 100 or more
active working robots to qualify as an advanced program, but few RPA
initiatives progress beyond the first 10 bots.
RPA use cases

• There are several industries that leverage RPA technology to streamline their
business operations. RPA implementations can be found across the
following industries:
• Banking and financial services: In the Forrester report on “The RPA
Services Market Will Grow To Reach USD 12 Billion By 2023”, 36% of all
use cases were in the finance and accounting space. More than 1 in 3 bots
today are in the financial industry, which is of little surprise given banking's
early adoption of automation. Today, many major banks use RPA
automation solutions to automate tasks, such as customer research, account
opening, inquiry processing and anti-money laundering. A bank deploys
thousands of bots to automate manual high-volume data entry. These
processes entail a plethora of tedious, rule-based tasks that automation
streamlines.
• Insurance: Insurance is full of repetitive processes well suited for
automation. For example, you can apply RPA to claims processing
operations, regulatory compliance, policy management and underwriting
tasks.
• Retail: The rise of ecommerce has made RPA an integral component of the
modern retail industry that has improved back office operations and the
customer experience. Popular applications.
RPA PROGRAMMING BEST PRACTICES

• As companies increasingly realize the benefits of automation, the need for

robotic process automation (RPA) developers will continue to rise.
• There is already greater demand from business – currently more demand than
supply – for developers trained in RPA programming. While expectations may
differ from company to company, a handful of best practices are essential to the
viability of the code. The following is a list of RPA programming best practices
that should be applied both vigorously and flexibly by RPA developers.
• 1. Begin with a high-level framework
• The most successful automation originates from good design. Before
development begins, the developer should understand the specifics of the manual
process. Make sure the process design document (PDD) captures the process at
both the workflow and keystroke level. When a developer uses the PDD as a
platform from which to design the automated solution, it guarantees all
automation is created in a consistent and organized way. The framework begins
with a high-level view and then allows developers to go deeper into the precise
details of each process. Most processes follow a set of standard sequences, such
as initialization, cleanup, processing, and error handling. These components
should be included in the PDD to serve as a starting point for automating nearly
all processes.
• 2. Break down processes into specific workflows
• Some business processes are complex, containing many tasks, each with
multiple steps. For example, when an accountant enters invoices into a web-
based app, he or she must enter fields from five different invoices, each with
different steps that accomplish a unit of work. When building automation, each
separate task should have its own dedicated workflow. This enables independent
testing of components and allows multiple RPA developers to work on a single
process. Be mindful when choosing the layout of each component. Typically,
the logic and flow of a process stay in a flowchart, while the navigation and data
manipulation are in sequences.
• 3. Choose activities carefully
• RPA developers must choose from a wide array of activities for handling the many
process steps in automation. Picking the most appropriate activities has a big impact
on the visual design and readability of a workflow. For other developers to be able to
read, interpret, and follow the workflows created, a developer should strive to make
 the workflow as easy as possible to understand. This ensures a smooth transition of
automation from one developer to another.
• 4. Increase workflow readability
• Data comes in two forms: arguments and variables. Arguments are used to pass
data from one workflow component to another and can be accessed throughout
the workflow file. Variables can be used only inside a single workflow file and
should be kept in the innermost scope to lessen clutter. To accurately define
workflow files, activities, arguments, and variables, give the workflow files
meaningful names – and use comments and annotations to describe in more
detail what is going on in a section of the automation, such as what arguments
are being passed in and out of invoked components. To avoid confusion, add
comments only to describe sections of the code that are not intuitive.
• 5. Create configurable files
• Automation should allow process owners to make changes to automation
variables without an RPA developer's intervention. By putting change-prone
settings inside a configurable file, the developer gives the process owner the
flexibility to change these values as desired. A developer should always avoid
hard coding external settings, such as file paths, URLs, document names, logins,
and email recipients.
• 6. Store reusable components
• Many processes share common steps, such as logins, emails, and data validation.
These common workflows should be sharable between automation. Creating a
library to store all reusable automation components will not only make your
ongoing development faster but will also make it easier to support your
automation in production in the future.
• 7. Add logging into the workflow
• Logs are time-stamped files that contain informational events, error alerts, and
warning messages relevant to the automation. The developer should add a
logging step to the workflow intermittently to help document and tell a story of
what the RPA bot has completed. A log should record what the bot did and why
it did it as well as events that are vital to the workflow, such as log-in status,
transition item number, ID numbers, applications opened or closed, and all
errors and business exceptions. A log can be used for auditing purposes, it can
be sent to a digital supervisor for analysis, and it can provide business-relevant
data about the long-term impact of RPA.
• 8. Build in error handling

Errors like failed logins, nonexistence directories, or no more disk space can bring
automation to a standstill. Exceptions like a timed-out application, bad data, or a new
screen within the application also can stall automation. This is why workflows should
contain error handling. Depending on what type of exception occurs – whether it is a
business or application.

SOFTBOTS AND ROBOTS

SOFTROBOTICE OR SOFTBOTS
Soft robotics is a subfield of robotics that concerns the design, control, and fabrication
of robots composed of compliant materials, instead of rigid links.[1][2] In contrast to
rigid-bodied robots built from metals, ceramics and hard plastics, the compliance of
soft robots can improve their safety when working in close contact with humans. [2]

• on – an RPA
programmer should code the automation to handle the exception and react
accordingly. For example, if a business exception occurs on queue item number
two, the RPA bot should log the exception and prepare .
• The goal of soft robotics is the design and construction of robots with physically
flexible bodies and electronics. Sometimes softness is limited to part of the
 machine. For example, rigid-bodied robotic arms can employ soft end effectors
to gently grab and manipulate delicate or irregularly shaped objects. Most rigid-
bodied mobile robots also strategically employ soft components, such as foot
pads to absorb shock or springy joints to store/release elastic energy. However,
the field of soft robotics generally leans toward machines that are predominately
or entirely soft. Robots with entirely soft bodies have tremendous potential. For
one their flexibility allows them to squeeze into places rigid bodies cannot,
which could prove useful in disaster relief scenarios. Soft robots are also safer
for human interaction and for internal deployment inside a human body.
• Nature is often a source of inspiration for soft robot design given that animals
themselves are mostly composed of soft components and they appear to exploit
their softness for efficient movement in complex environments almost
everywhere on Earth.[3] Thus, soft robots are often designed to look like familiar
creatures, especially entirely soft organisms like octopuses. However, it is
extremely difficult to manually design and control soft robots given their low
mechanical impedance. The very thing that makes soft robots beneficial—their
flexibility and compliance—makes them difficult to control. The mathematics
developed over the past centuries for designing rigid bodies generally fail to
extend to soft robots. Thus, soft robots are commonly designed in part with the
help of automated design tools, such as evolutionary algorithms, which enable a
soft robot's shape, material properties, and controller to all be simultaneously
and automatically designed and optimized together for a given task.[

ROBOTIC

Robotic process automation (RPA) is a software technology that makes it easy to build,
deploy, and manage software robots that emulate humans actions interacting with digital
systems and software. Just like people, software robots can do things like understand
what’s on a screen, complete the right keystrokes, navigate systems, identify and extract
data, and perform a wide range of defined actions. But software robots can do it faster
and more consistently than people, without the need to get up and stretch or take a coffee
break.

Improved compliance
92% agree RPA has ‘met or exceeded expectations’ for better complia

Boosted productivity68% of global workers believe automation will make them more
productive.
 More value from personnel60% of executives agree RPA enables people to focus on
more strategic work.

Happier employees
57% of executives say RPA increases employee engagement.

RPA ARCHITECTURE AND METHODOLOGY

In this article, we will take a look at what Robotic Process Management(RPA) is and focus

on its architecture. This article will target defining all the nitty-gritty details of what makes

a system an RPA, and along with it, we will understand the architecture using which such

software can be built. With no further delay, let us get started with the same.

Table of Contents - RPA Architecture

• What is RPA?

• RPA Architecture

o Usability

o Integration

o Exception Handling

o Security

o Configuration Features

o Deployment Features

• RPA Solution Architecture

• Conclusion
What is RPA?

Let's start by discussing what RPA is all about.

RPA is a technology, which allows anyone today to configure computer software
or a robot for emulating and integrating human actions and interacting with
digital systems for executing a business process.
RPA robots, utilizing the user interface, capture data like humans do and
manipulate applications. They interpret, communicate and trigger responses with
other systems in order to perform a wide variety of repetitive tasks. RPA robot
never sleeps, makes zero mistakes, and also costs less than an employee.

If you would like to Enrich your career

with an RPA-certified professional,
then visit MindMajix - A Global online
training platform: “RPA Online Course”
Course. This course will help you to
achieve excellence in this domain.

One of the most challenging decisions that Organizations need to go through is

deciding the ideal toolset that they may apply to their implementation of RPA.
The factors discussed below will make sure that you understand your RPA tool
and its architecture better. To get better insights into the RPA tool and its
architecture, we need to understand the following essential aspects which make
one RPA tool:
RPA Architecture

RPA architecture is the most critical factor that needs to be analyzed. But for
the time being, the essential element that needs to be understood well is the
architecture of the particular product. This also helps in understanding the
implications of where it should not be used.
1. Usability

Usability is the most important factor that plays a significant role in the decision-
making as well, and for an automation tool, usability should be even more perfect
as there is a limited number of steps for configuration concerns. It makes the
overall configuration process and the administration process more efficient if it is
easier to understand by others. The more accessible software can ensure quicker
scalability, ease of deployment, and higher levels of adoption by the customers.
2. Integration

An ideal RPA tool should be able to integrate with various other systems and
technologies that might be deployed in an organization’s business processing.
The stronger integration capabilities, the better and robust automation is achieved
by them.
3. Exception Handling

An effective situation or scenario handling is expected out of an intelligent RPA

tool and also requires it to refer to the subject matter experts where there is a
judgment required or a manual activity is required. This indirectly means that
error handling during automation should be handled more easily, and these should
also be resolved automatically. If this is not achievable, these scenarios will be
audited for inconsistencies in the RPA solution. With stable exception handling,
the orchestration of automation in the workplace can operate smoothly and
reliably.
4. Security

RPA solutions will have their hands on the sensitive data of an organization when
an RPA solution is deployed there. And as part of this, there should not be an
underestimate of the security features and measures that are quintessential of an
automation toolkit. Based on each product, there might be a different way of
handling such scenarios, but finding the right solution in your case is an essential
part of this activity.
5. Configuration Features

Every RPA application holds a feature designed in specific to accelerate and also
to simplify the editing of the configuration all the time. This ensures that the
effective deployment of automation and also adds a lot of support towards
building the required internal capabilities. Each RPA tool has its arsenal of
configuration tools tailored specifically to address these configuration
management challenges.
6. Deployment Features
(a) Deployment is only when the configuration and testing guidelines are all
crossed.
This includes the features like rolling out releases across machines, handle
environment-specific variables, provision of security controls for live
environment deployments. Some businesses call for specific deployment
scenarios where a powerful deployment toolset is always appreciated.
(b) Vendor Support and Documentation
Stronger the support from the Vendor of a particular RPA tool, the better the
resources which facilitate the deployment. The maturity of the support
organizations differs broadly as many key players have their presence in the
market already and also the new budding enterprises who want to make their
presence felt in this industry.
No specific RPA tool can be coined as the perfect fit for every process of the
organization. Hence the hurdle of selecting the best RPA tool is mostly close to
the requirements that you require and the provision that these tools provide. The
closest match is what you can proceed with the next set of formalities before
making the purchase.

RPA SOLUTION ARCHITECTURE AND METHODOLOGY

Looking at the above details, you should be able to decide the importance of the
architecture of any given RPA tool. To understand this in detail, let us get into the
specifics of the RPA tool’s architecture. The following block diagram gives you a
brief depiction of a typical RPA solution and also its architecture. By the very
first look, you can make yourself realize that it is not a single tool, but is a
combination of various tools, platforms, and also various infrastructure elements
to form a complete RPA tool or a solution. Let us now take a more in-depth look
at the high-level details of each of these blocks in the solution architecture given
below:
1. Applications under Robotic Process Execution
RPA is well suited for enterprises and enterprise applications like ERP
solutions (For example, SAP, Siebel, or massive data processing or records
processing applications like Mainframes). Most of these applications are data-
centric and also data-intensive with loads and loads of setup and repetitive
process activities.
2. RPA Tools

Most of the critical capabilities that are expected to be available in any of the
RPA tools are given below:
• The ability to automate a variety of application environments such as Web,
Desktop, and Citrix environments.
• The ability to develop software robots that understand by recordings,
configuring, and also enhancing these with programming logic (For
example, loops and conditions).
• To be able to build reusable components which can further be applied to
multiple robots, ensuring modularity and also faster development and also
at the same time easier maintenance.
• To be able to build shared application UI object stores and also object
repositories containing object locators
 • The ability to read and write from/to various data sources while executing
these software robots
3. RPA Platform
RPA in the cloud always acts as a shared repository to ensure the storage of all
the software robots and also the RPA based resources using the tool. These RPA
assets can further be divided across software robots (as repeatable sub-processes)
libraries. Scheduling, Distributing, and Monitoring the execution of software
robots are the features and capabilities provided by an RPA platform. Given all
the information available about RPA assets and executions, the RPA platform
further provides the ability to develop meaningful analytics about your
software robots and their execution statistics.
4. RPA Execution Infrastructure

RPA execution infrastructure can sometimes be a bank of parallel physical or

virtual lab machines, which can be controlled based on usage patterns. Scaling up
or down the number of machines in parallel to achieve the task of automation can
also be done, and this can be left unattended for as long as you like (as this
requires no further human interaction or intervention).
5. Configuration Management
Configuration management is needed for versioning of RPA assets as the
underlying application on which software robots are developed may continuously
be updated to introduce newer versions, and so would the RPA assets
and software robots. Also, as you scale up, RPA implementation efforts and
multiple members in your team are developing RPA assets at the same time, and
given that there are assets that are shareable and reusable across different
software robots, it is evident that source code management capabilities are needed
to allow branching and merging of RPA assets.

