+

Function
◼ There are four basic functions that a computer can perform:
◼ Data processing
◼ Data may take a wide variety of forms and the range of
processing requirements is broad
◼ Data storage
◼ Short-term
◼ Long-term
◼ Data movement
◼ Input-output (I/O) - when data are received from or delivered to
a device (peripheral) that is directly connected to the computer
◼ Data communications – when data are moved over longer
distances, to or from a remote device
◼ Control
◼ A control unit manages the computer’s resources and
orchestrates the performance of its functional parts in response
to instructions
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 COMPUTER

I/O Main
memory

System
Bus

CPU

CPU

Registers ALU

Structure Internal
Bus

Control
Unit

CONTROL
UNIT
Sequencing
Logic

Control Unit
Registers and
Decoders

Control
Memory

Figure 1.1 A Top-Down View of a Computer

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+
 CPU – controls the operation of
the computer and performs its
There are four data processing functions
main structural
components  Main Memory – stores data
of the computer:  I/O – moves data between the
computer and its external
environment

 System Interconnection –
some mechanism that provides
for communication among CPU,
main memory, and I/O

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+ ◼ Control Unit
CPU
◼ Controls the operation of the CPU
and hence the computer
Major structural
◼ Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
components:
◼ Performs the computer’s data
processing function

◼ Registers
◼ Provide storage internal to the CPU

◼ CPU Interconnection
◼ Some mechanism that provides for
communication among the control
unit, ALU, and registers

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+ Registers
Memory buffer register • Contains a word to be stored in memory or sent to the I/O unit
(MBR) • Or is used to receive a word from memory or from the I/O unit

Memory address • Specifies the address in memory of the word to be written from
register (MAR) or read into the MBR

Instruction register (IR) • Contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being executed

Instruction buffer • Employed to temporarily hold the right-hand instruction from a

register (IBR) word in memory

• Contains the address of the next instruction pair to be fetched

Program counter (PC) from memory

Accumulator (AC) and • Employed to temporarily hold operands and results of ALU
multiplier quotient (MQ) operations

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+
Table 1.2
Computer Generations

Approximate Typical Speed

Generation Dates Technology (operations per second)
1 1946–1957 Vacuum tube 40,000
2 1957–1964 Transistor 200,000
3 1965–1971 Small and medium scale 1,000,000
integration
4 1972–1977 Large scale integration 10,000,000
5 1978–1991 Very large scale integration 100,000,000
6 1991- Ultra large scale integration >1,000,000,000

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 Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

4004 8008 8080 8086 8088

Introduced 1971 1972 1974 1978 1979
5 MHz, 8 MHz, 10
Clock speeds 108 kHz 108 kHz 2 MHz 5 MHz, 8 MHz
MHz
Bus width 4 bits 8 bits 8 bits 16 bits 8 bits
Number of
2,300 3,500 6,000 29,000 29,000
transistors
Feature size
10 8 6 3 6
(µm)
Addressable 640 Bytes 16 KB 64 KB 1 MB 1 MB
memory

(a) 1970s Processors

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 Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

80286 386TM DX 386TM SX 486TM DX

CPU
Introduced 1982 1985 1988 1989
Clock speeds 6 MHz - 12.5 16 MHz - 33 16 MHz - 33 25 MHz - 50
MHz MHz MHz MHz
Bus width 16 bits 32 bits 16 bits 32 bits
Number of transistors
134,000 275,000 275,000 1.2 million
Feature size (µm) 1.5 1 1 0.8 - 1
Addressable
16 MB 4 GB 16 MB 4 GB
memory
Virtual
1 GB 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB
memory
Cache — — — 8 kB

(b) 1980s Processors

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 Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

486TM SX Pentium Pentium Pro Pentium II

Introduced 1991 1993 1995 1997
Clock speeds 16 MHz - 33 60 MHz - 166 150 MHz - 200 200 MHz - 300
MHz MHz, MHz MHz
Bus width 32 bits 32 bits 64 bits 64 bits
Number of 1.185 million 3.1 million 5.5 million 7.5 million
transistors
Feature size (µm) 1 0.8 0.6 0.35
Addressable
4 GB 4 GB 64 GB 64 GB
memory
Virtual memory 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB
512 kB L1 and 1
Cache 8 kB 8 kB 512 kB L2
MB L2

