162 control systems engineering

Transfer function represents the gain.

Thus, the gain of an open-loop system is G(s). When we use negative feedback, this gain
gets reduced by a factor 1/[1 + G(s)H(s)].

5.3.6 effect of feedback on stability

Use of feedback improves the stability of a system. From the transfer function, we can
examine the location of the poles in the s-plane. If the poles get shifted more to the left-hand
side of the imaginary axis, we can say that the system becomes more stable. For example, let
us say that the span-loop transfer function G(s) is K/s + t
The pole is located at s = -t.
The overall transfer function of the system with unity negative feedback will be
K
+t
C ( s) G ( s) K
= = s =
R( s ) 1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) 1 K s + (t + K )
+
s+t
Now, the pole gets shifted to
s = -(t + K)
The pole gets shifted from s = -t to s = -(t + K).
Thus, we can see that feedback can make the system more stable.

Example 5.1 An open-loop control system is shown in the form of block diagram in
Fig. 5.14. Examine the effect of incorporating a feedback in the control system.

Fig. 5.14 An open-loop control system

Solution
From Fig. 5.14, the transfer function is expressed as
C ( s) 1
=
R( s) 1 + st
where t is the time constant.
The time response of the system for a step input is calculated by taking R(s) = 1/s.
1 1
Thus, C ( s) = ×
(1 + st ) s
 feedback control system and effect of feedback on system performance 163

Taking inverse Laplace,

C ( t ) = 1 − e −t / t ….(a)

Now, let us use a feedback loop for the system as shown in Fig. 5.15.

Fig. 5.15 A feedback loop introduced in the open-loop system of Fig. 5.14

We have taken feedback

H(s) = b
The transfer function of the system
C ( s) G ( s)
=
R( s ) 1 + G ( s ) H ( s )
1
= 1 + st
1
1+ ×b
1 + st
1
=
1
= t
1 + st + b s + 1 + b
t

Taking R(s) = 1/s, 1

C ( s) = t ×
1
1 + b  s
s + 
 t 
Taking Laplace inverse,
1  −
t 
t /1+b 
C (t ) = − ….(b)
1 + b  
b e

1  −tt′ 
=  b−e 
1+ b
where, t′ = new time constant = t/1 + b.
164 control systems engineering

This shows that due to introduction of feedback, the time constant is reduced if ‘b’ is positive.
A reduced time constant implies that the system will now be faster when there was no feedback.
Thus we can state that introduction of a negative feedback improves the response of a
control system.

5.4 tHe cost of feedback

The use of feedback has several advantages as outlined in the previous sections. These
advantages have an attended cost due to an increased number of components and complexity
in the system.
In an open-loop system the transfer function is G(s) and is reduced to
G(s)/[1 + G(s) H(s)] in a feedback (closed-loop) system. So, the loss of gain by the same
factor of 1/[1 + G(s) H(s)] that reduces the sensitivity of the system to parameter variations
is again an added cost of using feedback. However, it should be noted that although the
gain of input-output transmittance is reduced through feedback, the system does retain the
substantial power gain of a power amplifier and actuator that is fully utilized in the system.
Finally the addition of feedback may cause the system to be unstable. This possibility of
instability is again another cost of using feedback.
However, in most cases, the advantages of using feedback outweigh the disadvantages
and feedback is utilised in practice.

reVieW QUestions

5.1 A position control system is represented by the block diagram given below. Determine
the sensitivity of closed-loop transfer function M with respect to G and H for
w = 1.5 rad/sec.

Fig. 5.16

5.2 For the audio system shown in Fig. 5.17 calculate

i) The sensitivity with respect to K2.
ii) The effect of disturbance on the output C(s).
iii) The value of amplifier gain K1 to minimise the effect of disturbance.
 error analysis 175

E (S ) 1
or, =
R( s) 1 + G ( s) H ( s)

R( s )
\ Error, E ( s) =
1 + G ( s) H ( s)

The steady-state error is lim f (t ) = lim sF ( s) [from Final Value Theorem]

t →∞ s→ 0

ess = lim e(t )

t →∞

So, steady state error ess = lim e(t )

t →∞

= lim sE ( s)
s→ o

sR( s)
= lim
s→ 0 1 + G ( s) H ( s)

6.4.1 static Position error coefficient (Kp)

The steady-state error of the system for a unit step input is

s 1  1 
ess = lim  R( s) = for unit step input 
s→ 0 1 + G ( s) H ( s) s  s 

1 1
or, ess = lim =
s→ 0 1 + G ( s) H ( s) 1 + K p

where, K p = lim G ( s) H ( s); K p is called the static position error coefficient.

s→ 0

Now, we shall find the value of Kp for different types of systems, that is, type 0, type 1, type 2.
Type is defined as the number of open-loop poles at the origin and is indicated by power
of s, i.e. sN in the denominator of the transfer function. For type 0 system, s0 = 1; for type 1,
s1 = s; for type 2, s2 = s2, and so on.
i) For a type 0 system,
K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1)....
G ( s) H ( s) = (from equation (6.1a))
s0 (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1)....

K (0 + 1)(0 + 1)....
K p = lim G ( s) H ( s)
s→ 0 (0 + 1)(0 + 1)....
K
= =K
s0
176 control systems engineering

ii) For type 1 or higher system,

K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1)....
G ( s) H ( s) =
s N (T1s + 1)(T2 s + 1)....

