JVIT, Bidadi.

CONTROL SYSTEMS BEC403

Module 1
Modeling of Systems

In this chapter we attempt to familiarize the reader with the following topics:
 What is control system
 Why control systems are important
 What are the basic components of a control system
 Why feedback is incorporated into most control systems
 Types of control systems

Let’s begin with a simple question, when did your last use the word “Control”? Perhaps one may
have to think for a while. But the paradox is that one invariably uses this work almost in every walk
of life but fails to take notice. The following are a few common phrases we come across all the time.
 He has no control over his expenditure.
 I could not control my tears.
 The law-and-order situation in the city is out of control.
 Pest control in orchards.
 The doctor suggested strict diet control.
There are many new products and services being introduced every day that depend on control
systems yet they are not identified as control systems. The user of the system does not focus on the
control system, but on the results.

The principles of control system can be illustrated in many fields.

 In a simple transistor amplifier, a low-level signal applied to the vase will control a relatively
large level signal on the collector.
 By turning a key, the driver of an automobile can start a large H P engine.
 A person can lower the temperature in the room, simply by turning a knob on the air
conditioner.
 The driver of several tones’ automobile can control as motion by the simple use of steering
wheel, accelerator and brake pedal.

Definition of Control System:

A Control System can be defined as an interconnection of several components all working
together to perform a certain function. In most cases, this function is the control of physical
variable such as temperature, voltage, frequency, flow rate, current, position, hp speed,
illumination, altitude etc., these are called “Controlled Variables”.
Regardless of what type of control system we have the basic requirements ingredients of
the system can be described by: 1. Objectives of the control
2. Control system components
3. Results

In general, the objective of the control system is to control the outputs in some prescribed manner by
the inputs through the elements of the control system. The inputs of the system are also called
actuating signals and outputs are known as controlled variables.

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What is a Control system?

Disturban

Reference Output
Input + +
Amplifier Actuator Plant
_

Measurement

Objective: To make the system OUTPUT and the desired REFERENCE as close as possible, i.e., to make
the ERROR as small as possible.

Key Issues: 1) How to describe the system to be controlled? (Modeling)

2) How to design the controller? (Control)

System: An arrangement or combination of different physical components those are connected or

related together to form an entire unit to achieve a certain objective.
Control: The meaning of control is to regulate, direct or command a system, so that a desired
objective is obtained.
Control System: It is an arrangement of different physical elements or components connected
together, so as to regulate or command it to obtain a certain objective.
If the output control variable varies linearly with command signal, then the system is called “Linear
Control System”.

BLOCK DIAGRAM: A block diagram is a short hand symbol of a physical system, which pictorially
represents the systems. The interior of the block usually contains a description of the name of the
element of the symbol for the mathematical operation to be performed on the input to obtain the
output.
The basic requirements can be identified with inputs, system components and outputs respectively
as shown in figure:

System
Objective Control Result

System
Input Control Output

In general, the objective of the control system is to control output in response prescribed manner by
the input through the elements of the control system.

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Controller: It is the element of the system itself, or may be external to the system. It controls the
process.
Input: Is the stimulus or excitation signal that is applied to a control system to get a specified output.
Output: Is the actual response that is obtained from a control system due to the application of the
input. It may/may not be equal to the specified response implied by the input.
Plant: The portion of a system which is to be controlled or regulated.

Plant
Controlled Controlled
Input Output

Classification of Control Systems:

 Natural Control System: The system in side a human being or biological system.
 Man-Made Control System: The various control systems that are designed and developed by
man.
 Combined Control System: The combination of a natural control system and a man-made
control system.
 Discrete-Time Control System: If all the system variables of a control system are functions of
time.
 SISO System: If a control system has one input and one output.
 MIMO System: If a control system has multiple inputs and multiple outputs.

