UNIT – 04

LINUX
Linux:
Linux is an open-source and Unix-like operating system kernel originally created by
Linus Torvalds in 1991. It serves as the core component of various Linux
distributions, often referred to as "Linux distros." These distributions combine the
Linux kernel with a collection of software packages and tools to create complete
operating systems suitable for various purposes, from servers and desktops to
embedded systems and mobile devices.
 The history of Linux dates back to the early 1990s when a Finnish computer
science student named Linus Torvalds embarked on a project to create a free
and open-source Unix-like operating system kernel.

Here is a brief overview of the key milestones in the history of Linux:

1. Inception (1991): In April 1991, Linus Torvalds introduced the project he was working on which is described as a
"free operating system" and released. The first version of the Linux kernel.

2. First Public Release (1991): The initial version of the Linux kernel, Known as "version 0.02," was made available to
the public in September 1991. It was distributed under the GNU General Public License (GPL), which allowed for
further development and distribution.

3. Early Growth (1992-1993): The Linux kernel began to gain attention and contributions from other developers
worldwide. It quickly improved in terms of features and stability.

4. The Birth of GNU/Linux (1992): Richard Stallman, founder of the Free Software Foundation, suggested that
combining the Linux kernel with the GNU userland utilities would create a complete, free operating system. This led
to the common naming convention "GNU/Linux.“
5. Commercial Interest (mid-1990s): As Linux gained momentum, commercial interest grew. Companies like
Red Hat and SUSE started offering commercial Linux distributions and support services.

6. Kernel Version 1.0 (1994): The first stable release of the Linux kernel, version 1.0, was released in March
1994. This marked a significant milestone in the project's development.

7. Growth in Server Market (late 1990s): Linux began to gain traction as a server operating system, thanks to
its stability and cost-effectiveness. It became a popular choice for web servers and enterprise solutions.

8. Desktop Linux (early 2000s): Efforts were made to make Linux more user-friendly for desktop use.
Distributions like Ubuntu, which focused on usability and ease of installation, gained popularity.

9. Android (2008): Google released the Android operating system, which is based on the Linux kernel. Android
has since become the dominant platform for smartphones and tablets.

10. Linux on Embedded Systems (ongoing): Linux is widely used in embedded systems, IoT devices, and other
specialized applications due to its flexibility and adaptability.

11. Linux Today (2020 s): Linux continues to thrive in various domains, including servers, supercomputers,
mobile devices, and emerging technologies like AI and machine learning.
❖ Features of Linux include:

• Open Source: Linux is distributed under various open-source licenses, such as the
GNU General Public License (GPL). This means that its source code is freely available
to the public, and anyone can modify and distribute it.

• Multitasking and Multiuser: Linux supports multitasking, allowing multiple

processes to run concurrently, and it is designed for multiuser environments,
making it suitable for servers and shared systems.

• Stability and Reliability: Linux is known for its stability and reliability, often running
for extended periods without requiring a reboot. This makes it a popular choice for
server environments.

• Security: Linux has a strong security model, with robust permission systems and
user privilege management, making it less vulnerable to malware and other security
threats compared to some other operating systems.
❖ Features of Linux include:

• Wide Range of Applications: Linux is versatile and can be used for a wide range of
applications, from web servers and database systems to desktop computers and
embedded devices.

• Large Community and Ecosystem: The Linux community is vast and active,
contributing to the development and maintenance of countless software packages
and providing support through forums, mailing lists, and online resources.

• Customizability: Linux allows users and administrators to customize their systems to

suit their specific needs. This flexibility is one reason for its popularity in various
contexts.

• Portability: Linux has been ported to various hardware architectures, making it

adaptable to different devices and platforms.
Linux Distributed Systems: There are many different Linux distributions (commonly
referred to as "distros") available, each with its own characteristics, goals, and target
audiences. These distributions are typically built on top of the Linux kernel and include
various software packages, configurations, and package management systems.