K (0 + 1)(0 + 1)....
K p = lim G ( s) H ( s)
s→ 0 0(0 + 1)(0 + 1)....
Kp = ∞ (for N ≥ 1)
Now, we shall find the static position error for different systems at steady state.
i) For type 0 system,
1 1
ess = = [\ Kp = K]
1+ K p 1+ K
ii) For type 1 or higher systems,
1
ess =
1+ K p
[\ Kp = ∞]
1
= =0
1+ ∞
Thus, for a unit step input, steady-state error for different types of systems is finite. Hence,
every type of system is capable of following step input. Though type 0 system shows some
error, higher type of systems can respond to step input very accurately.

6.4.2 static Velocity error coefficient (Kv)

Static velocity error coefficient is associated with ess for unit ramp input. The steady-state
actuating error of the system with a unit ramp input (unit velocity input) is given by
sR( s)
ess = lim
s→ 0 1 + G ( s) H ( s)
s 1  1
= lim ∵ R( s) = 2 
s→ 01 + G ( s) H ( s) s 2  s 
1 1
= lim =
s→ 0 s + sG ( s) H ( s) Kv

where, K v = lim sG ( s) H ( s); K v is called the static velocity error coefficient.

s→ 0

Now, we shall find the static velocity error coefficient for different types of systems.
 error analysis 177

i) For a type 0 system,

K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1)....
G ( s) H ( s) =
s0 (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1)....
∴ = lim sG ( s) H ( s)
s→ 0

sK (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1)....

= lim =0
s→0 (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1)....
ii) For a type 1 system,
K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1)....
K v = lim G ( s) H ( s) = lim s =K
s→ 0 s→ 0 s(T1s + 1)(T2 s + 1))....
iii) For a type 2 or higher system,
K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1)....
K v = lim sG ( s) H ( s) = lim s
s→ 0 s→ 0 s N −1 (T1s + 1)(T2 s + 1)....

K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1)....

= lim s =∞ [\ N ≥ 2]
s→ 0 s N −1 (T1s + 1)(T2 s + 1)....
Now, we shall find static velocity error for different types of systems at steady state.
i) For type 0 system,
1 1
ess = = =∞ [\ Kv = 0]
Kv 0
ii) For type 1 system,
1 1
ess = = [\ Kv = K]
Kv K
iii) For a type 2 or higher systems,
1 1
ess = = =∞=0 [\ Kv = ∞]
Kv 0
For ramp input, steady-state error for type 0 system is infinite. Hence, a type 0 system is
not capable of following ramp input. The static velocity error for type 1 system is finite. But
static velocity error for type 2 system or higher system is zero. So type 2 or higher systems
are capable of following a ramp input very accurately.
We see from this analysis that as we move from type 0 to type 2 or higher systems, the
static velocity error goes on decreasing. But with increase in the type number, the number
of poles on the jw-axis also goes on increasing, which will make the system response more
oscillatory.
Hence, we have to make a compromise between stability and accuracy.
178 control systems engineering

6.4.3 static acceleration error coefficient (Ka)

Static acceleration error coefficient is associated with ess for unit parabolic input. The steady-
state actuating error of the system with unit-parabolic input (acceleration) is given by
sR( s)
ess = lim
s→ 0 1 + G ( s) H ( s)
s 1  1
= lim ∵ R( s) = 3 
s→ 0 1 + G ( s) H ( s) s 3  s 
1 1
= lim 2 =
s→ 0 s + s G ( s) H ( s)
2
Ka

where K a = lim s 2G ( s) H ( s).

s→ 0

Now, we shall find the static acceleration error coefficient for different types of systems.
i) For type 0 system,
s 2 K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1)....
K a = lim s 2G ( s) H ( s) = lim =0
s→ 0 s→ 0 s 0 (T1s + 1)(T2 s + 1)....
ii) For a type 1 system,
s 2 K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1)....
K a = lim s 2G ( s) H ( s) = lim
s→ 0 s→ 0 s(T1s + 1)(T2 s + 1)....
sK (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1)....
= lim =0
s→ 0 (T1s + 1)(T2 s + 1)....
iii) For a type 2 system
s 2 K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1)....
K a = lim s 2G ( s) H ( s) = lim =K
s→ 0 s→ 0 s 2 (T1s + 1)(T2 s + 1)....
iv) For a type 3 or higher system,
s 2 K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1)....
K a = lim s 2G ( s) H ( s) = lim
s→ 0 s→ 0 s N (T1s + 1)(T2 s + 1)....
K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1)....
= lim =∞ [\ N ≥ 3]
s→ 0 s (T1s + 1)(T2 s + 1)....
N −2

Now we shall find the static acceleration error for different types of systems at steady state.
i) For a type 0 system,
1
ess = =∞ [\ Ka = 0]
Ka
 error analysis 179

ii) For a type 1 system,

1
ess = =∞ [\ Ka = 0]
Ka
iii) For a type 2 system,
1 1
ess = = [\ Ka = K]
Ka K
iv) For a type 3 or higher system,
1 1
ess = = =0 [\ Ka = ∞]
Ka ∞
Thus type 0 and type 1 systems are capable of following a parabolic input. For a type 2
system, the error is finite, but for type 3 or higher systems the error is zero. Again, as we
increase the type numbers, the error goes on reducing.
The steady-state errors in terms of forward path gain (K) of type 0, type 1 and type 2
closed-loop systems have been summarised in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1 Steady-state Errors of Closed-loop Systems of Different Types

system step input r(t) = 1 ramp input r(t) = 1 acceleration input

1
r (t ) = t 2
2

Type 0 1 ∞ ∞
1+ K

Type 1 0 1 ∞
K

Type 2 0 0 1
K

The terms “position error”, “velocity error”, “acceleration error” mean steady-state
deviations in the output position. A finite velocity error implies that after transients have
died out, the input and output move at the same velocity but have a finite position difference.
The error coefficient Kp, Kv and Ka, describe the ability of a system to reduce or eliminate
steady-state error. It is desirable to increase the error coefficients while maintaining the
transient response within an acceptable range. From Table 6.1, it can be seen that a type 0
system gives error for all the three types of inputs. A type 2 system gives error due to one
type of input only, which is finite. So a type 2 system is better than a type 0 system or a
type 1 system from the steady-state error point of view. Higher types of systems are better
from the steady-state error point of view but are less stable.
 error analysis 187