The diagram above accentuates the understanding that one has over RPA to the
next level, providing a better depiction of the RPA tool as a layered design and
also explains every layer in the RPA tool’s architecture. The benefits of each of
these layers are also taken care of in the diagram, which also accentuates the
already existing understanding of the software architecture. This also goes about
telling that RPA is not just a single tool that we talk about, but it is a combination
of various layers of applications and tools that come together to make this whole
system and the architecture.

The depiction is how an RPA solution can always be fed on the feedback, to
make the automation model more efficient. The four stages of an application
where an RPA tool has been educated to perform a certain number of
mundane, monotonous rule-based, repetitive tasks. Once the software robots
are well educated, you may want to consult your business users on any specific
modifications to the already covered business scenarios. Once the consultation
process is concluded, you execute the automation model to ensure your
automation is always running and in turn, the tasks that are configured via this
automation are performed.

On a certain number of successful execution of these software robots, you

perform a retrospection to understand and also identify critical areas where there
can be better suggestions implemented to perform these tasks in an even more
efficient and effective way. The final goal of this RPA model is to achieve the
best-suited business automation model that suits the business requirements
and needs.
6. Further Considerations

Many RPA vendors provide RPA tools, platforms, and infrastructure either as a
single unified solution or as separate solutions. It may be an excellent option to buy
most of these offerings from the same vendor for better integration. If you are
planning to use the free RPA tool, you may not get a fully-featured RPA platform
and execution infrastructure capabilities, but you get something at no cost.
There isn’t a tool-agnostic RPA platform available at the moment; it may be a good
idea that such a product is made available in the market in the future by an existing
RPA vendor or service provider. Look for configuration management capabilities
in the RPA tool and RPA platform you choose. This may not be a problem early
days, but as you scale up this is very much a desirable feature.
Conclusion

In this article, we have discussed what RPA is and RPA architecture. We have
taken it a step further and also discussed a bit on how we can go about
implementing RPA as well. Extending the discussion, we have also tried to get
better insights into what different constituents are required to achieve a successful
RPA as well.
INDUSTRIES BEST SUITED FOR RPA

Utilities: Utility companies – gas, electric, water, etc. – deal with monetary
transactions every day, so an obvious opportunity for RPA would be in billing as
well as in meter-reading exceptions, debt recovery, and customer service. By
automating a number of troubleshooting robots, a utility company can lower the
number of failed meter-readings that need human attention. And of course, plenty
of other industries could benefit from streamlined debt recovery and customer
service as well.

Legal: The legal system is practically built on paper, and although making a
switch to RPA requires more legwork than the average for-profit business, RPA
could truly revolutionize the legal system. A software robot can scan through the
massive stack of documents needed for a single legal case in seconds, and the
analytics RPA provides could even unearth missed information. Admittedly, this
would require a full digitization of all paper documents to be really successful.
An enormous undertaking, to be sure, but one with significant gains through
RPA.

Insurance: The insurance business combines the aspects of high volume of

transactions and lots of paperwork – perfect for RPA! However, the flow of
transactions or claims may not be as steady as it is for a utility company. One top
insurance company was drawn to RPA for its ability to be easily scaled up or
down on a daily or hourly basis. You may need fewer robots working in the
afternoon than in the morning, and RPA can be altered to fit your needs.

Banking: While there’s already a fair share of automation going on in banks,

remember that the key factor of RPA is its ability to work with and across legacy
systems. Banking institutions can be weighed down by lots and lots of
independent databases, which then require lots of database administrators to
support them all. RPA can dramatically cut costs by eliminating the need for so
many database administrators. Banks have also used tiered systems of RPA to
solve failed transactions without human involvement.

**********************************************************
UNIT 2 MCQ QUESTIONS

1. A popular ___ tool, UiPath provides organizations with end-to-end

solutions for automating repetitive and redundant processes.
A. RAP
B. RPA
C. PAR
D. PRA
Answer: B) RP

2. The UiPath RPA platform ____ recurring business processes by

utilizing advanced robotic capabilities.
A. Semi-automates
B. Automates
C. Partially automates
D. Not automate
Answer: B) Automates
3. In addition to providing hundreds of built-in, customizable
integrations with a variety of technologies, such as ____, RPA UiPath is
an open platform tool that offers hundreds of built-in, customizable
integrations.
A. ERP
B. BPM
C. AI
D. All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above

4. In addition to creating software robots, UiPath can be used to build

____ that mimic human actions.
A. Bots
 B. Sets
C. Datasets
D. Functions
Answer: A) Bots

5. Through UiPath, organizations can automate boring, repetitive tasks

and free up their ____ resources for more valuable tasks.
A. AI
B. Robotic
C. Human
D. Computer
Answer: C) Human

6. Which of the following is/are TRUE about UiPath MCQs?

A. Windows desktop tasks are primarily automated using UiPath.
B. A drag-and-drop user interface is provided by UiPath.
C. With UiPath, redundant tasks can be automated and human
intervention can be reduced or removed.
D. All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above

7. A __-day trial period is available for UiPath's standard Studio

version.
A. 60
B. 40
C. 20
D. 5
Answer: A) 60

8. UiPath was introduced in -

A. 2004
 B. 2005
C. 2006
D. 2007
Answer: B) 2005

9. According to the Financial Times 100, UiPath was ranked the

number ___ tech company and number ___ in overall growth in April
2020.
A. One, Two
B. Two, One
C. One, Three
D. Three, Two
Answer: A) One, Two

10. ____ is the best desktop automation tool.

A. Automation Anywhere
B. Blue Prism
C. UiPath
D. Pega
Answer: C) UiPath

11. Why should one prefer UiPath?

A. In comparison to other automation tools, UiPath offers desktop
automation.
B. Remote desktop applications can be easily handled by UiPath.
In comparison to other automation tools, UiPath offers better data
C. handling techniques.
D. All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above

12. With UiPath, scraping techniques are completely ____.

 A. Flexible
B. Compatible
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above
Answer: C) Both A and B
13. In comparison with other automation tools in the RPA market, ____
allows you to write better logic and methods.
A. Automation Anywhere
B. UiPath
C. Pega
D. Blue Prism
Answer: B) UiPath
14. UiPath Architecture has mainly ____ components.
A. Two
B. Three
C. Four
D. Five
Answer: B) Three

15. Which of the following is/are the component(s) of UiPath

Architecture?
A. Studio
B. Orchestrator
C. Robot
D. All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above

16. Along with the ____, and the UiPath Orchestrator, the architecture
mainly consists of three UiPath components.
A. Database servers
 B. Browser
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above
Answer: C) Both A and b

17. In UiPath Studio, automation workflows are created for tasks to be

automated using a ___ interface.
A. UI
B. GUI
C. GI
D. None
Answer: B) GUI

18. The automated steps or activities are performed by software ____.

A. Robots
B. Bots
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above
Answer: C) Both A and B

19. ____ communicate through Orchestrator.

A. UiPath Studio
B. Software Robots
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above
Answer: C) Both A and B

20. In how many parts can the architecture be classified?

A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
 D. 5
Answer: A) 2

21. In which of the following can the architecture be classified?

A. Client-side and server-side detailing
B. Three-layered detailing
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above
Answer: C) Both A and B
22. In UiPath, ____ components are those that can be accessed directly
by users or developers.
A. Client-side
B. Server-side
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above
Answer: A) Client-side

23. There are ____ main components of the client side.

A. Three
B. Four
C. Five
D. Six
Answer: B) Four

24. The component(s) of the client-side is/are -

A. UiPath Studio
B. Robot
C. Browser
D. All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above
25. ____ in UiPath select the correct functions and instruct robots to
execute them as specified by the code.
A. Studio
B. Orchestrator
C. Robot
D. All of the above
Answer: B) Orchestrator

26. In the backend, you will find the ____ of the robots.
A. Logs
B. Stats
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above
Answer: C) Both A and B

27. Robot logs can be used to ____.

A. Identify errors
B. Analyze the performance of robots
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above
Answer: C) Both A and B

28. Using the ____ layers of UiPath, we can explain its architecture.
A. Two
B. Three
C. Four
D. Five
Answer: B) Three

29. Using the following hierarchy as a guide, we can understand the

architecture of UiPath:
 A. Client Layer
B. Server Layer
C. Persistency Layer
D. All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above
30. What is the client layer also known as?
A. Performance
B. Initial
C. Presentation
D. Final
Answer: C) Presentation
31. Which of the following component(s) is/are present in UiPath
Robot?
A. UiPath Agent Service
B. UiPath Executor Service
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above
Answer: C) Both A and B

32. Between the client and the server, the ____ service in UiPath acts as
a mediator.
A. Agent
B. Executor
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above
Answer: A) Agent

33. An ____ logs the messages and then sends them to a SQL server by
UiPath Agent service.
A. Studio
 B. Orchestrator
C. Robot
D. None of the above
Answer: B) Orchestrator
34. System settings can be ____ with the UiPath Agent Service.
A. Modified
B. Existing tasks can be started or stopped
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above
Answer: C) Both A and B
35. Software robots use the UiPath ____ service to execute tasks under
Windows.
A. Agent
B. Executor
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above
Answer: B) Executor

36. UIPath architecture is divided into several layers, with the Server
Layer being the ____v and most important layer.
A. First
B. Second
C. Third
D. Fourth
Answer: B) Second

37. A project orchestrator ____ for reporting purposes.

A. Tracks project activities
B. Schedules Software Robots
C. Generates filtered reports
 D. All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above

38. Database servers make up the ____ Layer.

A. Studio
B. Persistency
C. Robot
D. None of the above
Answer: B) Persistency

39. Among the configuration details in the Persistency, the layer is ____,
logging data, and asset information.
A. Data regarding different users
B. Robots assigned to them
C. Tasks assigned to them
D. All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above

40. As part of the persistency layer, the UiPath ____ services are also
responsible for keeping the log details updated.
A. Agent
B. Executor
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above
Answer: A) Agent

41. The logs in the Persistency layer are stored in the -

A. Binary search
B. Binary search tree
C. Elastic search
D. Linear search
Answer: C) Elastic search

42. A relational database management system such as SQL Server is

typically used to store ____-level data.
A. Base
B. Process
C. Initial
D. Final
Answer: B) Process
43. How many products are offered by the UiPath tool?
A. Two
B. Three
C. Four
D. Five
Answer: B) Three
44. Which of the following is/are the product(s) offered by the UiPath
tool?
A. Studio
B. Robot
C. Orchestrator
D. All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above
45. Users can plan and design automation processes visually using
UiPath ____, a user-friendly interface that incorporates diagrams within
the tool.
A. Studio
B. Robot
C. Orchestrator
D. None of the above
Answer: A) Studio
46. UiPath ____ similarly executes tasks to humans, but without any
intervention from humans.
A. Studio
B. Robots
C. Orchestrator
D. None of the above
Answer: B) Robot

47. As soon as a specific activity occurs on the machine, UiPath ____ will
start executing tasks automatically.
A. Studio
B. Robots
C. Orchestrator
D. None of the above
Answer: B) Robots

48. A web-based application is the ____ in UiPath.

A. Studio
B. Robot
C. Orchestrator
D. None of the above
Answer: C) Orchestrator

49. Software bots and processes can be ____ and controlled through
UiPath Orchestrator.
A. Deployed
B. Monitored
C. Scheduled
D. All of the above
Answer: D) All of the above
50. A ____ platform for controlling and managing all software bots is
UiPath Orchestrator.
A. Centralized
B. Decentralized
C. Semi-centralized
D. None
Answer: A) Centralized

51. How many types of bots are there in UiPath?

A. Two
B. Three
C. Four
D. Five
Answer: A) Two
 UNIT III
What Is Cloud Computing?

Nowadays, Cloud computing is adopted by every company, whether it is an MNC or
a startup many are still migrating towards it because of the cost-cutting, lesser
maintenance, and the increased capacity of the data with the help of servers
maintained by the cloud providers.
One more reason for this drastic change from the On-premises servers of the
companies to the Cloud providers is the ‘Pay as you go’ principle-based services
provided by them i.e., you only have to pay for the service which you are using. The
disadvantage On-premises server holds is that if the server is not in use the company
still has to pay for it.
Table of Content
 What Is Cloud Computing?
 Understanding How Cloud Computing Works?
 Origins Of Cloud Computing
 What is Virtualization In Cloud Computing?
 Architecture Of Cloud Computing
 What Are The Types of Cloud Computing Services?
 What Are Cloud Deployment Models?
 What Is Cloud Hosting?
 Characteristics Of Cloud Computing
 Top Reasons to Switch from On-premise to Cloud Computing
 Top leading Cloud Computing companies
 Advantages of Cloud Computing
 Disadvantages Of Cloud Computing
 Cloud Sustainability
 Cloud Security
 Use Cases Of Cloud Computing
 Cloud Computing – FAQs
What Is Cloud Computing?
Cloud Computing means storing and accessing the data and programs on remote
servers that are hosted on the internet instead of the computer’s hard drive or local
server. Cloud computing is also referred to as Internet-based computing, it is a
technology where the resource is provided as a service through the Internet to the
user. The data that is stored can be files, images, documents, or any other storable
document.
The following are some of the Operations that can be performed with Cloud
Computing
 Storage, backup, and recovery of data
 Delivery of software on demand
 Development of new applications and services
 Streaming videos and audio

Understanding How Cloud Computing Works?