Based on the analysis and design:

 Linear control system
 Non-linear control system
 Time variant control system
 Time invariant control system

Based on the TYPE of the signal:

 Continuous data control system
 Discrete data control system

Based on the Performance:

 Open Loop Control System (OLCS)
 Closed Loop Control System (CLCS)

Depending upon the controlling action on output the systems are further classified as:
 OPEN-LOOP control system
 CLOSED-LOOP control system

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OPEN-LOOP control system: A system in which control action does not depend on output. Open loop
utilizes a controller (or) controlling devices to control the system process in such a way as to obtain
the desired output without considering the actual system output.
In open loop system the output can be varied by varying the input. But due to external disturbances
the system output may change.

r(t) u(t) C(t)

Controller Process Controlled
Reference
Output
Input
Examples: Bread toaster, electric hand drier, electric lift, traffic signals, sprinkler, automatic coffee
server, automatic washing machines, blind human being, etc.
 Advantages:
 These systems are simple in construction and design; hence maintenance is easy.
 These systems are economic.
 Stability problem is less.
 These systems are convenient to use when output is difficult to measure.

 Disadvantages:
 These systems are not accurate and reliable, because their accuracy is dependent on the
accuracy of calibration.
 In these systems, inaccurate results are obtained with parameter variation, i.e, internal
disturbances.
 Recalibration of the controller is required from time to time for maintaining quality and
accuracy.
 The changes in the output due to external disturbances are not corrected automatically.

CLOSED-LOOP control system: If controlling action of systems are some how dependent on output or
change in output.
Is a system in which the controlling action is somehow dependent upon the system output? Closed
loop control system measures the actual system output, compares it with the input and determines
the error which is then used for controlling the system output to have the desired value. Closed loop
control systems are more commonly called “Feed Back Control Systems”.

r(t) u(t) C(t)

Controller Process
Reference Controlled
Input Output

Feedback
Path

Examples: Speed control of motor using tacho-generator, water level controller, automatic electric
iron, missile launching system, voltage stabilizer, a human being, etc.

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 Advantages:

 In these systems accuracy is very high due to correction of any arising error.
 Since these systems sense environmental changes as well as internal disturbances, the
errors are modified.
 There is reduced effect of non-linearity in these systems, hence they are economic.
 There are facilities of automation in these systems.
 The sensitivity of the systems may be made small to make the system more stable.
 This type of systems is less affected by noise.

 Disadvantages:
 These systems are complex in design and hence costlier.
 These systems may become unstable.
 The feedback in closed loop system may lead to oscillatory response.
 The feedback reduces the overall gain of the system.
 Stability is a major problem in closed loop system and more care is needed to design
a stable closed loop system.

FEED BACK: Feed back is that property of a closed-loop system which permits the output to be
compared with the input to the system, so that appropriate control system action may be formed as
some function of the output and input.
More generally, feedback is said to exist in system when a closed sequence of cause-and-effect
relations exists between system variables.

The fundamental reasons for using feedback are as follows:

o Decrease the sensitivity to parameter variation.
o Improve transient or dynamic performance.
o Reduce the steady-state error.
o Feedback control can completely or partially eliminate the effect of disturbance signal.

Control Systems have many uses. Some of the places where control systems are used for accurate
control of action (working) are:-

 Domestic applications  Industrial applications

 Research applications  Defense applications
 Aerospace systems  Metallurgical applications
 Biological & Biomedical process  Transportation system
 Communication system  Automation system
 Social, economical and political
processes

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Mathematical Modeling of Control Systems:

The input and output relations of various physical components of a system are governed by
differential equations. The mathematical model of a control system constitutes a set of differential
equation. The response (or) output of the system can be studied by solving the differential
equations for various input conditions.
The differential equations of a linear time invariant system can be reshaped into differential form
for the convenience of analysis. One such model for single input and single output system analysis is
transfer function of the system.
The methods of obtaining differential equation of physical systems are by utilizing the physical laws
of the process. Depending upon the system, various well known physical laws like Newton’s laws,
Krichoff’s laws, etc. will be used to build mathematical models.