Example 6.3 For a unity feedback system having an open-loop transfer function as
K ( s + 2)
G ( s) = 3 , determine the i) type of system, ii) error constant Kp, Kv and Ka
s( s + 7 s 2 + 12 s
and iii) steady-state error for parabolic input.
Solution
K ( s + 2)
G ( s) =
s ( s 2 + 7 s + 12)
2

i) The open-loop transfer function G(s) has poles of order two at the origin. So the type of
system is two.
ii)
K ( s + 2)
K p = lim G ( s) = lim =∞
s→ 0 s 2 ( s 2 + 7 s + 12)
s→ 0

K ( s + 2)
K v = lim sG ( s) = lim 2 =∞
s→ 0 s→ 0 s( s + 7 s + 12)

K ( s + 2) K
K a = lim s 2G ( s) = lim 2 =
s→ 0 s→ 0 s + 7 s + 12 6

iii) Let the parabolic input be

r(t) = t2
2
R( s) = 3
s
Steady-state error, ess = lim sE ( s)
s→ 0

sR( s)
= lim
s→ 0 1 + G ( s) H ( s)

sR( s)
= lim [∵ H ( s) = 1]
s→ 0 1 + G ( s)
2
s
= lim s3
s→ 0 K ( s + 2)
1+ 2 2
s ( s + 7 s + 12)
2( s 2 + 7 s + 12) 24 12
= lim = =
s→ 0 s ( s + 7 s + 12) + K ( d + 2) 2 K K
2 2

K
Example 6.4 A unity feedback control system has forward loop transfer function as .
Determine the value of K so as to have minimum integral square error. s
188 control systems engineering

Solution

K
Given G ( s) = and H ( s) = 1.
s
K
C ( s) s K
\ = =
R( s) K K +s
1+
s
K
E ( s) = R( s) − C ( s) = R( s) − R( s)
K +s
\
s
= R( s)
K +s

1
For unit step function R( s) =
s
1
\ E ( s) =
s+K
or e(t) = e-kt
∞ ∞
1  −2 kt  ∞ 1
\ ISE = ∫ e (t )dt = ∫ e−2 kt dt = −
2

 e  =
0 0
2K 0 2K
So, to have minimum integral square error (ISE),
d
(ISE) = 0
dK
1
or − =0
2K 2
\ K=∞

Example 6.5 Find the dynamic error coefficients of the unity feedback control system
whose transfer function is given by
10
G ( s) = .
s(1 + s)
Also obtain the steady-state error to the input defined by the relation,
r(t) = ao + a1t + a2t2
 error analysis 189

Solution
For the given system,
E ( s) 1 s + s2
= =
R( s) 1 + G ( s) 10 + s + s 2
Dividing (s + s2) by (10 + s + s2) we may write
E ( s)
= 0.1s + 0.09 s 2 − 0.019 s3 + ...........
R( s)
 E ( s) 1 1 1 
So the dynamic error coefficients are  by comparing with = + s+ s 2 +⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ :
 R( s) K1 K 2 K3 
 
K1 = ∞
1
K2 = = 10
0.1
1
K3 = = 11.1
0.09
As the input is given by
r(t) = a0 + a1t + a2t2
\ r(t ) = a1 + 2a2t
r(t ) = 2a2

r (t ) = 0
From the above series in s-domain the steady-state error is
ess = lim e(t )
t →∞

= lim [ 0.1r(t ) + 0.09r(t ) − 0.019

r (t ) + .........]
t →∞

= lim [ 0.1( a1 + 2a2t ) + 0.09( 2a2 ) ] = lim [ 0.1a1 + 0.18a2 + 0.2a2t ]

t →∞ t →∞

Thus, the steady-state error becomes infinity, unless a1, a2 = 0.

reVieW QUestions

6.1 The closed-loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is given by
C ( s) Ks + a
= 2
R( s) s + bs + a
Obtain the open-loop transfer function G(s) and hence show that for unity ramp
response
1 b−K
ess = =
Kv a
 TIme ResPONse ANAlysIs 211

Example 7.1 Derive the time response of a second order system subjected to impulse input
function.
Solution
For unit impulse R(s) = 1

ωn2
C ( s) =
s 2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2
Breaking into partial fraction
ωn2 K1 K2
= +
s + 2ζωn s + ωn s − s1 s − s2
2 2

With characteristic equation

s 2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2 = 0
Roots of this equation are

s1 = −ζωn + jωn 1 − ζ 2
s2 = −ζωn − jωn 1 − ζ 2

Substituting ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2
s1 = −ζωn + jωd
s2 = −ζωn − jωd
ωn2
K1 =
s − s2 s= s1