Cloud computing helps users in easily accessing computing resources like storage,
and processing over internet rather than local hardwares. Here we discussing how it
works in nutshell:
 Infrastructure: Cloud computing depends on remote network servers hosted on
internet for store, manage, and process the data.
 On-Demand Acess: Users can access cloud services and resources based on-
demand they can scale up or down the without having to invest for physical
hardware.
 Types of Services: Cloud computing offers various benefits such as cost saving,
scalability, reliability and acessibility it reduces capital expenditures, improves
efficiency.
Origins Of Cloud Computing
Mainframe computing in the 1950s and the internet explosion in the 1990s came toget
her to give rise to cloud computing. Since businesses like Amazon, Google,
and Salesforce started providing web-based services in the early 2000s. The term
“cloud computing” has gained popularity. Scalability, adaptability, and cost-
effectiveness are to be facilitated by the concept’s on-demand internet-based access to
computational resources.
These days, cloud computing is pervasive, driving a wide range of services across
markets and transforming the processing, storage, and retrieval of data
What is Virtualization In Cloud Computing?
Virtualization is the software technology that helps in providing the logical isolation
of physical resources. Creating logical isolation of physical resources such as RAM,
CPU, and Storage.. over the cloud is known as Virtualization in Cloud Computing. In
simple we can say creating types of Virtual Instances of computing resources over the
cloud. It provides better management and utilization of hardware resources with
logical isolation making the applications independent of others. It facilitates
streamlining the resource allocation and enhancing scalability for multiple virtual
computers within a single physical source offering cost-effectiveness and better
optimization of resources.
To know about this refer this Article – Virtualization in Cloud Computing and Types
Architecture Of Cloud Computing
Cloud computing architecture refers to the components and sub-components required
for cloud computing. These components typically refer to:
1. Front end ( Fat client, Thin client)
2. Back-end platforms ( Servers, Storage )
3. Cloud-based delivery and a network ( Internet, Intranet, Intercloud )

1. Front End ( User Interaction Enhancement )

The User Interface of Cloud Computing consists of 2 sections of clients. The Thin
clients are the ones that use web browsers facilitating portable and lightweight
accessibilities and others are known as Fat Clients that use many functionalities for
offering a strong user experience.
2. Back-end Platforms ( Cloud Computing Engine )
The core of cloud computing is made at back-end platforms with several servers for
storage and processing computing. Management of Applications logic is managed
through servers and effective data handling is provided by storage. The combination
of these platforms at the backend offers the processing power, and capacity to manage
and store data behind the cloud.
3. Cloud-Based Delivery and Network
On-demand access to the computer and resources is provided over the Internet,
Intranet, and Intercloud. The Internet comes with global accessibility,
the Intranet helps in internal communications of the services within the organization
and the Intercloud enables interoperability across various cloud services. This
dynamic network connectivity ensures an essential component of cloud computing
architecture on guaranteeing easy access and data transfer.
What Are The Types of Cloud Computing Services?
The following are the types of Cloud Computing:
1. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
2. Platform as a Service (PaaS)
3. Software as a Service (SaaS)
4. Function as as Service (FaaS) 1. Infrastructure as a Service ( IaaS )
 Flexibility and Control: IaaS comes up with providing virtualized computing
resources such as VMs, Storage, and networks facilitating users with control over
the Operating system and applications.
 Reducing Expenses of Hardware: IaaS provides business cost savings with the
elimination of physical infrastructure investments making it cost-effective.
 Scalability of Resources: The cloud provides in scaling of hardware resources up
or down as per demand facilitating optimal performance with cost efficiency.
2. Platform as a Service ( PaaS )
 Simplifying the Development: Platform as a Service offers application
development by keeping the underlying Infrastructure as an Abstraction. It helps
 the developers to completely focus on application logic ( Code ) and background
operations are completely managed by the AWS platform.
 Enhancing Efficiency and Productivity: PaaS lowers the Management of
Infrastructure complexity, speeding up the Execution time and bringing the
updates quickly to market by streamlining the development process.
 Automation of Scaling: Management of resource scaling, guaranteeing the
program’s workload efficiency is ensured by PaaS.
3. SaaS (software as a service)
 Collaboration And Accessibility: Software as a Service (SaaS) helps users to
easily access applications without having the requirement of local installations. It
is fully managed by the AWS Software working as a service over the internet
encouraging effortless cooperation and ease of access.
 Automation of Updates: SaaS providers manage the handling of software
maintenance with automatic latest updates ensuring users gain experience with the
latest features and security patches.
 Cost Efficiency: SaaS acts as a cost-effective solution by reducing the overhead of
IT support by eliminating the need for individual software licenses.
4. Function as a Service (FaaS)
 Event-Driven Execution: FaaS helps in the maintenance of servers and
infrastructure making users worry about it. FaaS facilitates the developers to run
code as a response to the events.
 Cost Efficiency: FaaS facilitates cost efficiency by coming up with the principle
“Pay as per you Run” for the computing resources used.
 Scalability and Agility: Serverless Architectures scale effortlessly in handing the
workloads promoting agility in development and deployment.
To know more about the Types of Cloud Computing Difference please read this
article – IaaS vs PaaS vs SaaS
What Are Cloud Deployment Models?
The following are the Cloud Deployment Models:
1. Private Deployment Model
 It provides an enhancement in protection and customization by cloud resource
utilization as per particular specified requirements. It is perfect for companies
which looking for security and compliance needs.
2. Public Deployment Model
 It comes with offering a pay-as-you-go principle for scalability and accessibility of
cloud resources for numerous users. it ensures cost-effectiveness by providing
enterprise-needed services.
3. Hybrid Deployment Model
It comes up with a combination of elements of both private and public clouds
providing seamless data and application processing in between environments. It offers
flexibility in optimizing resources such as sensitive data in private clouds and
important scalable applications in the public cloud.
To know more about the Cloud Deployment Models, read this Articles
 Cloud Deployment Models
 Differences of Cloud Deployment Models

What Is Cloud Hosting?