(c) 1990s Processors

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 Evolution of Intel Microprocessors
Core 2 Duo Core i7 EE
Pentium III Pentium 4
4960X
Introduced 1999 2000 2006 2013
Clock speeds 450 - 660 MHz 1.3 - 1.8 GHz 1.06 - 1.2 GHz 4 GHz
Bus
wid 64 bits 64 bits 64 bits 64 bits
th
Number of 9.5 million 42 million 167 million 1.86 billion
transistors
Feature size (nm) 250 180 65 22
Addressable
64 GB 64 GB 64 GB 64 GB
memory
Virtual memory 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB
Cache 512 kB L2 256 kB L2 2 MB L2 1.5 MB L2/15
MB L3
Number of cores 1 1 2 6

(d) Recent Processors

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 Highlights of the Evolution of the
Intel Product Line:
8080 8086 80286 80386 80486
• World’s first • A more • Extension of the • Intel’s first 32- • Introduced the
general- powerful 16-bit 8086 enabling bit machine use of much
purpose machine addressing a • First Intel more
microprocessor • Has an 16-MB memory processor to sophisticated
• 8-bit machine, instruction instead of just support and powerful
8-bit data path cache, or 1MB multitasking cache
to memory queue, that technology and
• Was used in the prefetches a sophisticated
first personal few instructions instruction
computer before they are pipelining
(Altair) executed • Also offered a
• The first built-in math
appearance of coprocessor
the x86
architecture
• The 8088 was a
variant of this
processor and
used in IBM’s
first personal
computer
(securing the
success of Intel

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Highlights of the Evolution of the
Intel Product Line:
Pentium
• Intel introduced the use of superscalar techniques, which allow multiple instructions to execute in parallel

Pentium Pro
• Continued the move into superscalar organization with aggressive use of register renaming, branch
prediction, data flow analysis, and speculative execution

Pentium II
• Incorporated Intel MMX technology, which is designed specifically to process video, audio, and graphics
data efficiently

Pentium III
•Incorporated additional floating-point instructions
•Streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE)

Pentium 4
• Includes additional floating-point and other enhancements for multimedia

Core
• First Intel x86 micro-core

Core 2
• Extends the Core architecture to 64 bits
• Core 2 Quad provides four cores on a single chip
• More recent Core offerings have up to 10 cores per chip
• An important addition to the architecture was the Advanced Vector Extensions instruction set

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+
Embedded Systems
◼ The use of electronics and software within a product

◼ Billions of computer systems are produced each year

that are embedded within larger devices

◼ Today many devices that use electric power have an

embedded computing system

◼ Often embedded systems are tightly coupled to their

environment
◼ This can give rise to real-time constraints imposed by the
need to interact with the environment
◼ Constraints such as required speeds of motion, required
precision of measurement, and required time durations,
dictate the timing of software operations
◼ If multiple activities must be managed simultaneously this
imposes more complex real-time constraints

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+
Cloud Computing

◼ NIST defines cloud computing as:

“A model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient,

on-demand network access to a shared pool of
configurable computing resources that can be
rapidly provisioned and released with minimal
management effort or service provider interaction.”

◼ You get economies of scale, professional network

management, and professional security management

◼ The individual or company only needs to pay for the storage

capacity and services they need

◼ Cloud provider takes care of security

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 Cloud Networking
◼ Refers to the networks and network management functionality that must
be in place to enable cloud computing

◼ One example is the provisioning of high-performance and/or high-

reliability networking between the provider and subscriber

◼ The collection of network capabilities required to access a cloud,

including making use of specialized services over the Internet, linking
enterprise data center to a cloud, and using firewalls and other network
security devices at critical points to enforce access security policies

Cloud Storage
◼ Subset of cloud computing

◼ Consists of database storage and database applications hosted

remotely on cloud servers

◼ Enables small businesses and individual users to take advantage of data

storage that scales with their needs and to take advantage of a variety of
database applications without having to buy, maintain, and manage the
storage assets
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