ωn2
=
−ζωn + jωd + ζωn + jωd
ωn2
=
2 jωd
ωn2
K2 =
− j 2ωd
ωn2
C ( s) =
s 2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2
ωn2 1 ω2 1
= − n
2 jωd s − s1 2 jωd s − s2
212 cONTROl sysTems eNgINeeRINg

Taking inverse Laplace

ωn2 ω2
C (t ) = [e s1t − e s2t ] = n [e (−ζωn + jωd t ) − e (−ζωn + jωd t ) ]
2 jωd 2 jωd
ωn2 e−ζωnt ωn2 e−ζωnt
= ×[2 j sin ωd t ] = sin ωd t
2 jωd ωd

Substituting the value of wd in the above equation,

C (t ) =
ωn
1− ζ 2
(
e−ζωnt sin ωn 1 − ζ 2 t )
which is the required response.

7.5.3 Transient Response specifications

The unit step response is easy to generate and mathematically the response to any input can be
derived if the response to a step input is known. Therefore, the performance characteristics of
a control system are described in terms of transient response to a unit step input; with standard
initial conditions of output and all time derivatives being zero when the system is at rest. The
time response of second and higher order control systems to a unit step input is generally
damped oscillatory in nature before reaching steady state. The following are the transient
response specifications (as shown in Fig. 7.13) of a control system to a unit step input.

Fig. 7.13 Transient time response specifications to unit step input

218 cONTROl sysTems eNgINeeRINg

comments on Transient Response specifications

It is always desirable that the transient response should be sufficiently fast and well damped.
The output should reach the final value in a small interval of time, that is, the system
response is quick. We have already seen from the response curves of the second order system
that for values of z (0.5 to 0.8), steady-state conditions are obtained earlier but for such an
underdamped system (0.5 to 0.8 = z), there are oscillations at the equilibrium position. For
 1 
large values of z, the maximum overshoot is more but settling time Ts =  for higher
 ζωn 
values of z is less. Thus, both the maximum overshoot and the rise time cannot be made
smaller simultaneously. If one of them is made smaller, the other unavoidably becomes larger.

Example 7.2 For a second order system z = 0.6, wn = 5 rad/sec. Find the values of tr, tp, Mp, ts.

Solution

ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2

= 5 1 − (.6) 2

ωd = 4 rad/sec
σ = ζωn

= 0.6 × 5

σs = 3
π −β
i) tr =
ωd

3.14 − β ωd 4
tr = , β = tan−1 = tan−1 = 0.93 rad
4 σ 3
3.14 − 0.93
tr =
4
t r = 0.55 sec
π
ii) tp =
ωd
3.14
=
4
t p = .785 sec.
 TIme ResPONse ANAlysIs 219

σ 
− π
 ωd 
iii) Mp =e
 3
− 3.14
=e 4

M P = 0.095

4 4
iv) ts = = = 1.33 sec. (for 2% criterion)
s 3
3 3
ts = = = 1 sec. (for 5% criterion)
s 3
Example 7.3 Consider the servomechanism shown in Fig. 7.15. Determine the values of k
and k1 so that the maximum overshoot in unit step response is 25 per cent and the peak time
is 2 seconds.

Fig. 7.15

Solution
M P = e(−ζ / 1−ζ 2 ) π
0.25
π
and tp = = 2 given.
ωd
ζ
\ π = 1.39 and ωd = 1.57
1− ζ 2
\ z = 0.4
ωd
and ωn =
1− ζ 2

1.57
=
1 − (0.4) 2
= 1.71
220 cONTROl sysTems eNgINeeRINg

C ( s) k ωn2
= 2 = 2
R( s) s + kk1s + k s + 2ζωn s + ωn2

Comparing, k = ωn2 = (1.71) 2 = 2.93 and kk1 = 2ζωn

2(0.4)(1.71)
\ K1 = = 0.47.
2.93

Example 7.4 The block diagram of a servo system is shown in Fig. 7.16. Determine the
characteristic equation of the system. Also, calculate the following when the unit step input
is given:

a) Undamped frequency of oscillation;

b) Damped frequency of oscillation;
c) Damping ratio and damping factor;
d) Maximum overshoot;
e) Time interval after which maximum and minimum output will occur;
f) Settling time;
g) Number of cycles completed before the output is settled within 2 per cent, 5 per cent
of final value.

Fig. 7.16

Solution
The problem indicates a second order controlled system of the type having output function
for unit step input as
ωn2 1
C ( s) = .
( s + 2ζωn s + ωn ) s
2 2

ω n 0 σt  ω 
c(t ) = 1 − e sin ωd t + tan−1 d 
ωd  σ 

where, ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2
 TIme ResPONse ANAlysIs 221

s = wnz
10 × 2.4
Now, for the given problem the open-loop transfer function is G ( s) =
s( s + 1)(0.2 s + 1)
24
G ( s) =
s( s + 1)(0.2s + 1)
and feedback is,
s
H ( s) = .
6
24
C ( s) G ( s) s( s + 1)(.2s + 1)
= =
R( s) 1 + G ( s) H ( s)  24 s
1 + 
 s( s + 1)(0.2 s + 1)  6
24 24
= =
s(0.2 s + 1.2 s + 1) + 4 s s(0.2 s + 1.2 s + 5)
2 2

120
=
s( s + 6 s + 25)
2

This gives the characteristic equation as (s2 + 6s + 25) = 0. Comparing it with the generalised
equation s 2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2 = 0, we get

a) wn2 = 25 or wn = 5 rad/sec.
b) 2zwn = 6 or z = 0.6
\ Damping factor = damping ratio × natural frequency
= zwn = 0.6 × 5 = 3.