Mathematical Modeling of Mechanical Systems:

In the analysis of mechanical systems, it is convenient to make use of three idealized elements; such
as Mass, the spring and Damper. The variables of these elements are acceleration, displacement and
velocity.
The motion along straight line is called “Translational motion”.
The motion around the axis is called “Rotational motion”.
Here to analyze the mechanical systems, most important law used is “D ALEMBERT’s Principle” (the
sum of the differences between the generalized forces acting on a system and the time derivative of
the generalized moment of the system itself along an infinitesimal displacement compatible with the
constraint of the system (a virtual displacement), is ZERO.
It is equivalent to Newton’s second law. It states that; for any body, the algebraic sum of externally
applied forces resisting the motion in any given direction is ZERO.

  Applied forces   Re sisting force in a system

Translational Mechanical System:

1) Mass: When a force f(t) is applied to mass (M), this experiences an acceleration given
by the relations:

x (t)

f (t )  M  Acceleration
f (t )  M  dv(t ) / dt
Mass
f (t )  M  d 2 x(t ) / dt 2 (M)
M f (t)

Thus, the mass of the body is the co-efficient in the force equation and is the inertia of force per unit
acceleration.
f (t )
M  f (t ) / a 
d 2 x(t ) / dt 2

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2) Damping Force (Viscous Friction): The viscous friction is the frictional force experienced when
the body is in motion and this force is proportional to the velocity of the body. Thus:
x (t)

f B (t )  B  velocity
f B (t )  B  dx(t ) / dt B

Thus, the viscous friction is the co-efficient in the force equation and is the inertia of force per unit
velocity.
f (t )
B  f B (t ) / v 
dx(t ) / dt

3) Spring Force: Spring is an element which stores energy in the form of potential energy. The
linear spring is governed by “Hook’s LAW”. i.e., the resisting force of a spring is proportional to
the displacement.

x (t)
f k (t )  x(t )
f k (t )  K  x(t )
Spring constant (Stiffness of spring) : K  f K (t ) / x(t ) K

Rotational Mechanical System:

The rotational motion of a body may be defined as motion around a fixed axis and the system
possessing such type of rotation are called as rotational mechanical system.

The elements of rotational motion are angular displacement (), angular velocity (), torque (T),
angular acceleration (), moment of inertia (J), stiffness of the spring (S or K) and viscous friction
(B).
The entire analysis is similar to the translational system except for the basic difference is that
torque equation is written in place of the force equations.

The law governing this system is that the applied torque is equal to the sum of the reaction torques.

1) Inertia Element (J): Torque by the moment of inertia is directly proportional to an angular
acceleration ().

Moment of inertia equation,

J
TJ (t )  J  d (t ) / dt
T r 
TJ (t )  J  d 2 (t ) / dt 2

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2) Damper Element (B): Torque by the damping element is directly proportional to the angular
velocity.

Viscous friction equation,

TB (t )  B  (t ) B
TB (t )  B  d (t ) / dt
T r 

3) Torsional Spring (K): Torque of rotational spring is directly proportional to the angular
displacement.

TK (t )   (t )
TK (t )  K  (t )  K    dt
K T r 

RELATIONS:

Element Translational system Rotational system

Mass/Inertia f (t )  M  d 2 x(t ) / dt 2
M
TJ (t )  J  d 2 (t ) / dt 2
Damper f B (t )  B  dx(t ) / dt TB (t )  B  d (t ) / dt
Spring f k (t )  K  x(t ) TK (t )  K  (t )  K    dt

Guideline to determine the T.F of Mechanical System:

(Translational system)
 Differential equations governing the system are obtained by writing force balance equation
at nodes in the system.
 The linear displacements of the masses (nodes) are assumed as x1, x2, x3…etc. and assign a
displacement of each mass (node).
 Draw free body diagrams of the system, the free body diagram is obtained by drawing each
mass separately and then making all the forces acting on that node (mass).
[Always the opposing force acts in a direction opposite to applied force. The mass has to
move in the direction of the applied force. Thence the displacement, velocity and acceleration
of the mass will be the direction of the applied force]
 For each free body diagram write the differential equation by equating the sum of applied
force to the sum of opposing force.
 Take Laplace transformation of differential equation to convert them to algebraic equations.
Then rearrange to obtain ratio between output variable and input variable.

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