Here are some of the most popular and well-known Linux distributions:

1. Ubuntu: Ubuntu is one of the most widely used Linux distributions, known for its user-
friendly approach and focus on ease of use. It offers long-term support (LTS) releases with
extended support periods and regular releases with the latest software.

2. Debian: Debian is known for its stability and adherence to free software principles. It
serves as the foundation for many other Linux distributions, including Ubuntu.

3. Fedora: Fedora is a community-driven distribution sponsored by Red Hat. It

emphasizes cutting-edge software and technologies, making it a good choice for
developers and enthusiasts.
4. CentOS: CentOS (Community ENTerprise Operating System) was known for
providing a free, binary-compatible alternative to Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL).
However, CentOS has undergone changes, and CentOS Stream now serves as the
upstream for RHEL development.

5. Kali Linux: Kali Linux is a specialized distribution designed for penetration testing,
ethical hacking, and cybersecurity tasks. It includes a wide range of security tools.

These are just a few examples, and there are many more Linux distributions
available, each catering to different use cases and preferences.
 Linux Architecture:
• Kernel: Kernel is the core of the Linux based operating system. It
virtualizes the common hardware resources of the computer to
provide each process with its virtual resources. This makes the process
seem as if it is the sole process running on the machine. The kernel is
also responsible for preventing and mitigating conflicts between
different processes.
• System Library: Is the special types of functions that are used to
implement the functionality of the operating system.
• Shell: It is an interface to the kernel which hides the complexity of the
kernel’s functions from the users. It takes commands from the user
and executes the kernel’s functions.
• Hardware Layer: This layer consists all peripheral devices like RAM/
CPU etc.
• System Utility: It provides the functionalities of an operating system to
the user.
Linux File System
• Linux file system is the collection of data and/or files stored in a
computer’s hard disk or storage, your computer relies on this file
system.
• Linux offers various file systems like the ones below that you can
select from:
1) Ext (Extended File System)
2) Ext2
3) Ext3
4) Ext4
5) JFS (Journaling File System) Etc.
 Linux Standard Libraries
/bin – essential utilities
• The directory contains the core system
programs and important utilities. For
example, commonly used and well known
commands such as “cat” are located in
“/bin”.
• There is the directory /sbin that is very
similar to /bin, as it contains core system
administration binaries (programs).
• This directory contains essential system
binaries (executables) that are required
for the system to function, such as shell
interpreters (like /bin/bash) and basic
system utilities (like /bin/ls).
/boot – Boot for a Boot
• Contains files that are required in order for the system to be booted. For
example, BIOS, which stands for Basic Input/Output System.

• The BIOS is responsible for executing the Master Boot Record (MBR) boot
loader.

• It checks the integrity of the hard disk(s) of the system before launching the
MBR. /boot also contains Linux kernels and many other files in addition to
BIOS.
• The /boot directory contains files related to the Linux kernel and the initial
boot process, including kernel images and bootloader configuration files.
/dev – Devices or Files
• Linux displays connected devices as files and the /dev directory
contains these files. Though, the thing is, as you can see by the title,
these are not “actual” files, they just appear as files.
• This directory contains special device files that represent hardware
devices and system resources. These files allow interaction with
hardware devices and drivers.
/etc – Configuration files
• As we discussed before, the configuration files of BIOS and other
similar files can be found in /etc. You can edit these configuration files
in a text editor as you see fit.
• Basically, every single kind of configuration file is located in /etc,
including but not limited to system configuration files.
• System-wide configuration files and directories are stored here. It
contains various configuration files for system services and
applications.
• /Lib:
It includes shared library files that are needed to start the system.

• /home:
The home directory storage is available for user files. All users have a subdirectory
inside/home.

• /mnt:
It is temporary mount point for basic filesystems that can be used at the time when the
administrator is working or repairing a filesystem.