c) Damping frequency = ωn 1 − ζ 2

= 5 1 − (0.6) 2
= 4 rad / sec.

d) Maximum overshoot M p = e−πζ / 1−ζ 2

= e−0.6 p / 1−( 0.6 )

2

= 0.095.
e) Time interval after which maximum and minimum will occur is given by
2π 2π
2t p = = = 1.57 sec.
ωn 1 − ζ 2 4
222 cONTROl sysTems eNgINeeRINg

4
f) Settling time (2 per cent), t s = = 1.33 sec.
ζωn
3
Settling time (5 per cent), t s = = 1 sec.
ζωn
g) Number of cycles completed before settling within 2 per cent is

2 1− ζ 2 2 × 0.8
= = 0.85 cycle.
πζ π × 0.6
Setting time changes from 1.33 sec to 1 sec, to for a change of tolerance from 2 per cent
to 5 per cent.
Hence, the number of cycles completed before reaching 5 per cent tolerance will be
reduced linearly to
0.85
= 0.64
1.33

Example 7.5 A flywheel is driven by a motor which develops a torque of 1600 Nm/rad. The
moment of inertia of the system is 100 kg m2. The flywheel is controlled by a handwheel.
If the handwheel is suddenly given a movement through p/4 rad from rest, calculate the
response or output of the flywheel. The coefficient of viscous friction is 400 Nm/rad/sec.
Solution
Let qi is the reference position of the handwheel,
q0 is the output of the flywheel.
Torque developed = 1600 [qi(s) - q0(s)]
d 2q0 dq
Also, torque developed is equated to J 2
+B 0
dt dt
Taking Laplace transform, equating and putting values,
1600[qi(s) - q0(s)] = [100s2 + 400s] q0(s)
q0 ( s) 1600 16
or = − 2
qi ( s) 100 s + 400 s + 1600 s + 4 s + 16
2

π1
When a unit step input of p/4 rad is applied, we express θi ( s) =
4s
π 16
Thus, θ0 ( s) =
4 s ( s + 4 s + 16)
2

p 16 p 1 s+4 
= =  − 
4 s s( s 2 + 4 s + 16) 4  s ( s + 2) 2 + 12 
264 CONTROL SYSTEmS ENgINEERINg

Therefore, a system is stable if all the elements in the first column of the array are
positive, i.e. there is no change in the sign.
Depending on the coefficients of the equation, the following difficulties may arise.
i) The first element in any of the rows of the array is zero, but the others are not.
ii) The elements in one row of the array are all zero.
In the first case, replace the zero element in the first column by an arbitrary small positive
number e, and then proceed with array formation and ultimately let e tend to zero.
The second case of problem indicates that there are symmetrically located roots in the
s-plane. The polynomial whose coefficients are just above the row of zeros in the array is
called an auxiliary polynomial. The auxiliary polynomial is always an even polynomial; that
is, only even powers of s appear. The roots of the auxiliary equation also satisfy the original
equation. To continue with the array, the following steps should be adopted.
a) Form the auxiliary equation, A(s) = 0;
b) Take derivative of the auxiliary equation with respect to s and equate to zero.
dA( s)
i.e., = 0;
ds
c) Replace the row of zeros with the coefficients of
dA( s)
= 0;
ds
d) Continue the array in the usual manner with replaced coefficients.

Example 8.1 Check the system represented by the following characteristic equation for
absolute stability
s3 + 5s2 + 25s + 10 = 0
Solution
The Routh’s array is

s3 1 25 5× 25 −10
b1 = = 23
5
s2 5 10 b2 = 0

s1 23 0 23×10 − 5× 0
c1 = = 10
23

s0 10 0 c2 = 0

All the elements in the first column are positive. There is no root in the right half of the
s-plane. The system is therefore absolutely stable.
 CONCEPT OF STABILITY AND ROUTH-HURWITZ CRITERION 265

Example 8.2 Check the system represented by the following equation for absolute stability.
s5 + s4 + 3s3 + 4s2 + 16s + 10 = 0.
Solution
The array is
s5 1 3 16
s4
1 4 10
s3 -1 6 0
s2 10 10 0
s1 7 0 0
s0 10

In the first column there are two sign changes. From +1 to -1 and then to 10. Thus, there are
two roots in the right half of the s-plane. The system is unstable.

Example 8.3 Consider the characteristic equation of a system

s5 + 4s4 + 8s3 + 8s2 + 7s + 4 = 0
Find the status of its stability.

Solution
Array
s5 1 8 7
s4 4 8 4
s 3
6 6 0
s2 4 4
s1 0 0

The auxiliary equation is formed by using the coefficients just above the row of zeros, i.e.
A(s) = 4s2 + 4 = 0.
The derivative of A(s) with respect to s is
dA( s)
= 8 s. Therefore, we consider 8 s = 0
ds
Replace zeros of the s1 row with the coefficients of the above equation.
s1 8 0
s0 4
Since there is no sign change, no root is lying in the positive half of s-plane. Therefore, the
system is stable.
266 CONTROL SYSTEmS ENgINEERINg

Example 8.4 The characteristic equation of a feedback control system is found as

s4 + 9s3 + 11s2 + 6s + K = 0.
Determine the value of K for which the system is absolutely stable and marginally stable.
Also determine the frequency of sustained oscillation.