The Infrastructure is where the people start and begin to build from the scratch. This is
the layer where the cloud hosting lives. Let’s say you have a company and a website
and the website has a lot of communications that are exchanged between members.
You start with a few members talking with each other and then gradually the number
of members increases. As time passes, as the number of members increases, there
would be more traffic on the network and your server will get slow down. This would
cause a problem.
A few years ago, the websites are put on the server somewhere, in this way you have
to run around or buy and set the number of servers. It costs a lot of money and takes a
lot of time. You pay for these servers when you are using them and as well as when
you are not using them. This is called hosting. This problem is overcome by cloud
hosting. With Cloud Computing, you have access to computing power when you
needed. Now, your website is put in the cloud server as you put it on a dedicated
server. People start visiting your website and if you suddenly need more computing
power, you would scale up according to the need.
Characteristics Of Cloud Computing
The following are the characterisitics of Cloud Computing:
1. Scalability: With Cloud hosting, it is easy to grow and shrink the number and size
of servers based on the need. This is done by either increasing or decreasing the
resources in the cloud. This ability to alter plans due to fluctuations in business
size and needs is a superb benefit of cloud computing, especially when
experiencing a sudden growth in demand.
2. Save Money: An advantage of cloud computing is the reduction in hardware costs.
Instead of purchasing in-house equipment, hardware needs are left to the vendor.
For companies that are growing rapidly, new hardware can be large, expensive,
and inconvenient. Cloud computing alleviates these issues because resources can
be acquired quickly and easily. Even better, the cost of repairing or replacing
equipment is passed to the vendors. Along with purchase costs, off-site hardware
cuts internal power costs and saves space. Large data centers can take up precious
office space and produce a large amount of heat. Moving to cloud applications or
storage can help maximize space and significantly cut energy expenditures.
3. Reliability: Rather than being hosted on one single instance of a physical server,
hosting is delivered on a virtual partition that draws its resource, such as disk
space, from an extensive network of underlying physical servers. If one server
 goes offline it will have no effect on availability, as the virtual servers will
continue to pull resources from the remaining network of servers.
4. Physical Security: The underlying physical servers are still housed within data
centers and so benefit from the security measures that those facilities implement to
prevent people from accessing or disrupting them on-site.
5. Outsource Management: When you are managing the business, Someone else
manages your computing infrastructure. You do not need to worry about
management as well as degradation.
Top Reasons to Switch from On-premise to Cloud
Computing
The following are the Top reasons to switch from on-premise to cloud computing:
1. Reduces cost: The cost-cutting ability of businesses that utilize cloud computing
over time is one of the main advantages of this technology. On average 15% of the
total cost can be saved by companies if they migrate to the cloud. By the use of
cloud servers businesses will save and reduce costs with no need to employ a staff
of technical support personnel to address server issues. There are many great
business modules regarding the cost-cutting benefits of cloud servers such as
the Coca-Cola and Pinterest case studies.
2. More storage: For software and applications to execute as quickly and efficiently
as possible, it provides more servers, storage space, and computing power. Many
tools are available for cloud storage such as Dropbox, Onedrive, Google Drive,
iCloud Drive, etc.
3. Employees Better Work Life Balance: Direct connections between cloud
computing benefits, and the work and personal lives of an enterprise’s workers can
both improve because of cloud computing. Even on holidays, the employees have
to work with the server for its security, maintenance, and proper functionality. But
with cloud storage the thing is not the same, employees get ample of time for their
personal life and the workload is even less comparatively.
Top leading Cloud Computing companies
1. Amazon Web Services(AWS)
One of the most successful cloud-based businesses is Amazon Web Services(AWS),
which is an Infrastructure as a Service(Iaas) offering that pays rent for virtual
computers on Amazon’s infrastructure.
2. Microsoft Azure Cloud Platform
Microsoft is creating the Azure platform which enables the .NET Framework
Application to run over the internet as an alternative platform for Microsoft
developers. This is the classic Platform as a Service(PaaS).
3. Google Cloud Platform ( GCP )
 Google has built a worldwide network of data centers to service its search engine.
From this service, Google has captured the world’s advertising revenue. By using
 that revenue, Google offers free software to users based on infrastructure. This is
called Software as a Service(SaaS).
Advantages of Cloud Computing
The following are main advantages of Cloud Computing:
1. Cost Efficiency: Cloud Computing provides flexible pricing to the users with the
principal pay-as-you-go model. It helps in lessening capital expenditures of
Infrastructure, particularly for small and medium-sized businesses companies.
2. Flexibility and Scalability: Cloud services facilitate the scaling of resources
based on demand. It ensures the efficiency of businesses in handling various
workloads without the need for large amounts of investments in hardware during
the periods of low demand.
3. Collaboration and Accessibility: Cloud computing provides easy access to data
and applications from anywhere over the internet. This encourages collaborative
team participation from different locations through shared documents and projects
in real-time resulting in quality and productive outputs.
4. Automatic Maintenance and Updates: AWS Cloud takes care of the
infrastructure management and keeping with the latest software automatically
making updates they is new versions. Through this, AWS guarantee the companies
always having access to the newest technologies to focus completely on business
operations and innvoations.
Disadvantages Of Cloud Computing
The following are the main disadvantages of Cloud Computing:
1. Security Concerns: Storing of sensitive data on external servers raised more
security concerns which is one of the main drawbacks of cloud computing.
2. Downtime and Reliability: Even though cloud services are usually dependable,
they may also have unexpected interruptions and downtimes. These might be
raised because of server problems, Network issues or maintenance disruptions in
Cloud providers which negative effect on business operations, creating issues for
users accessing their apps.
3. Dependency on Internet Connectivity: Cloud computing services heavily rely on
Internet connectivity. For accessing the cloud resources the users should have a
stable and high-speed internet connection for accessing and using cloud resources.
In regions with limited internet connectivity, users may face challenges in
accessing their data and applications.
4. Cost Management Complexity: The main benefit of cloud services is their
pricing model that coming with Pay as you go but it also leads to cost
management complexities. On without proper careful monitoring and utilization of
resources optimization, Organizations may end up with unexpected costs as per
their use scale. Understanding and Controlled usage of cloud services requires
ongoing attention.
Cloud Sustainability
The following are the some of the key points of Cloud sustainability:
 Enery Efficiency: Cloud Providers supports the optimization of data center
operations for minimizing energy consumption and improve efficiency.
 Renewable Energy: On increasing the adoption of renewable energy sources like
solar and wind power to data centers and reduce carbon emissions.
 Virtualization: Server virtualization facilitates better utilization of hardware
resources, reducing the need for physical servers and lowering the energy
consumptions.
Cloud Security
Cloud security recommended to measures and practices designed to protect data,
applications, and infrastructure in cloud computing environments. The following are
some of the best practices of cloud security:
 Data Encryption: Encryption is essential for securing data stored in the cloud. It
ensures that data remains unreadable to unauthorized users even if it is intercepted.
 Access Control: Implementing strict access controls and authentication
mechanisms helps ensure that only authorized users can access sensitive data and
resources in the cloud.
 Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA): MFA adds an extra layer of security by
requiring users to provide multiple forms of verification, such as passwords,
biometrics, or security tokens, before gaining access to cloud services.
Use Cases Of Cloud Computing
Cloud computing provides many use cases across industries and various applications:
1. Scalable Infrastructure: Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) enables organizations
to scale computing resources based on demand without investing in physical
hardware.
2. Efficient Application Development: Platform as a Service (PaaS) simplifies
application development, offering tools and environments for building, deploying,
and managing applications.
3. Streamlined Software Access: Software as a Service (SaaS) provides
subscription-based access to software applications over the internet, reducing the
need for local installation and maintenance.
4. Data Analytics: Cloud-based platforms facilitate big data analytics, allowing
organizations to process and derive insights from large datasets efficiently.
5. Disaster Recovery: Cloud-based disaster recovery solutions offer cost-effective
data replication and backup, ensuring quick recovery in case of system failures or
disasters.
6. 1. Which of the following can be identified as cloud?
7. a) Hadoop
8. b) Web Applications
9. c) Intranet
10. d) All of the mentioned
11. Answer: a) Hadoop
12. 2. Which organization supports the development of standards for the cloud computing?
13. (a) Stateless
14. (b) OCC (Open Cloud Consortium)
15. (c) OMG (Object Management Group)
16. (d) IEEE
17. Answer: b) OCC
18. 3. Which of the following service is used for backing up a licensed computer?
19. a) Carbonite
20. b) CarbonT
21. c) Karbonite
22. d) All of above
23. Answer: a) Carbonite
24. 4. The process of converting Cipher text data to Plaintext data is known as?
25. (a) Encoding
26. (b) Encryption
27. (c) Decryption
28. (d) All of above
29. Answer: c) Decryption
30. 5. _________ computing refers to applications and services that run on a distributed network using virtualized
resources.
31. (a) Soft
32. (b) Parallel
33. (c) Distributed
34. (d) Cloud
35. Answer: d) Cloud
36. 6. Which is not true about Docker Hub?
37. (a) It’s a totally private repository
38. (b) It gives access to Docker images
39. (c) The Hub is a network service
40. (d) Docker Hub is a network storage
41. Answer: a)It’s a totally private repository
42. 7. Which of the following is most complete cloud computing service model?
43. (a) SaaS (Software as a service)
44. (b) PaaS (Platform as a service)
45. (c) IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service)
46. (d) CaaS (Content as a service)
47. Answer: a) SaaS (Software as a service)
48. 8. The characteristic of something having been provided by an authorized source in the context of security is
known as?
49. (a) Integrity
50. (b) Authenticity
51. (c) Availability
52. (d) Consistency
53. Answer: b) Authenticity
54. 9. Point out the wrong statement:
55. a) Soft computing represents a real paradigm shift in the way in which systems are deployed
56. b) Cloud computing makes the long-held dream of utility computing possible with a pay-as-you-go, infinitely scalable,
universally available system
57. c) The massive scale of cloud computing systems was enabled by the popularization of the Internet
58. d) None
59. Answer: a)
60. 10. Which of the following is most refined and restrictive service model?
61. (a) Software as a service (SaaS)
62. (b) Platform as a service (PaaS)
63. (c) Content as a service (CaaS)
64. (d) Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
65. Answer: b) Platform as a service (PaaS)
66. 11. Cloud computing is an abstraction based on the notion of pooling physical resources and presenting them as
a ________ resource.
67. (a) Cloud
68. (b) Real
69. (c) Virtual
70. (d) All of the above
71. Answer: c) Virtual
72. 12. In this type of cloud, an organization rents cloud services from cloud providers on-demand basis.
73. (a) Public
74. (b) Hybrid
75. (c) Private
76. (d) Protected
77. Answer: a) Public
78. 13. Which among the following is a type of computing which is a form of self-managing systems?
79. (a) Mobile Computing
80. (b) Home-based Cloud Computing
81. (c) Autonomic Computing
82. (d) Jungle Computing
83. Answer: c) Autonomic Computing
84. 14. The Microsoft ____ Platform ROI wizard provides a quick and dirty analysis of your TCO for a cloud
deployment on Windows Azure in an attractive report format.
85. a) Azure
86. b) AWS
87. c) EC2
88. d) All of the mentioned
89. Answer: a) Azure
90. 15. Which of the following is used to transmit structured data over network?
91. (a) JSON
92. (b) XML
93. (c) Both a & b
94. (d) None of these
95. Answer: c) Both a & b
96. 16. ________ as a utility is a dream that dates from the beginning of the computing industry itself.
97. a) Software
98. b) Model
99. c) Computing
100. d) All of the mentioned
101. Answer: c) Computing
102. 17. Which of the following is not Cloud Stakeholder?
103. (a) Clients
104. (b) End users
105. (c) Cloud Providers
106. (d) Cloud users
107. Answer: a) Clients
108. 18. A group of users within a particular instance is called:
109. (a) Super User
110. (b) Suser
111. (c) POD
112. (d) None
113. Answer: c) POD
114. 19. Which of the following is essential concept related to Cloud?
115. a) Reliability
116. b) Productivity
117. c) Abstraction
118. d) All of the mentioned
119. 20. The purpose of the Open Cloud Consortium is to:
120. (a) Support development of standards for cloud computing
121. (b) Develop a framework for interoperability among various cloud
122. (c) None
123. (d) Both a & b
124. Answer: d) Both a & b
125. 21. Which of the following is a third-party VPN based on Google’s Google Talk?
126. (a) Anchor Free Hotspot Shield
127. (b) Hotspot VPN
128. (c) Gbridge
129. (d) All of the mentioned
130. Answer: c) Gbridge
131. 22. Which of the following Cloud Security Characteristic states that data not having been altered by an
unauthorized party?
132. (a) Authenticity
133. (b) Availability
134. (c) Confidentiality
135. (d) Integrity
136. Answer: d) Integrity
137. 23. Which of the following is Cloud Platform by Amazon?
138. (a) Cloudera
139. (b) Azure
140. (c) AWS (Amazon Web Services)
141. (d) None
142. Answer: c) AWS (Amazon Web Services)
143. 24. Which of the following architectural standards is working with cloud computing industry?
144. (a) Standardized Web services
145. (b) Web-Application Frameworks
146. (c) Web-based Architecture
147. (d) Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA)
148. Answer: d) Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA)
149. 25. A ________ Level Agreement (SLA) is the contract for performance negotiated between you and a service
provider.
150. (a) Application
151. (b) Deployment
152. (c) Service
153. (d) None of the above
154. Answer: c) Service
155. 26. Name the cloud developed by SGI:
156. (a) Cyclone
157. (b) Nebula
158. (c) Standards
159. (d) Andromeda
160. Answer: a) Cyclone
161. 27. _________ is a cloud computing service model in which hardware is virtualized in the cloud.
162. (a) PaaS (Platform as a service)
163. (b) CaaS (Content as a service)
164. (c) IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service)
165. (d) None of the mentioned
166. Answer: c) IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service)
167. 28. In which of the following clients must have continuous connection to host to receive the messages?
168. (a) POP
169. (b) IMAP
170. (c) SMTP
171. (d) Both a and b
172. Show Answer: a) POP
173. 29. ________ has many of the characteristics of what is now being called cloud computing.
174. (a) Software
175. (b) Internet
176. (c) Web Service
177. (d) None of above
178. Answer: b) Internet
179. 30. These cloud services are of the form of utility computing i.e. the _________ uses these services pay-as-you-go
model.
180. (a) Cloud Providers
181. (b) Cloud users
182. (c) End users
183. (d) Clients
184. Answer: b) Cloud users
185. 31. Cloud computing doesn’t require that ________ and software be composable.
186. a) Hardware
187. b) Cloud
188. c) Database
189. d) None of the above
190. Answer: a) Hardware
191. 32. ____ is XML based protocol used for near-real-time, extensible instant messaging and Presence information.
192. (a) HTTP
193. (b) XMPP
194. (c) SIMPLE
195. (d) TCP
196. Answer: b) XMPP
197. 33. SaaS supports multiple users and provides a shared data model through _________ model.
198. (a) Multiple-instance
199. (b) Single-tenancy
200. (c) Multi-tenancy
201. (d) All of the mentioned
202. Answer: c) Multi-tenancy
203. 34. When did the Clustered systems first appear in?
204. (a) 2000
205. (b) 2010
206. (c) 1980
207. (d) 1990
208. Answer: d) 1990
209. 35. _________ as a Service is a cloud computing infrastructure that creates a development environment upon
which applications may be build.
210. (a) Platform
211. (b) Infrastructure
212. (c) Service
213. (d) None
214. Answer: a) Platform
215. 36. LAMP standard includes:
216. (a) Linux, MySQL, PHP
217. (b) Linux, Apache, PHP
218. (c) Linux, Apache, MySQL, PHP
219. (d) Linux, Apache, MySQL
220. Answer: c) Linux, Apache, MySQL, PHP
221. 37. Which of the following is one of the property that differentiates cloud computing?
222. (a) Virtualization
223. (b) Composability
224. (c) Scalability
225. (d) None
226. Answer: b) Composability
227. 38. Google _______ is a collection of applications and utilities under development and testing.
228. (a) Platform
229. (b) Hash
230. (c) Code
231. (d) Labs
232. Answer: d) Labs
233. 39. Which of the following cloud concept is related to pooling and sharing of resources?
234. (a) Abstraction
235. (b) Virtualization
236. (c) Polymorphism
237. (d) All of above
238. Answer: b) Virtualization
239. 40. Which of the following provides evidence that the message received is the same as created by its rightful
sender?
240. (a) Digital Signature
241. (b) Encryption
242. (c) Trusted Signature
243. (d) Analog Signature
244. Answer: a) Digital Signature
245. 41. Application frameworks provide a means for creating ________ hosted applications using IDE.
246. (a) Software as a Service (SaaS)
247. (b) Content as a Service (CaaS)
248. (c) Platform as a service (PaaS)
249. (d) None
250. Answer: a) Software as a Service (SaaS)
251. 42. Which of the following is a photo and video sharing service by MobileMe?
252. (a) MobileMe Gallery
253. (b) IWeb Publish
254. (c) IDisk
255. (d) Find My iPhone
256. Answer: a) MobileMe Gallery
257. 43. Which of the architectural layer is used as backend in cloud computing?
258. (a) Soft
259. (b) Client
260. (c) Cloud
261. (d) None
262. Answer: c) Cloud
263. 44. Which of the following is fundamental unit of virtualized client in an IaaS deployment?
264. (a) Work Space
265. (b) Work Load
266. (c) Work Unit
267. (d) None
268. Answer: b) Work Load
269. 45. Which of the following is used for the packaging and distribution of one or more virtual appliances?
270. (a) LAMP
271. (b) Ajax
272. (c) OVF (Open Virtualization Format)
273. (d) SMTP
274. Answer: c) OVF (Open Virtualization Format)
275. 46. The most commonly used set of protocols uses ______ as the messaging format.
276. (a) JSON
277. (b) BSON
278. (c) XML
279. (d) None
280. Answer: c) XML
281. 47. Which of the following mechanisms are contained by Cloud API for accessing cloud services?
282. (a) Authentication
283. (b) Segmentation
284. (c) Abstraction
285. (d) Replication
286. Answer: a) Authentication
287. 48. _____ is a cloud computing service that is both hardware and software.
288. (a) Platform
289. (b) Model
290. (c) Service
291. (d) None of the above
292. Answer: a) Platform
293. 49. OVF Stands for:
294. (a) Over Virtualization Format
295. (b) Over Virtualization File
296. (c) Open Virtualization File
297. (d) Open Virtualization Format
298. Answer: d) Open Virtualization Format
299. 50. Which of the following is a SaaS characteristic?
300. (a) The software is available over the Internet globally through a browser on demand
301. (b) The software and the service are monitored and maintained by the vendor
302. (c) The typical license is subscription-based or usage-based and is billed on a recurring basis
303. (d) All of the above
304. Answer: d) All of the above
 UNIT -IV

CYBER SECURITY

What's is cyber security?