• /Media:
A Place for mounting external removable media devices like USB thumb drives that
might be linked to the host.
Hardware requirements:
• OS: Windows
• 2GHz Dual Core Processor
• 4GB RAM System Memory
• VGA Capable for Screen Resolution
• Having Internet Access
• 25 GB of Hard-drive space ( or memory card, external drive)
• For the installer media, we need a CD/DVD or a USB Port.
Function of Profile and Login File in Linux

• Linux Operating System:- Linux operating system is used everywhere,

its use is increasing rapidly day by day. It is used like a window so that
we can use the Internet faster than any other operating system can
do.

• Through this, the computer allows the user to work by going to his
working platform. By logging in the user, managing the work, editing
it and many other types of work are done through certain commands.
 Linux Login And Logout Files:
• Linux profile and login file: In Linux, the profile file is present in the home
directory and we are also provided the facility to customize different working
environments.
• The profile file controls functions like prompt display and keyboard sound by
default. Every time we login, we search for a new login file and run the
commands in the file.
• Log In / Login :
• To use the computer in this operating system, we need a user name and
password. We can login by entering the user name and password before login,
after that we can do our work.
• Logout:
• The user uses the logout command to exit after completing his work.
• Shutdown/Logout:
• This command is used to turn off or shut down the computer. To shut it down, we
first exit the x window system and close it.
Introduction to Ubuntu:
• Ubuntu is a Linux based operating system. It is designed for computers,
smartphones, and network servers. The system is developed by a UK based
company called Canonical Ltd. All the principles used to develop the
Ubuntu software are based on the principles of Open Source Software
Development.

• Ubuntu has Multiple editions, including core, server and desktop, that
allow it to run across different types of machines.

• It can be used on personal computers, servers, supercomputers, in cloud

computing, and more.
Use of Ubuntu:
• Ubuntu is a popular for a variety of reasons, and it’s attractive to
builders who need a free, open source solution that’s secure and easy
to use. The popularity of the software combined with the
collaborative nature of open source.
• The operating system is user friendly and customizable, and ubuntu
offers enhanced security within its OS.
Introduction to Fedora:
• Fedora is a free and open-source operating system based on the Linux
kernel and is developed by the community-supported Fedora Project. It is
began in 2003 as a Red Hat Linux Community Project with the goal of
developing a free and open-source operating system suitable for both
personal and professional use.

• It is known for its fast release cycle, which keeps the operating system up
to date with the latest software and technologies.

• It offers a suite of virus protection, system tools, office productivity

services, media playback, and other desktop applications.
Features of Fedora:
• Easy to use:
Fedora is extremely user-friendly. Fedora’s user-friendliness makes it the
preferred choice for many users looking for a dependable, secure, and powerful
operating system.

• Providing Cutting-Edge Software:

Fedora updates every six-months, so you always get the most recent updates, and
the most recent version is always the flagship edition.

• Adaptable and Powerful:

Fedora server is a highly adaptable and powerful operating system. It keeps
complete control over your infrastructure and services.
Features of Fedora:
• Large Community:
Fedora supports a large community.

• Open-source:
Fedora is an open-source OS that can be used by anyone and contributions can
also be submitted.

• Pre-installed Applications:
Fedora comes with pre-installed applications and tools such as internet
browser, Word files Viewer, PDF Viewer etc.
Introduction to Red – Hat Linux:
• Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) is an enterprise Linux operating
system (OS) developed by Red Hat for the business market. RHEL,
formerly known as Red Hat Linux Advanced Server, is certified with
thousands of vendors and across hundreds of clouds.

• RHEL provides users with a reliable, consistent foundation across

environments. It is equipped with all the necessary tools to rapidly
deliver application services and workloads. RHEL is based on a free,
open source model like all Linux distributions.
• In the past, RHEL was available at no cost, and users only had to pay
for support. However, Red Hat has since created two versions of
RHEL. One is a version with less frequent version releases. The other
is Fedora, developed by the Fedora Project. It undergoes more
frequent version releases and offers the latest available technologies.

• RHEL is known to minimize deployment friction costs and accelerate

the time to value of critical workloads. This approach helps
development and operations teams seamlessly create and innovate
across enterprise environments.