Solution
The characteristic equation is s4 + 9s3 + 11s2 + 6s + K = 0.
The array is

s4 1 11 K
s3 9 6 0
s2 10.3 K 0
s 61.8 - 9 K 0 0
1

10.3
s0 K 0 0

For stability K > 0

61.8 - 9K > 0 or K < 6.8
Hence for absolute stability range q gain K is
0 < K < 6.8
The system will be marginally stable when K = 6.8.
The auxiliary equation being an even polynomial, is expressed with K = 6.8 as
10.3 s2 + 6.8 = 0
6.8
or, s2 = − = 0.66
10.3
Therefore, s = ± j 0.82 = ± j w
Frequency of sustained oscillation = 0.82 rad/second.

Example 8.5 Using the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion, ascertain stability for each of the
following three cases.
a) s6 + 2s5 + 8s4 + 12s3 + 20s2 + 16s + 16 = 0.

Solution
The array is prepared using the characteristic equation as shown.
The first column of the array shows no sign change. Therefore, no roots are on the right-
hand side of the s-plane. However, the occurrence of a zero row indicates the presence
of symmetrically located roots in the s-plane. The roots of the auxiliary equation are
given by
(s4 + 6s2 + 8) = 0
 CONCEPT OF STABILITY AND ROUTH-HURWITZ CRITERION 267

or, (s2 + 4) (s2 + 2) = 0

s = ± 2j and s = ± j 2.

s6 1 8 20 16 Remarks
s 5
2 12 16 Auxiliary equation is
s4 - 6s2 + 8 = 0
s5 1 6 8
Its derivative is
s4 2 12 16 4s3 + 12s = 0
s 4
1 6 8 or,
s3 + 3s = 0
s3 0 0 The s3 row is now
s3 1 3 completed using the
coefficients of the
s 2
3 8 above equation and
s1 1/3 0 the array is completed
s0 8 0

As the coefficients of s3 row are all zeros, the auxiliary A(s) and its first derivative are formed
as shown under ‘Remarks’. The s3 row was then replaced by the coefficients of dA(s)/ds = 0.
As there are non-repeated imaginary roots on the imaginary axis, the system is limitedly
stable. Here the roots of the auxiliary equation are also the roots of the characteristic equation
as stated in the problem.
b) s6 + s5 - 2s4 - 3s3 - 7s2 - 4s - 4 = 0.

Solution

s6 1 -2 -7 -4 Remarks
s 5
1 -3 -4 Auxiliary
equation is
s4 1 -3 -4
s4 - 3s2 - 4 = 0
s3 0 0 0 Its derivative is
s 3
2 -3 4s3 - 6s = 0
or,
s2 -1.5 -4 2s3 - 3s = 0
s1 -25/3 0
s 0
-4

There is one sign change in the first column of the array. Therefore, one root is lying on the
right-hand side of the s-plane. The system is unstable. Without going for the formation of
268 CONTROL SYSTEmS ENgINEERINg

array it may be said, in other words, that the system is not stable as the necessary condition
of positiveness of all the coefficients does not hold good.
c) s6 + s5 + 4s4 + 2s3 + 5s2 + s + 2 = 0.

Solution
The array is
s6 1 4 5 2 Remarks
s5 1 2 1 A1(s) = s4 + 2s2 + 1 = 0
s4 1 2 1 dA1 ( s)
= 4 s3 + 4 s = 0
ds

s3 0 0 or, s3 + s = 0
s3 1 1 A2(s) = s2 + 1 = 0
s2 1 1
dA2 ( s)
s 1
0 = 2s = 0
ds
2
s0 1

There are two rows which become zero and there is no sign change in the first column of the
array. The roots of A1 (s) = 0 are also the roots of the original characteristic equation; so the
roots of A1(s) = 0 are given by
(s4 + 2s2 + 1) = 0
or, (s2 + 1)2 = 0
∴ s = ± j and s = ± j.
The multiplicity of the pair of roots on jw -axis makes the system unstable.

Example 8.6 The characteristic equation of a servosystem is given by:

b0 s 4 + b1 s3 + b2 s 2 + b3 s + b4 = 0.
Determine the conditions for stability using Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion.

Solution
The array has been shown. From the array we find the conditions for stability.
The conditions for stability are stated as follows.
b1 > 0, b0 > 0, (b1 b2 - b0 b3) > 0,
270 CONTROL SYSTEmS ENgINEERINg

Fig. 8.2

Also,

wn = OA = 2
1
∴ ζωn = × 2 = 1.
2
1
∴ τ= = 1sec.
ζωn

So the largest time constant is equal to 1 sec.

Example 8.8 A unity feedback control system has an open-loop transfer function G(s) =
K ( s + 13)
. Using the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion, find the range of K for the
s( s + 3)( s + 7)
system to be stable. If K = 1, check all the poles of the closed-loop transfer function having
damping factor greater than 0.85. Assume unity feedback system.

Solution
The characteristic equation of the system is
K ( s + 13)
1 + G ( s) = 1 + =0
s( s + 3)( s + 7)

or s3 + 10s2 + (21 + K) s + 13K = 0.

The array is prepared as follows.
 CONCEPT OF STABILITY AND ROUTH-HURWITZ CRITERION 271

s3 1 (21 + K)
s2
10 13K

s1 210 - 3K
-
10
s0 13K -

Condition
a) 13K > 0 or K>0
210 − 3K
b) >0 K < 70
10
For stability the range is 0 < K < 70. When K = 1, the characteristic equation is
s3 + 10s2 + 22s + 13 = 0
or (s + 1) (s2 + 9s + 13) = 0.
The roots are
1
s = −1, (−9 ± 29 ).
2
All roots are negative and real and hence lie on the negative real axis.
Now, damping ratio z = cos φ.
Since, all roots are negative and real, therefore, damping ratio z = 1. Hence, for all root’s
damping ratio is greater than 0.5.