Computer security, cybersecurity, digital security, or information technology security (IT security) is the
protection of computer systems and networks from attacks by malicious actors that may result in
unauthorized information disclosure, theft of, or damage to hardware, software, or data, as well as from
the disruption or misdirection of the services they provide

This is a list of cybersecurity information technology. Cybersecurity is security as it is applied to

information technology. This includes all technology that stores, manipulates, or moves data, such as
computers, data networks, and all devices connected to or included in networks, such as routers and
switches. All information technology devices and facilities need to be secured against intrusion,
unauthorized use, and vandalism.

Additionally, the users of information technology should be protected from theft of assets, extortion,
identity theft, loss of privacy and confidentiality of personal information, malicious mischief, damage to
equipment, business process compromise, and the general activity of cybercriminals. The public should
be protected against acts of cyberterrorism, such as the compromise or loss of the electric power grid.

Cybersecurity is a major endeavor in the IT industry. There are a number of professional certifications
given for cybersecurity training and expertise. Although billions of dollars are spent annually on
cybersecurity, no computer or network is immune from attacks or can be considered completely secure.

What is cyber crime and cyber security information?

Cybercrime is criminal activity that either targets or uses a computer, a computer network or a networked
device. Most cybercrime is committed by cybercriminals or hackers who want to make money. However,
occasionally cybercrime aims to damage computers or networks for reasons other than profit.

These include hacking, phishing, identity theft, ransomware, and malware attacks, among many others.
The reach of cyber crime knows no physical boundaries. Criminals, victims, and technical infrastructure
span worldwide.

What Is Cyber Crime?

Cyber crime is a general term describing the myriad of criminal activities carried out using a computer,
network, or another set of digital devices. Consider cyber crime the umbrella over the vast range of illegal
activities that cyber criminals commit. These include hacking, phishing, identity theft, ransomware, and
malware attacks, among many others.

The reach of cyber crime knows no physical boundaries. Criminals, victims, and technical infrastructure
span worldwide. With the use of technology to exploit security vulnerabilities on both a personal and
enterprise level, cyber crime takes many shapes and continuously evolves. In turn, the ability to
effectively investigate, prosecute, and prevent cyber crimes is an ongoing fight with many dynamic
challenges.

Cyber crime poses a serious threat to individuals, businesses, and government entities and can result in
significant financial loss, damaged reputation, and compromised records. As technology advances and
more people rely on digital devices and networks for standard operations, the threat of cyber crime
continues to increase, making it more critical than ever to take steps to protect against it.

unauthorised user attempts to access sensitive data or intellectual property to gain a competitive
advantage over a company or government entity. Cases of cyber espionage often involve state-sponsored
groups or individual hackers and can have major political or economic implications. One of the most
significant cases of cyber espionage was the five Chinese military hackers indicted for computer hacking,
economic espionage, and other offences directed at U.S. entities.

Data Breaches

Unauthorised access or leaks of sensitive data, such as confidential information, critical records, or
financial access. Data breaches can be attributed to a wide array of risk factors, such as weak passwords
and cybersecurity protocols, software system vulnerabilities, or insider threats. The consequences can
result in compromised data, financial damages, or tarnished reputations. Verizon's data breach
investigations report highlighted that 82% of breaches involved a human element.

Computer Viruses

Perhaps the most common type of malicious software that can self-replicate and spread to other systems,
often causing damage to computer files or programs. Examples of computer viruses include the Melissa,
ILOVEYOU, and Nimda viruses - all spread fast to infect files and damage computer systems.

DDoS Attacks

Distributed Denial of Service attacks, or DDoS attacks, are programmed to overwhelm a network or
website with traffic, causing it to slow down or crash entirely. DDoS attacks were one of many of
Russia’s destructive cyber activities against Ukraine, along with other attacks designed to delete computer
data belonging to governmental and private entities.

Software Piracy
A digital form of intellectual property theft involving unauthorised use or distribution of copyrighted
material, such as software, music, or movies. Examples of software piracy include using key generators or
crack software to activate paid software without a license.

Phishing Scams

Email fraud that involves techniques like deceptive emails, website scams, or misleading communications
to con victims into sharing their personal information and sensitive data or clicking links to malicious
downloads and websites. Examples of phishing scams involve emails that appear to be from household
brands, financial institutions, government agencies, or social media sites.

Identity Theft

In a digital context, identity theft refers to acquiring someone's private data for fraudulent or malicious
purposes. Target assets of identity theft include social security numbers, date of birth, credit card details,
or online accounts. Specific types include financial, medical, and tax identity theft; social media
impersonation; and identity cloning, when a person uses another's identity to conceal their own.

Online Harassment

Involves cyberbullying, cyberstalking, and repeated acts intended to scare, harm, anger, or shame a
particular individual. Today, online harassment is most prevalent on social media sites, dating apps, and
forums/message boards. Examples of online harassment include sending inappropriate and unsolicited
messages, making clear and intentional threats, or distributing sensitive photos or videos of a victim.

in a safe space. The most common password managers include 1Password, KeePass, LastPass, and
Apple's iCloud Keychain. However, some password managers come with risks.

Security Awareness Training

Many cyber-attacks result from human error, such as clicking on malicious links or downloading virus-
containing files. Security awareness training is intended to help educate users on how to better identify,
avoid, and mitigate the threat of cyber-attacks. The most common forms of training are computer-based
awareness training and phishing simulated exercises where employees receive fake phishing emails to test
how they react. Security awareness training helps organisations establish a security-conscious culture,
creating a more resilient network to protect against cyber-attackers.

Data Backup and Recovery

Many forms of cyber-attacks can result in critical data loss, which can have severe financial and
operational repercussions for both individuals and organisations. Data backup and recovery solutions can
help mitigate the damages from data loss by creating backup copies of data and ensuring a faster recovery
in the event of a ransomware attack, data breach, or another form of cyber-attack. Regularly archiving
data is an essential security protocol to ensure that you can recover your data in the event of an attack.

AI and ML Cyber Crime Protection

More advanced cyber crime prevention technologies now utilise machine learning and artificial
intelligence to gather and analyse data, track and trace threats, pinpoint vulnerabilities, and respond to
breaches. For example, ML algorithms can detect and prevent fraud in financial transactions by
identifying patterns that indicate fraudulent activity and flagging them for review. Similarly, AI
technologies can detect and prevent cyber-attacks on networks and systems by analysing network traffic,
identifying abnormal patterns, and responding to threats in real-time.

Classification of cyber crime types:

Cyber crimes are majorly of 4 types:

1. Against Individuals: These include e-mail spoofing, spamming, cyber defamation, cyber harassments
and cyber stalking.

2. Against Property: These include credit card frauds, internet time theft and intellectual property crimes.

3. Against Organisations: These include unauthorized accessing of computer, denial Of service, computer
contamination / virus attack, e-mail bombing, salami attack, logic bomb, trojan horse and data diddling.

4. Against Society: These include Forgery, CYber Terrorism, Web Jacking.

Classification Of Cyber Crimes Cyber crimes can be classified in to 4 major categories as the
following:

(1) Cyber crime against Individual

(2) Cyber crime Against Property

(3) Cyber crime Against Organization

(4) Cyber crime Against Society

(1) Against Individuals

(i) Email spoofing : A spoofed email is one in which the e-mail header is forged so that the mail appears
to originate from one source but actually has been sent from another source.

(ii) Spamming : Spamming means sending multiple copies of unsolicited mails or mass e-mails such as
chain letters.
(iii) Cyber Defamation : This occurs when defamation takes place with the help of computers and/or the
Internet. E.g. someone publishes defamatory matter about someone on a website or sends e-mails
containing defamatory information.

(iv) Harassment & Cyber stalking : Cyber Stalking Means following an individual's activity over internet.
It can be done with the help of many protocols available such as e- mail, chat rooms, user net groups. (2)
Against Property

(i) Credit Card Fraud : As the name suggests, this is a fraud that happens by the use of a credit card. This
generally happens if someone gets to know the card number or the card gets stolen

functions from inside what seems to be an authorized program, thereby concealing what it is actually
doing.

(viii) Data diddling : This kind of an attack involves altering raw data just before it is processed by a
computer and then changing it back after the processing is completed. (4) Against Society

(i) Forgery : Currency notes, revenue stamps, mark sheets etc. can be forged using computers and high
quality scanners and printers.

(ii) Cyber Terrorism : Use of computer resources to intimidate or coerce people and carry out the
activities of terrorism.

(iii) Web Jacking : Hackers gain access and control over the website of another, even they change the
content of website for fulfilling political objective or for money.

Classification of Cyber Crime:

Cyber Terrorism –

Cyber terrorism is the use of the computer and internet to perform violent acts that result in loss of life.
This may include different type of activities either by software or hardware for threatening life of citizens.

In general, Cyber terrorism can be defined as an act of terrorism committed through the use of cyberspace
or computer resources.

Cyber Extortion –

Cyber extortion occurs when a website, e-mail server or computer system is subjected to or threatened
with repeated denial of service or other attacks by malicious hackers. These hackers demand huge money
in return for assurance to stop the attacks and to offer protection.

Cyber Warfare –
Cyber warfare is the use or targeting in a battle space or warfare context of computers, online control
systems and networks. It involves both offensive and defensive operations concerning to the threat of
cyber attacks, espionage and sabotage.

Internet Fraud –

Internet fraud is a type of fraud or deceit which makes use of the Internet and could include hiding of
information or providing incorrect information for the purpose of deceiving victims for money or
property. Internet fraud is not considered a single, distinctive crime but covers a range of illegal and illicit
actions that are committed in cyberspace.

Cyber Stalking –

This is a kind of online harassment wherein the victim is subjected to a barrage of online messages and
emails. In this case, these stalkers know their victims and instead of offline stalking, they use the Internet
to stalk. However, if they notice that cyber stalking is not having the desired effect, they begin offline
stalking along with cyber stalking to make the victims’ lives more miserable.

Challenges of Cyber Crime:

People are unaware of their cyber rights-

The Cybercrime usually happen with illiterate people around the world who are unaware about their cyber
rights implemented by the government of that particular country.

Anonymity-

Those who Commit cyber crime are anonymous for us so we cannot do anything to that person.

Less numbers of case registered-

Every country in the world faces the challenge of cyber crime and the rate of cyber crime is increasing
day by day because the people who even don’t register a case of cyber crime and this is major challenge
for us as well as for authorities as well.

Mostly committed by well educated people-

Committing a cyber crime is not a cup of tea for every individual. The person who commits cyber crime
is a very technical person so he knows how to commit the crime and not get caught by the authorities.

No harsh punishment-

In Cyber crime there is no harsh punishment in every cases. But there is harsh punishment in some cases
like when somebody commits cyber terrorism in that case there is harsh punishment for that individual.
But in other cases there is no harsh punishment so this factor also gives encouragement to that person
who commits cyber crime.

Prevention of Cyber Crime:

Below are some points by means of which we can prevent cyber crime:

Use strong password –

Maintain different password and username combinations for each account and resist the temptation to
write them down. Weak passwords can be easily cracked using certain attacking methods like Brute force
attack, Rainbow table attack etc, So make them complex. That means combination of letters, numbers and
special characters.

Use trusted antivirus in devices –

Always use trustworthy and highly advanced antivirus software in mobile and personal computers. This
leads to the prevention of different virus attack on devices.

Keep social media private –

Always keep your social media accounts data privacy only to your friends. Also make sure only to make
friends who are known to you.

Keep your device software updated –

Whenever you get the updates of the system software update it at the same time because sometimes the
previous version can be easily attacked.

Use secure network –

Public Wi-Fi are vulnerable. Avoid conducting financial or corporate transactions on these networks.

Never open attachments in spam emails –

A computer get infected by malware attacks and other forms of cybercrime is via email attachments in
spam emails. Never open an attachment from a sender you do not know.

Software should be updated – Operating system should be updated regularly when it comes to internet
security. This can become a potential threat when cybercriminals exploit flaws in the system.
 UINT -V

VIRTUAL REALITY

What is Virtual Reality?