Example 8.9 The characteristic equation for a feedback control system is given by
s 4 + a1s3 + a2 s 2 + a3 s + K = 0. If the numerical values of a1 = 22, a2 = 10 and a3 = 2, find
the value K which will keep the system stable.

Solution
The characteristic equation is given as
s4 + 22s3 + 10s2 + 2s + K = 0
The array is
s4 1 10 K
s 3
22 2
218 K
s2
22
s1 484 K
2-
218
s0 K
272 CONTROL SYSTEmS ENgINEERINg

Applying the condition of stability, we have to check for all the coefficients in the first column
to be positive. Thus,
484 K
2− >0
218

484 K
or <2
218

2 × 218
or K<
484
or K < 0.9
and K > 0.
\ The range of K for stability is therefore determined as:
0 < K < 0.9.

Example 8.10 The open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is given by
K
( s + 2)( s + 4)( s 2 + 6 s + 25)
By applying the Routh-Hurwitz criterion, discuss the stability of the closed-loop system as a
function of K. Determine the value of K which will cause sustained oscillations in the closed-
loop system. What are the corresponding oscillation frequencies?

Solution
We have,
C ( s) G ( s) G ( s)
= = (∵ H ( s) = 1)
R( s) 1 + G ( s) H ( s) 1 + G ( s)
Characteristic equation is
1 + G(s) = 0
K
or 1+ = 0.
( s + 2)( s + 4)( s 2 + 6 s + 25)

or, s4 + 12s3 + 69s2 + 198s + (200 + K) = 0.

The array is prepared as shown.
The system will be stable, if
200 + K > 0 or K > -200
and
 CONCEPT OF STABILITY AND ROUTH-HURWITZ CRITERION 273

12( 200 + K )
198 − >0 or K < 666.25.
52.5

s4 1 69 (200 +K)
s3
12 198
s2 52.5 (200 + K)
12( 200 + K )
s1 198 −
52.5

s0 (200 + K)

Oscillations will occur when K = 666.25 and in this case the auxiliary equation is
52.5s2 + (200 + K) = 0
or 52.5s2 + (200 + 666.25) = 0
or s = ± (4.062) j
The frequency of sustained oscillation is therefore 4.062 rad/sec.

Example 8.11 The open-loop transfer function of a closed-loop system with unity feedback
K ( s + 2)( s + 1)
is . Using Routh-Hurwitz criterion show whether the system is stable or
( s + 0.1)( s −1)
unstable.

Solution
The characteristic equation is
K ( s + 2)( s + 1)
1 + G ( s) = +1 = 0
( s + 0.1)( s −1)

or, K(s + 2) (s + 1) + (s + 0.1) (s - 1) = 0

or (K + 1)s2 + (3K - 0.9)s + (2K - 0.1) = 0
The array is

s2 (K + 1) (2K - 0.1)
s1 (3K - 0.9) -
s0 (2K - 0.1) -
274 CONTROL SYSTEmS ENgINEERINg

Comments:
For stability, the coefficients of the first column should be positive
That is, a) K > -1
b) K > 0.9/3 that is, K > 0.3
c) K > 0.1/2 that is, K > 0.05.
So the system will be stable if K > 0.3.

Example 8.12 Check the following six systems for their absolute stability.
a) s3 - 3s2 + s + 6 = 0

Solution
s3 - 3s2 + s + 6 = 0
Array is shown below.

s3 +1 1
s2
-3 6 In the first column sign changes from positive value
s1 +3 0 to negative value and then again to positive value
s0 +6

Let us inspect the first column. There are two changes in sign (positive value to negative and
then to positive value). It implies that there are two roots on the right half of s-plane. So the
system is unstable.
b) 2s4 + s3 + 3s2 + 5s + 10 = 0

Solution
Array is shown below.

s4 2 3 10
s3 1 5 0
3 −10 10 0
s2 = −7
1
−35 −10 45 0 0
s1 =
−7 7
s0 10 0 0

In the first column, there are two sign changes which implies that there are two roots on the
right half of s-plane. So the system is not stable.
 CONCEPT OF STABILITY AND ROUTH-HURWITZ CRITERION 275

c) (s - 1)2 (s + 2) = 0

Solution
s3 + 3s + 2 = 0
or, s3 + 0s2 - 3s + 2 = 0
Array is shown below.

s3 1 -3
s2 e 2

s1 -3e - 2 0
e
s0 2 0

Since there is one entry in the first column as zero, we have replaced that zero by a very
small positive number e. There are two sign changes when e tends to zero. Thus the system
is unstable since two roots are there on the right half of s-plane.
d) s4 + s3 - 3s2 - s + 2 = 0

Solution
Array is shown below.

s4 1 -3 2
s3 1 -1 0
s2 -2 2 0
s1 0 0 0
s 1
-4 0 0
s0 2

It is observed that in the above problem, all the entries in s1 row are zero. So, for finding the
coefficient of the next row, we write the auxiliary equation and differentiate it. The equation
obtained after differentiation gives the elements of the row which were zero.
In the above problem, the auxiliary equation is
-2s2 + 2 = 0
Differentiating this we have -4s = 0 which will give the coefficients of the s1 row. Then, we
are to complete the array by the usual method.
276 CONTROL SYSTEmS ENgINEERINg

As there are two sign changes in the first column of the array, the system is not stable because
of two roots being on the right half of the s-plane.
e) s6 + s5 - 2s4 - 3s3 - 7s2 - 4s - 4 = 0.