Virtual Reality (VR) is a computer-generated environment with scenes and objects that appear to be real,
making the user feel they are immersed in their surroundings. This environment is perceived through a
device known as a Virtual Reality headset or helmet. VR allows us to immerse ourselves in video games
as if we were one of the characters, learn how to perform heart surgery or improve the quality of sports
training to maximise performance.

Although this may seem extremely futuristic, its origins are not as recent as we might think. In fact, many
people consider that one of the first Virtual Reality devices was called Sensorama, a machine with a built-
in seat that played 3D movies, gave off odours and generated vibrations to make the experience as vivid
as possible.

The invention dates back as far as the mid-1950s. Subsequent technological and software developments
over the following years brought with them a progressive evolution both in devices and in interface
design.

Differences with Augmented Reality

Despite being a technology that originated decades ago, many people are still unfamiliar with the concept
of Virtual Reality. It is also quite common to confuse the term Virtual Reality with augmented reality.

The main difference between the two is that VR builds the world in which we immerse ourselves through
a specific headset. It is fully immersive and everything we see is part of an environment artificially
constructed through images, sounds, etc. On the other hand, in augmented reality (AR), our own world
becomes the framework within which objects, images or similar are placed. Everything we see is in a real
environment and it may not be strictly necessary to wear a headset. The clearest and most mainstream
example of this concept is Pokémon Go.

However, there is also a combination of both realities called mixed reality. This hybrid technology makes
it possible, for example, to see virtual objects in the real world and build an experience in which the
physical and the digital are practically indistinguishable.

Main applications of Virtual Reality

That's enough about the theory that is projecting us into the future. Which sectors is Virtual Reality
actually being used in today? Medicine, culture, education and architecture are some of the areas that
have already taken advantage of this technology. From guided museum visits to the dissection of a
muscle, VR allows us to cross boundaries that would otherwise be unimaginable.

3 Types of Virtual Reality Simulations Used Today

Let us look into the three types of virtual reality to get a grasp on the different kind of experience they
bring to the users.

1. Non-Immersive Virtual Reality

It is a type of virtual reality where you use a computer to control the activities within the experience.
Video games like Warcraft and Dota are some examples of non-immersive VR experiences.

In these games, you rely on a computer display, game console, keyboard, controller, and mouse. Your
interaction in the virtual environment is an indirect one, as you do not experience the sense of being
actually in it, and the platform does not fully block your field of view.

2. Semi-Immersive Virtual Reality

Semi-immersive VR keeps you connected to your physical surroundings while immersing you in a virtual
environment. It means that you can walk around in a virtual environment using a computer screen or VR
glasses, but there are no physical sensations to enhance the experience.

It is widely utilized for training purposes, such as pilot training, in which real control panels are used, but
powerful computers with high resolution screens are used to simulate real-world design and functionality.

3. Fully Immersive Virtual Reality

Of the three types of virtual reality, fully immersive simulations give you the most realistic virtual
experience as it gives you a complete perception of existing in another world, it’s as if everything
happening to you is real. To experience and interact with fully-immersive virtual reality, you need special
equipment like body connectors with sense detectors, helmets, gloves, and proper VR headsets and
glasses.

This type of VR has been widely adapted for gaming, where players are positioned in a room, equipped
with the needed equipment to experience the virtual world. During the game, they can freely move their
bodies and arms and use them to participate in the game and control their avatar, not just from a third-
person perspective, but they will see and touch things as if they are in the game themselves.

There is a lot of noise and buzz around VR, and we are here to organize the clutter into 5 distinct points
that give you a full picture of what is happening in the industry.

1) A rise in enterprise apps

If you thought VR is simply a tool for gaming, this is not true in 2024. Yes, VR is still a dominant force
in the gaming industry, but it is also a huge asset for businesses all over the world. The most popular uses
of VR within companies involve training, remote collaboration, tests and prototyping, but there are also
plenty of creative uses that fall outside these categories. It’s safe to say that thousands of these solutions
are in development and the impact of virtual reality will be huge.

Entertainment

As virtual worlds became more detailed and immersive, people began to spend time in these spaces for
entertainment, aesthetic inspiration, and socializing. Research that conceived of virtual places as fantasy
spaces, focusing on the activity of the subject rather than replication of some real environment, was
particularly conducive to entertainment. Beginning in 1969, Myron Krueger of the University of
Wisconsin created a series of projects on the nature of human creativity in virtual environments, which he
later called artificial reality. Much of Krueger’s work, especially his VIDEOPLACE system, processed
interactions between a participant’s digitized image and computer-generated graphical objects.
VIDEOPLACE could analyze and process the user’s actions in the real world and translate them into
interactions with the system’s virtual objects in various preprogrammed ways.

Different modes of interaction with names like “finger painting” and “digital drawing” suggest the
aesthetic dimension of this system. VIDEOPLACE differed in several aspects from training and research
simulations. In particular, the system reversed the emphasis from the user perceiving the computer’s
generated world to the computer perceiving the user’s actions and converting these actions into
compositions of objects and space within the virtual world. With the emphasis shifted to responsiveness
and interaction, Krueger found that fidelity of representation became less important than the interactions
between participants and the rapidity of response to images or other forms of sensory input

Living in virtual worlds

By the beginning of 1993, VPL had closed its doors and pundits were beginning to write of the demise of
virtual reality. Despite the collapse of efforts to market VR workstations in the configuration stabilized at
VPL and NASA, virtual world, augmented reality, and telepresence technologies were successfully
launched throughout the 1990s and into the 21st century as platforms for creative work, research spaces,
games, training environments, and social spaces. Military and medical needs also continued to drive these
technologies through the 1990s, often in partnership with By the mid-1990s, Mark Weiser at Xerox
PARC had begun to articulate a research program that instead sought to introduce computers into the
human world. In an article titled “The Computer for the 21st Century,” published in Scientific American
(1991), Weiser introduced the concept of ubiquitous computing.

By the beginning of 1993, VPL had closed its doors and pundits were beginning to write of the demise of
virtual reality. Despite the collapse of efforts to market VR workstations in the configuration stabilized at
VPL and NASA, virtual world, augmented reality, and telepresence technologies were successfully
launched throughout the 1990s and into the 21st century as platforms for creative work, research spaces,
games, training environments, and social spaces. Military and medical needs also continued to drive these
technologies through the 1990s, often in partnership with academic institutions or entertainment
companies. With the rise of the Internet, attention shifted to the application of networking technology to
these projects, bringing a vital social dimension to virtual worlds. People were learning to live in virtual
spaces.

The designers of NASA’s Visual Environment Display workstation cited the goal of putting viewers
inside an image; this meant figuratively putting users inside a computer by literally putting them inside an
assemblage of input and output devices. By the mid-1990s, Mark Weiser at Xerox PARC had begun to
articulate a research program that instead sought to introduce computers into the human world.

In an article titled “The Computer for the 21st Century,” published in Scientific American (1991), Weiser
introduced the concept of ubiquitous computing. Arguing that “the most profound technologies are those
that disappear” by weaving “themselves into the fabric of everyday life until they are indistinguishable
from it,” he proposed that future computing devices would outnumber people—embedded in real
environments, worn on bodies, and communicating with each other through personal virtual agents. These
computers would be so natural that human users would not need to think about them, thus inaugurating an
era of “calm technology.” If Weiser’s ubiquitous computing is thought of as complementary rather than
opposed to VR, one can see traces of his ideas in a variety of post-VR systems.

Scientific visualization, process of graphically displaying real or simulated scientific data. It is a vital
procedure in the creative realization of scientific ideas, particularly in computer science. Basic
visualization techniques include surface rendering, volume rendering, and animation. High-performance
workstations or supercomputers are used to show simulations, and high-level programming languages are
being developed to support visualization programming. Scientific visualization has applications in
biology, business, chemistry, computer science, education, engineering, and medicine.

Head-mounted display:

head-mounted display (HMD) is a display device, worn on the head or as part of a helmet (see helmet-
mounted display for aviation applications), that has a small display optic in front of one (monocular
HMD) or each eye (binocular HMD). HMDs have many uses including gaming, aviation, engineering,
and medicine.

HMD that track 3D position and rotation to provide a virtual environment to the user. 3DOF VR headsets
typically use an IMU for tracking. 6DOF VR headsets typically use sensor fusion from multiple data
sources including at least one IMU.

An optical head-mounted display (OHMD) is a wearable display that can reflect projected images and
allows a user to see through it.

typical HMD has one or two small displays, with lenses and semi-transparent mirrors embedded in
eyeglasses (also termed data glasses), a visor, or a helmet. The display units are miniaturized and may
include cathode ray tubes (CRT), liquid-crystal displays (LCDs), liquid crystal on silicon (LCos), or
organic light-emitting diodes (OLED). Some vendors employ multiple micro-displays to increase total
resolution and field of view.

HMDs differ in whether they can display only computer-generated imagery (CGI), or only live imagery
from the physical world, or combination. Most HMDs can display only a computer-generated image,
sometimes referred to as virtual image. Some HMDs can allow a CGI to be superimposed on real-world
view.

This is sometimes referred to as augmented reality (AR) or mixed reality (MR). Combining real-world
view with CGI can be done by projecting the CGI through a partially reflective mirror and viewing the
real world directly. This method is often called optical see-through. Combining real-world view with CGI
can also be done electronically by accepting video from a camera and mixing it electronically with CGI.

Applications

Major HMD applications include military, government (fire, police, etc.), and civilian-commercial
(medicine, video gaming, sports, etc.).

Aviation and tactical, ground

In 1962, Hughes Aircraft Company revealed the Electrocular, a compact CRT(7" long), head-mounted
monocular display that reflected a TV signal in to transparent eyepiece.[3][4][5][6] Ruggedized HMDs
are increasingly being integrated into the cockpits of modern helicopters and fighter aircraft. These are
usually fully integrated with the pilot's flying helmet and may include protective visors, night vision
devices, and displays of other symbology.

Military, police, and firefighters use HMDs to display tactical information such as maps or thermal
imaging data while viewing a real scene. Recent applications have included the use of HMD for
paratroopers.[7] In 2005, the Liteye HMD was introduced for ground combat troops as a rugged,
waterproof lightweight display that clips into a standard U.S. PVS-14 military helmet mount. The self-
contained color monocular organic light-emitting diode (OLED) display replaces the NVG tube and
connects to a mobile computing device.
 The LE has see-through ability and can be used as a standard HMD or for augmented reality applications.
The design is optimized to provide high definition data under all lighting conditions, in covered or see-
through modes of operation. The LE has a low power consumption, operating on four AA batteries for 35
hours or receiving power via standard Universal Serial Bus (USB) connection.

Engineering

Engineers and scientists use HMDs to provide stereoscopic views of computer-aided design (CAD)
schematics.[10] Virtual reality, when applied to engineering and design, is a key factor in integration of
the human in the design. By enabling engineers to interact with their designs in full life-size scale,
products can be validated for issues that may not have been visible until physical prototyping. The use of
HMDs for VR is seen as supplemental to the conventional use of CAVE for VR simulation. HMDs are
predominantly used for single-person interaction with the design, while CAVEs allow for more
collaborative virtual reality sessions.

Medicine and research

There are also applications in surgery, wherein a combination of radiographic data (X-ray computed
tomography (CAT) scans, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) imaging) is combined with the
surgeon's natural view of the operation, and anesthesia, where the patient vital signs are within the
anesthesiologist's field of view at all times.

Research universities often use HMDs to conduct studies related to vision, balance, cognition and
neuroscience. As of 2010, the use of predictive visual tracking measurement to identify mild traumatic
brain injury was being studied. In visual tracking tests, a HMD unit with eye tracking ability shows an
object moving in a regular pattern. People without brain injury are able to track the moving object with
smooth pursuit eye movements and correct trajectory.

Virtual cinema

Some head-mounted displays are designed to present traditional video and film content in a virtual
cinema. These devices typically feature a relatively narrow field of view (FOV) of 50–60°, making them
less immersive than virtual-reality headsets, but they offer correspondingly higher resolution in terms of
pixels per degree. Released in 2011, the Sony HMZ-T1 featured 1280x720 resolution per eye. In
approximately 2015, standalone Android 5 (Lollipop) based "private cinema" products were released
using various brands such as VRWorld, Magicsee, based on software from Nibiru

Gaming and video

Virtual reality headset

Low-cost HMD devices are available for use with 3D games and entertainment applications. One of the
first commercially available HMDs was the Forte VFX1 which was announced at Consumer Electronics
Show (CES) in 1994.[13] The VFX-1 had stereoscopic displays, 3-axis head-tracking, and stereo
headphones. Another pioneer in this field was Sony, which released the Glasstron in 1997.
 It had as an optional accessory a positional sensor which permitted the user to view the surroundings,
with the perspective moving as the head moved, providing a deep sense of immersion. One novel
application of this technology was in the game MechWarrior 2, which permitted users of the Sony
Glasstron or Virtual I/O's iGlasses to adopt a new visual perspective from inside the cockpit of the craft,
using their own eyes as visual and seeing the battlefield through their craft's own cockpit.