Solution
The array is presented as follows
s6 1 -2 -7 -4
s5 1 -3 -4 0
s 4
1 -3 -4 0
s3 0 0 0 0
s3 4 -6 0 0
-3
s2 -4 0 0
2

s1 -50
0 0 0
3

s0 -4 0 0 0

We see that all the coefficients of the s3 row are zero. They have been replaced by the
coefficient of dA(s)/ds = 0 as follows.

Auxiliary equation A(s):

A( s) = s 4 − 3s 2 − 4 = 0
dA( s)
= 4 s3 − 6 s = 0
ds
Since there is one sign change in the first column of the array, we conclude that the system is
unstable because of existence of one root on the right half of s-plane.
f) s4 + 2s3 + 3s2 + 4s + 5 = 0.

Solution
Array is shown
s4 1 3 5
s3
2 4 0
s2
1 5 0
s1
-6 0 0
s0
5 0 0
 CONCEPT OF STABILITY AND ROUTH-HURWITZ CRITERION 277

There are two sign changes in the first column of the array. Thus, there are two poles in the
right half of the s-plane. The system is, therefore, unstable.
g) s3 + 2s2 + s + 2 = 0

Solution
Array

s3 1 1 Remarks
Auxiliary equation
s2 2 2
s1 0 0 2s2 + 2 = 0
Its derivative
s1 4

s0 2 0 d
( 2 s 2 + 2) = 4 s
ds

There is no change in the sign of the entries in the first column. So, there is no root in the
right half of the s-plane. Hence, the system is stable.

Example 8.13 Find the range of values of k for which the system, represented by the
following expression, is stable.
s3 + 30s2 + 600s + 600k = 0.

Solution

s3 1 600
s2 30 600k
s 1
20(30 - k) 0
s0 600 k

For the system to be stable, all the values in the first column should be positive.
20(30 - k) > 0
or, 30 - k > 0
or, k < 30
and 600 k > 0, k > 0. Thus 0 < k < 30.
The range of values of k for which the system will be stable is 0 < k < 30.
278 CONTROL SYSTEmS ENgINEERINg

Example 8.14 Determine the range of k for stability of the following system.

Fig. 8.3

Solution
Closed-loop transfer function is,
k1
C ( s) s( s + s + 1)( s + 1)
2
=
R( s) k1
1+ 2
s( s + s + 1)( s + 1)
k1
= 4 .
s + 2s + 2s 2 + s + k1
3

Characteristic equation is
s4 + 2s3 + 2s2 + s + k1 = 0.

s4 1 2 K1
s3 2 1 0
s2
3/2 K1 0

s1 3 - 4 K1 0 0
3
s0 K1 0 0

For the system to be stable

3 − 4 K1
>0
3
or, K1 < 3/4
and K1 > 0
For the system to be stable the range of k1 is 0 < k1 < 3/4.
 CONCEPT OF STABILITY AND ROUTH-HURWITZ CRITERION 279

Example 8.15 Predict whether the following two given systems are stable or not.

12( s + 1)
i) G ( s) = , H ( s) = 1
s( s −1)( s + 5)

12
ii) G ( s) = , H ( s) = 1
s( s −1)( 2 s + 3)

Solution
i) Closed-loop transfer function
12( s + 1)
C ( s) s( s −1)( s + 5)
=
R( s) 12( s + 1)
1+
s( s −1)( s + 5)
12( s + 1)
=
s( s −1)( s + 5) + 12( s + 1)
12( s + 1)
= 3 .
s + 4 s 2 + 5s + 12

Characteristic equation s3 + 4s2 + 5s + 12 = 0.

Array
s3 1 5
s2 4 12
s1 2 0
s0
12 0

The system is stable because all the coefficients in the first column of the array are positive.
ii) Closed-loop transfer function
12
C ( s) s( s −1)( 2s + 3)
=
R( s) 12
1+
s( s −1)( 2 s + 3)
12
=
s( s −1)( 2 s + 3) + 10
12
= 3 .
2 s + s − 3s + 12
2
280 CONTROL SYSTEmS ENgINEERINg

Characteristic equation 2s3 + s2 - 3s + 12 = 0.

Array

s3 2 -3
s2 1 12
s1 -27 0
s0 12

The system is unstable because there are two changes in sign (positive values to negative
value and then to positive value), there are two roots in the right half of the s-plane.

Example 8.16 Check the following system for absolute stability

s5 + s4 + 3s3 + 9s2 + 16s + 10 = 0

Solution
Array
s5 1 3 16
s4 1 9 10
s3 -6 6 0
s2 10 10 0
s1 12 0 0
s0 10

There are two sign changes in the first column. Thus, there are two roots in the right half of
the s-plane. The system is unstable.

Example 8.17 Check the system represented by the following characteristic equation for
absolute stability s3 + 5s2 + 25s + 10 = 0.

Solution
Array
s3 1 25
s2 5 10
s1 23 0
s0 10 0
 CONCEPT OF STABILITY AND ROUTH-HURWITZ CRITERION 281

All the elements in the first column are positive. There is no root in the right half of the
s-plane. The system is, therefore, absolutely stable.