Remote control

Drone racer wearing FPV goggles

First-person view (FPV) drone flying uses head-mounted displays which are commonly called "FPV
goggles".[25][26] Analog FPV goggles (such as the ones produced by Fat Shark) are commonly used for
drone racing as they offer the lowest video latency. But digital FPV goggles (such as produced by DJI)
are becoming increasingly popular due to their higher resolution video.

Since 2010s, FPV drone flying is widely used in aerial cinematography and aerial photography.

instead offered an audio headphones jack.

Remote control

Drone racer wearing FPV goggles

First-person view (FPV) drone flying uses head-mounted displays which are commonly called "FPV
goggles".[25][26] Analog FPV goggles (such as the ones produced by Fat Shark) are commonly used for
drone racing as they offer the lowest video latency. But digital FPV goggles (such as produced by DJI)
are becoming increasingly popular due to their higher resolution video.

Since 2010s, FPV drone flying is widely used in aerial cinematography and aerial photography.

Training and simulation

A key application for HMDs is training and simulation, allowing to virtually place a trainee in a situation
that is either too expensive or too dangerous to replicate in real-life. Training with HMDs covers a wide
range of applications from driving, welding and spray painting, flight and vehicle simulators, dismounted
soldier training, medical procedure training, and more. However, a number of unwanted symptoms have
been caused by prolonged use of certain types of head-mounted displays, and these issues must be
resolved before optimal training and simulation is feasible.

Sports

A HMD system has been developed for Formula One drivers by Kopin Corp. and the BMW Group. The
HMD displays critical race data while allowing the driver to continue focusing on the track as pit crews
control the data and messages sent to their drivers through two-way radio.[28] Recon Instruments
released on 3 November 2011 two head-mounted displays for ski goggles, MOD and MOD Live, the
latter based on an Android operating system.[29]

Training and simulation

A key application for HMDs is training and simulation, allowing to virtually place a trainee in a situation
that is either too expensive or too dangerous to replicate in real-life. Training with HMDs covers a wide
range of applications from driving, welding and spray painting, flight and vehicle simulators, dismounted
soldier training, medical procedure training, and more. However, a number of unwanted symptoms have
been caused by prolonged use of certain types of head-mounted displays, and these issues must be
resolved before optimal training and simulation is feasible.

Tools for reality:

WebEx. The virtual collaboration tool from Cisco Systems, WebEx is one of the most popular enterprise
tools for video conferencing, online meetings, screen share, and webinars.

Virtual communication channels can fall far behind face-to-face interactions when your workforce
consists of in-person, remote, and hybrid teams.

This creates an internal communication gap between on-site and off-site employees that can become a
huge problem if not managed properly.

This guide will show you how to maintain team communication and collaboration across the enterprise
for your in-office, remote, and hybrid employees

BLOG Customer Experience Business Communication Leadership Productivity Marketing & Sales
Product Updates VoIP

Blog / Business Communication

Virtual Team Communication: Top Challenges & Best Practices

Virtual Team Communication:

 Virtual for your in-office, remote, and hybrid employees.

 Best Practices to Drive Productivity
 Virtual communication channels can fall far behind face-to-face interactions when your
workforce consists of in-person, remote, and hybrid teams.
 This creates an internal communication gap between on-site and off-site employees that can
become a huge problem if not managed properly.
 This guide will show you how to maintain team communication and collaboration across the
enterpris.
What Is Virtual Communication?

Virtual communication is how employees collaborate and interact with each other when they are not
working in the same physical space. People often use collaboration software as a means to share
information.

Real-time interaction — like virtual calls, online meetings, and instant messages — is an integral
part of this, but it also includes:

 Asynchronous project management

 Virtual team-building activities
 Documentation and note-taking

All of this reduces the friction that comes with in-person and remote employees collaborating across
multiple locations and time zones. It keeps them on the same page, ensuring tasks are delivered on time
and work performance stays at its peak.

A chart showing the different benefits of working remotely (via Buffer)

What Are the Types of Virtual Communication?

For most employees, business communication takes place over many different channels.

Instant messaging apps: Teams, Slack, WhatsApp

About 86% of respondents in a Vitally survey said that chat workspaces are their most-used virtual
communication channel.

Instant messaging apps like WhatsApp and iMessage help employees interact with each other in real time.
Someone working from home cannot skip over to a colleague’s desk to ask a question. But they can pop
them a quick WhatsApp message or jump on a Slack huddle for a chat.

A Vitally survey showing the distribution of virtual communication channels

Distribution of virtual communication channels

Chat workspaces like Slack and Microsoft Teams also let you share files and track all your tasks and
updates in one place by syncing with other work tools, like your project management software and email
client.

Despite these benefits, instant messaging apps are one of the biggest distractions for remote
workers.

When you’re not in the office with the rest of the team, you risk missing important information. To avoid
this, remote workers stay plugged in and check every message notification, even though very few need
immediate attention.
Honestly, the updates in the pet channel can wait. “But it’ll only take a few seconds to read a Slack
message,” you may think.

While this may be true, refocusing on your work after a distraction actually takes at least 23 minutes. You
could waste an entire hour by checking just three notifications.

Video conferencing tools: Nextiva, Zoom, Google Meet

Sometimes, instant messaging isn’t enough.

Say you want to organize a workshop for off-site and remote employees. Slack and iMessage aren’t built
for that — you’ll need a virtual meeting platform.

Virtual meeting tools let you host engaging video meetings, conferences, and presentations for people in
different locations. During these virtual meetups, attendees can chat with each other, contribute to
collaborative whiteboards, and share screens and files, among other things.

All in all, these features create immersive experiences that make it feel like everyone is in the same room.

Example of a video conferencing tool for your team - Nextiva

Nextiva provides a virtual meeting experience for your team

As with any technology, video conferencing has its challenges, the most obvious being internet
connectivity. Poor or unstable internet connection causes lags and freezes, which ruin the meeting
experience. Sometimes, you may even need to reschedule.

🛟 Helpful Tool: Check Your Connection Stability for Live Meetings

However, a bigger problem is how businesses use these tools.

Many companies overload their teams with frequent, long, and sometimes pointless virtual meetings to
the extent of hindering their jobs. An Otter report found that employees spend over one-third of their
working hours in meetings, leaving little to no time for productive work.

Project management tools: Asana, Trello, Monday

More than 80% of respondents in Vitally’s State of Knowledge Sharing report said they use a project
management tool at work.

Project management software gives you a bird’s-eye view of tasks. You’ll see who’s working on what,
how far they’ve come, and the due date for deliverables. This helps remote and in-person teams stay on
top of goals and responsibilities as they work together.

After adding a new project to the software, you can map out timelines, assign tasks to collaborators, and
share automatic status updates with the rest of your team, among other things. Asana, Trello, and Monday
offer templates to help you quickly set up projects, tasks, and to-do lists. They also sync with calendars,
email messages, and chat workspaces for better task visibility.

Example of a project management software

Example of a project management board

Your project management software is only as effective as your maintenance culture. If you don’t archive
outdated information, tick off completed tasks, and update delivery dates regularly, employees will miss
deadlines, and you’ll lose track of important information.

Knowledge base tools: Confluence, Notion, ClickUp

A knowledge base is a library of information. It’s where you store documentation, onboarding guides,
customer tutorials, and everything else your team needs for its job. It will help your team collaborate
asynchronously.

Picture this: John, an on-site employee, needs information from Mary to complete an urgent task. But
Mary works remotely, and her day doesn’t start for another five hours.

Luckily, Mary documented the information in the company’s knowledge base. John goes into the library
and finds what he needs quickly instead of waiting.

Example of a knowledge-base tool

Example of an internal knowledge base

As a rule of thumb, if you’re asked the same question three times, document and add the answer to the
knowledge base.

Beyond documentation, a knowledge-based application lets you create collaborative project plans,
visualize tasks with whiteboards, and sync lists from your project management tool.

However, it can quickly become cluttered and outdated if you don’t maintain it regularly. Consider hiring
someone to organize and update the content as your business grows.

Email clients:

Apple Mail, Outlook, Gmail

Email is the most popular internal communication channel, according to ContactMonkey’s 2023 Global
State of Internal Communication report. Businesses use it to interact with employees and customers, track
tasks, and save important documents like invoices, pitch decks, and information threads.

If you choose email clients like Gmail and Outlook, you automatically have access to a suite of cloud-
based software for running your business.
Gmail, for example, syncs with Docs, Google Meet, Drive, and Google Calendar. Outlook, on the other
hand, syncs with Microsoft Word, OneDrive, Teams, and more. These integrations make it easy for you
to move business data around.

UNIT -IV

1. Many Cyber Crimes comes under Indian Penal Code Which one of the following is an example?
A. Sending Threatening message by Email
B. Forgery of Electronic Record
C. Bogus Website
D. All of above Ans :d
2. The Information Technology Act 2000 is an Act of Indian Parliament notified on
A. 27th October 2000
B. 15th December 2000
C. 17th November 2000
D. 17th October 2000 :Ans d
3. Digital Signature Certificate is ____________ requirement under various applications

A. Statutory

B. Legislative
C. Govenmental
D. Voluntary
Ans :A

4. Assessing Computer without prior authorization is a cyber crime that comes under____
A. Section 65
B. Section 66
C. Section 68
D. Section 70

Ans :b
5. ____________ means a person who has been granted a licence to issue a electronic signature
certificate.

A. Certifying Authority
B. Certifying Private Key Authority
C. Certifying system controller
D. Appropriate Authority Ans :A

6. ________ is a data that has been organized or presented in a meaningful manner.

A. A process
B. Software
C. Storage
D. Information Ans :d
7._______ is an application of information and communication technology (ICT) for delivering

Government Service.

A. Governance
B. Electronic Governance
C. Governance and Ethics
D. Risk and Governance. ans:B
8. The Altering of data so that it is not usable unless the changes are undone is

A. Biometrics
B. Encryption

C. Ergonomics
D. Compression Ans :b

9. Authentication is _________
A. To assure identity of user on a remote system
B. Insertion
C. Modification
D. Integration Ans: A

10. The following cannot be exploited by assigning or by licensing the rights of others

A. Patent

B. Design
C. Trademark

D. All of the above Ans:c

11. What is the expanded key size of AES-192?

A. 44 words B. 60 words

C. 52 words D. 36 words

Answer: C. 52 words

12. For the AES-128 algorithm there are __________ similar rounds and _________ round is

different.

13.A. 2 pair of 5 similar rounds ; every alternate B. 9 ; the last

C. 8 ; the first and last. D. 10 ; no

Ans:C
14.In brute force attack, on average half of all possible keys must be tried to achieve success.

a) True

b) False

Ans:a

15.What is Cyber Security?

a) Cyber Security provides security against malware

b) Cyber Security provides security against cyber-terrorists

c) Cyber Security protects a system from cyber attacks

d) All of the mentioned

Answer: d

16.What does cyber security protect?

a) Cyber security protects criminals

b) Cyber security protects internet-connected systems

c) Cyber security protects hackers

d) None of the mentioned

Answer:b

17. Which of the following is a type of cyber security?

a) Cloud Security

b) Network Security

c) Application Security

d) All of the above

Answer:d

18.In cryptography, the order of the letters in a message is rearranged by

a) transpositional ciphers. b) substitution ciphers

c) both (a) and (b) d) none of the mentioned

Answer:a
19. The ________is the original message before transformation.

A) ciphertext B) plaintext

C) secret-text D) none of the above

Answer:B

20. The ________ is the message after transformation.

A) ciphertext B) plaintext

C) secret-text D) none of the above

Answer:A

21.An ______ algorithm transforms ciphertext to plaintext.

A) encryption B) decryption

C) either (a) or (b) D) neither (a) nor (b)

Answer:A

22. The _______ is a number or a set of numbers on which the cipher operates.

A) cipher. B) secret C)key D) none of the above

Answer:C

23. In an ________ cipher, the same key is used by both the sender and receiver.

A) symmetric-key. B) asymmetric-key

C) either (a) or (b) D) neither (a) nor (b)

Answer:B

24. In an asymmetric-key cipher, the sender uses the__________ key.

A) private B) public

C) either (a) or (b) D) neither (a) nor (b)

Answer:B

25. In an asymmetric-key cipher, the receiver uses the ______ key.

A) private B) public

C) either (a) or (b). D) neither (a) nor (b)

Answer:A

26. A ________ cipher replaces one character with another character.

A) substitution. B) transposition

C) either (a) or (b) D) neither (a) nor (b)

Answer:A

27. One commonly used public-key cryptography method is the ______ algorithm.

A) RSS B) RAS C) RSA D) RAA

Answer:C

28.The Caesar cipher is a _______cipher that has a key of 3.

A) transposition B) additive. C) shift. D) none of the above

Answer:C

29. The _______ cipher is the simplest monoalphabetic cipher. It uses modular

arithmetic with a modulus of 26.

A) transposition B) additive. C) shift D) none of the above

Answer:C

30. _________ ciphers can be categorized into two broad categories: monoalphabetic and

polyalphabetic.

A) Substitution B) Transposition

C) either (a) or (b) D) neither (a) nor (b)

Answer:A

31) Which of these describes an ongoing pursuit by an individual/group?

a) Stalking b) Identity theft c) Phishing d) Bulling

Answer: (a) Stalking

32) Which one of the following is considered in the category of computer threats?

a) Soliciting b) DoS attack c) Phishing d) Both A and B

Answer: (b) DoS attack

33) Which of the following typically keeps tabs on every online activity the victim engages in, compiles
all the data in the background, and sends it to a third party?

a) Adware b) Malware c) Spyware d) All of the above

Answer: (c) Spyware

34) Which one is considered to be a type of antivirus program?

a) Kaspersky b) Mcafee c) Quick heal d) All of the above

Answer: (d) All of the above

35) Which of these scanners for ports and IP addresses is most used by users?

a) Cain and Abel b) Ettercap c) Snort d) Angry IP Scanner

Answer: (d) Angry IP Scanner

36) Which of the following phrases describes taking someone else's creation or idea and using it for one's
own advantage?

a) Intellectual property rights b) Piracy

c) Plagiarism d) All of the above

Answer: (d) All of the above

37) Which of the following describes investigating moral conduct concerning the digital media
landscape?

a) Cyberethics

b) Cyber low

c) Cybersafety

d) Cybersecurity

Answer: (a) Cyberethics

38) State whether True or False: Data encryption is used to ensure confidentiality.

a) True b) False c) It cannot be understood d) None

Answer: (a) True

39) Determine the earliest method of free phone calls used by hackers.

a) Cracking b) Spamming c) Phreaking d) Phishing

Answer: (c) Phreaking

40) Which of the following statements best describes how the principle would be broken if a computer
was no longer accessible?

a) Confidentiality b) Access control c) Availability d) All of the above

Answer: (c) Availability

41) Which of these methods is used to check the validity of a message?

a) Digital signature b) Protocol c) Message Digest d) Decryption algorithm

Answer: (c) Message Digest

42) Which of the following is typically used when hacking Wi-Fi?

a) Wireshark

b) Aircrack-ng

c) Norton

d) All of the above

Answer: (b) Aircrack-ng

43) Among the following, which is not a form of scanning?

a) Null Scan b) Xmas Tree Scan c) SYN Stealth d) Cloud Scan

Answer: (d) Cloud Scan

44) The Code Red is similar to a:

a) Photo Editing Software b) Antivirus Program

c) Video Editing Software d) Computer Virus

Answer: (d) Computer Virus

45) Which of these was the first antivirus software ever created?

a) Reaper b) Ray Tomlinson c) Creeper d) Tinkered

Answer: (a) Reaper

46. ............ is the science and art of transforming message s to make them secure and

immune to attacks.

(a) Cryptography (b) Cryptoanalysis (c) Either(a)or(b) (d) neither(a)or(b)

47. The ............ is the original message before transformation.

(a) Ciphertext (b) Plaintext

(c) Secret-text (d) None of the above

48. The ............ is the message after transformation.

(a) Ciphertext (b) Plaintext

(c) Secret-text (d) None of the above

49. eK ............ algorithm transforms plaintext to ciphertext.

(a) Encryption (b) Decryption (c) Either(a)or(b) (d) neither(a)or(b)

50. dK ............ algorithm transforms ciphertext to plaintext.

(a) Encryption (b) Decryption (c) Either(a)or(b) (d) neither(a)or(b)

UNIT -V

1.What is virtual reality (VR)?

a) A technology that allows users to experience the real world

b) A system that creates artificial intelligence

c) A simulated environment that can be similar to or different from the real world

d) A type of augmented reality

Answer: c) A simulated environment that can be similar to or different from the real world

2.Which of the following is a common device used for experiencing virtual reality?

a) Smartphone

b) Smartwatch

c) Television

d) Headset

Answer: d) Headset

3.What is the purpose of virtual reality?

a) To create fictional stories

b) To replace real-world experiences entirely

c) To provide an immersive and interactive experience

d) To enhance physical fitness

Answer: c) To provide an immersive and interactive experience

4.Which of the following senses can be stimulated in virtual reality?

a) Sight and sound

b) Taste and smell

c) Touch and smell

d) Sight and touch

Answer: a) Sight and sound

5.What is the term for the feeling of being present in a virtual environment?

a) Imagination

b) Presence

c) Reality distortion

d) Immersion

Answer: d) Immersion

6.What is the primary input device for interacting with virtual reality?

a) Keyboard

b) Mouse

c) Controller

d) Joystick

Answer: c) Controller

7.Which industry has extensively used virtual reality for training purposes?

a) Healthcare

b) Retail

c) Agriculture

d) Transportation

Answer: a) Healthcare
8.Which of the following is an example of a virtual reality application?

a) Social media platform

b) Fitness tracking app

c) Virtual museum tour

d) Email client

Answer: c) Virtual museum tour

9.What is the term for a complete 360-degree view in virtual reality?

a) Panorama

b) Hologram

c) Augmented reality

d) 360-degree video

Answer: d) 360-degree video

10.What is the term for the feeling of dizziness or nausea that some users experience in virtual reality?

a) Virtual sickness

b) Virtual reality syndrome

c) Cyber sickness

d) Immersion sickness

Answer: c) Cyber sickness

11.Which technology is often used to track the movement of a user’s head in virtual reality?

a) GPS

b) Accelerometer

c) Gyroscope

d) Sonar

Answer: c) Gyroscope

12.Which of the following is a popular virtual reality gaming platform?

a) PlayStation VR
b) Xbox

c) Nintendo Switch

d) PC

Answer: a) PlayStation VR

13.What is the term for the process of creating a virtual reality environment?

a) Virtualization

b) Simulation

c) Rendering

d) Programming

Answer: c) Rendering

14.Which of the following is an example of an augmented reality device?

a) Oculus Rift

b) HTC Vive

c) Google Glass

d) Samsung Gear VR

Answer: c) Google Glass

15.Which industry uses virtual reality to create realistic flight simulations?

a) Aviation

b) Entertainment

c) Construction

d) Automotive

Answer: a) Aviation

16.What is the term for the ability to physically move around in a virtual space?

a) Teleportation

b) Locomotion

c) Haptic feedback
d) Gesture recognition

Answer: b) Locomotion

17.What is the term for the technology that enables users to feel physical sensations in virtual reality?

a) Haptic feedback

b) Augmented reality

c) Motion tracking

d) Virtual simulation

Answer: a) Haptic feedback

18.Which of the following is a challenge in virtual reality development?

a) Limited hardware options

b) Lack of available content

c) High cost of entry

d) All of the above

Answer: d) All of the above

19.What is the term for virtual reality experiences that are designed to evoke strong emotional responses?

a) Emotional reality

b) Empathy simulation

c) Virtual therapy

d) Emotional immersion

Answer: c) Virtual therapy

20.Which of the following is an example of a social virtual reality platform?

a) Facebook Horizon

b) Netflix

cApologies for the interruption. Here are the remaining quiz questions:

21.Which of the following is an example of a social virtual reality platform?

a) Facebook Horizon

b) Netflix

c) Spotify

d) Amazon Prime Video

Answer: a) Facebook Horizon

22.What is the term for the technique used to create a sense of depth and dimension in virtual reality?

a) 3D modeling

b) Stereoscopic rendering

c) Motion tracking

d) Spatial audio

Answer: b) Stereoscopic rendering

23.Which of the following industries has not extensively adopted virtual reality technology?

a) Education

b) Real estate

c) Gaming

d) Manufacturing

Answer: d) Manufacturing

24.What is the term for the technology that allows users to interact with virtual objects using hand
gestures?

a) Voice recognition

b) Eye tracking

c) Gesture recognition

d) Brain-computer interface

Answer: c) Gesture recognition

25.Which of the following is a virtual reality content creation tool?

a) Unity

b) Photoshop
c) Excel

d) Word

Answer: a) Unity

26.What is the term for the process of mapping real-world objects into a virtual environment?

a) Object scanning

b) Environment modeling

c) Photogrammetry

d) Motion capture

Answer: c) Photogrammetry

27.Which of the following is a potential application of virtual reality in healthcare?

a) Surgical training

b) Patient diagnosis

c) Physical therapy

d) All of the above

Answer: d) All of the above

28.What is the term for the realistic representation of human-like avatars in virtual reality?

a) Virtual embodiment

b) Avatar synthesis

c) Character animation

d) Digital cloning

Answer: a) Virtual embodiment

29.Which of the following is a limitation of current virtual reality technology?

a) Limited field of view

b) Heavy and bulky headsets

c) Motion sickness
d) All of the above

Answer: d) All of the above

30.What is the term for the process of combining real-world and virtual elements in a single experience?

a) Mixed reality

b) Cross-reality

c) Blended reality

d) Hybrid reality

Answer: a) Mixed reality

31. What does a motion-sensing controller do in Virtual Reality?

a) Provides tactile feedback to the user

b) Allows the user to navigate within the virtual environment

c) Tracks the user’s movements and gestures

d) Displays virtual objects in the user’s hands

Answer: c) Tracks the user’s movements and gestures

32. What is the primary advantage of using Virtual Reality in healthcare?

a) Reduced cost of medical treatments

b) Realistic training and simulation for medical professionals

c) Increased availability of medical services

d) Improved patient communication

Answer: b) Realistic training and simulation for medical professionals

33. Which type of Virtual Reality provides a more immersive experience than Non-Immersive VR but
falls short of fully immersing the user?

a) Non-Immersive VR

b) Semi-Immersive VR

c) Fully Immersive VR

d) Augmented Reality (AR)

Answer: b) Semi-Immersive VR
34.What is the primary function of an HMD in Virtual Reality?

a) To provide motion tracking for the user

b) To create a 3D virtual environment for the user

c) To enable the user to interact with virtual objects

d) To display the user’s real-world surroundings

Answer: b) To create a 3D virtual environment for the user

35. What is one of the challenges of using Virtual Reality for extended periods?

a) Limited availability of VR content

b) Health implications, such as eye strain and discomfort

c) High cost of hardware and software

d) Motion sickness due to rapid movement in VR environments

Answer: b) Health implications, such as eye strain and discomfort

36. What is the primary purpose of using hand controllers in Virtual Reality?

a) To track the user’s location within

the virtual environment

b) To provide realistic sound effects

c) To enable the user to interact with virtual objects and elements

d) To record the user’s movements for later analysis

Answer: c) To enable the user to interact with virtual objects and elements

37. Which industry commonly uses Virtual Reality for employee training and skills development?

a) Entertainment

b) Healthcare

c) Construction

d) Retail

Answer: c) Construction

38. Which type of Virtual Reality allows users to view virtual environments on a standard computer
screen?
a) Non-Immersive VR

b) Semi-Immersive VR

c) Fully Immersive VR

d) Augmented Reality (AR)

Answer: a) Non-Immersive VR

39. What is the purpose of motion tracking in Virtual Reality?

a) To enable users to move within the virtual environment

b) To provide tactile feedback to the user

c) To create a 3D virtual environment

d) To display virtual objects in the user’s hands

Answer: a) To enable users to move within the virtual environment

40. In which type of Virtual Reality can users see the real world with additional virtual elements overlaid
on top?

a) Non-Immersive VR

b) Semi-Immersive VR

c) Fully Immersive VR

d) Augmented Reality (AR)

Answer: d) Augmented Reality (AR)

41. Which of the following is NOT a common application of Virtual Reality?

a) Training and simulation

b) Architectural visualization

c) Traditional photography

d) Entertainment and gaming

Answer: c) Traditional photography

42. What is the primary drawback of using fully immersive Virtual Reality?

a) Limited content availability

b) High hardware cost

c) Motion sickness

d) Inability to track user movements

Answer: c) Motion sickness

43. Which of the following is a key component of Virtual Reality hardware?

a) Printer

b) Monitor

c) Head-Mounted Display (HMD)

d) Mouse

Answer: c) Head-Mounted Display (HMD)

44. Which type of Virtual Reality is often used for gaming and entertainment experiences?

a) Non-Immersive VR

b) Semi-Immersive VR

c) Fully Immersive VR

d) Augmented Reality (AR)

Answer: c) Fully Immersive VR

45.Which of the following devices is commonly used to experience Virtual Reality?

a) Smartphone

b) Television

c) Head-Mounted Display (HMD)

d) Laptop

Answer: c) Head-Mounted Display (HMD)