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SMA 202 Module - linear algebra notes

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KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

DIGITAL SCHOOL OF VIRTUAL AND OPEN LEARNING

SCHOOL OF PURE & APPLIED SCIENCES

MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT

UNIT CODE & NAME: SMA 202 LINEAR ALGEBRA I

BY

DR. LYDIA NJUGUNA

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Copyright © Kenyatta University, 2014

All Rights Reserved

Published By:

KENYATTA UNIVERSITY PRESS

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INTRODUCTION

Linear Algebra is an important part of Mathematical background required not only for
Mathematicians but also for other Scientists.

This module introduces the learner to the foundations of Linear Algebra. It begins with the
background information on matrices and their basic operations, determinants and inverses.
Matrices are later used in solving systems of linear equations. The module also covers
vectors, their basic operations and their application to equations of lines and planes in three
dimensions. Other topics include Vector spaces, linear independence and Independence.

The content is divided into thirteen short lectures. Each lecture begins with a brief
introduction and objectives before discussing the main content. Each concept is followed by
an activity which is intended to help the student test their understanding. In addition, answers
to selected self help questions are given at the ended of the module. Further reading is
suggested at the end of each lecture. This is intended to help the learner get exposed to other
approaches to concepts and hopefully to more challenging exercises.

The learner is strongly advised to do all the activities in each lecture before proceeding to the
next lecture.

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GENERAL OBJECTIVES

By the end of this module, learners should be able to:

1. Perform basic operations on matrices

2. Find the determinants of 2 X 2 and 3 X 3 matrices
3. Find the inverses of 2 X 2 and 3 X 3 matrices
4. Solve systems of linear equations using Gauss Jordan method, Cramer’s rule and
Inverse matrix method
5. Determine whether or not a given set of vectors is linearly dependent or linearly
independent
6. Perform basic operations on vectors
7. Find the equations of planes and lines in R 3
8. Determine the basis and dimension of given of given vector spaces

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

SMA 202: LINEAR ALGEBRA I................................................................................................1

Introduction......................................................................................................................................3
General
Objectives........................................................................................................................................4
Table of
contents............................................................................................................................................5

LECTURE ONE: MATRICES...................................................................................................11

Introduction....................................................................................................................................11
Lecture Objectives.........................................................................................................................11
1.1 Definitions...............................................................................................................................12
1.2 Operations on matrices..........................................................................................................13
1.3 Summary..................................................................................................................................15
1.4 Activity 1.................................................................................................................................15
1.5 Further Reading.......................................................................................................................16
1.6 Self Test Questions 1...............................................................................................................16

LECTURE TWO: PROPERTIES OF MATRIX OPERATIONS..........................................17

Introduction....................................................................................................................................17
Lecture Objectives.........................................................................................................................17
2.1 Transpose of a Matrix..............................................................................................................18
2.2 Properties of Matrix Operations ..............................................................................................19
2.3 Summary..................................................................................................................................20
2.4 Activity 2.................................................................................................................................20
2.5 Further Reading.......................................................................................................................21
2.6 Self Test Questions 2...............................................................................................................21
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LECTURE THREE: DETERMINANTS OF 2 ô 2 AND 3ô 3 MATRICES.........................22

Introduction....................................................................................................................................22
Lecture Objectives........................................................................................................................22
3.1 Determinants of 2 ô 2 and 3ô 3 Matrices.........................................................................23

3.2 Determinant of an n ô n matrix..........................................................................................24

3.3 Summary............................................................................................................................25
3.4 Activity 3...........................................................................................................................25
3.5 Further Reading.................................................................................................................26
3.6 Self Test Questions 3.........................................................................................................26

LECTURE FOUR: PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS....................................................27

Introduction....................................................................................................................................27
Lecture Objectives.........................................................................................................................27
4.1 Properties of Determinants......................................................................................................28
4.2 9Summary................................................................................................................................29
4.3 Activity 4.................................................................................................................................29
4.4 Further Reading.......................................................................................................................30
4.5 Self Test Questions 4...............................................................................................................30

LECTURE FIVE. INVERSES OF 2 x 2 AND 3 x 3 MATRICES...........................................31

Introduction....................................................................................................................................31
Lecture Objectives........................................................................................................................31
5.1 Inverse of a 2 X 2 Matrix........................................................................................................32
5.2 Inverse of a 3 x 3 Matrix........................................................................................................33
5.3 Summary..................................................................................................................................34
5.4 Activity 5.................................................................................................................................34

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5.5 Further Reading.......................................................................................................................35

5.6 Self Test Questions 5...............................................................................................................35

LECTURE SIX: ROW-ECHELON FORM......................................................................36

Introduction....................................................................................................................................36
Lecture Objectives........................................................................................................................36
6.1 Inverse of a Matrix (Row Reduction Method).........................................................................37
6.2 Echelon form of a Matrix.........................................................................................................38
6.3 Reduced Row-echelon form....................................................................................................39
6.4 Summary..................................................................................................................................40
6.5 Activity 6.................................................................................................................................40
6.6 Further Reading.......................................................................................................................41
6.7 Self Test Questions 6...............................................................................................................41

LECTURE SEVEN: SOLUTION OF SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS......................42

Introduction....................................................................................................................................42
Lecture Objectives.........................................................................................................................42
7.1 Solution of Systems of Linear Equations:...............................................................................43
7.2 Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method..........................................................................................44
7.3 Summary..................................................................................................................................47
7.4 Activity 7.................................................................................................................................47
7.5 Further Reading.......................................................................................................................48
7.6 Self Test Questions 7...............................................................................................................48

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LECTURE EIGHT: CRAMER’S RULE AND INVERSE MATRIX METHOD................49

Introduction....................................................................................................................................49
Lecture Objectives.........................................................................................................................49
8.1 Cramers Rule...........................................................................................................................50
8.2 Inverse Matrix Method...........................................................................................................52
8.3 Summary..................................................................................................................................53
8.4 Activity 8.................................................................................................................................53
8.5 Further Reading.......................................................................................................................54
8.6 Self Test Questions 8...............................................................................................................54

LECTURE NINE: VECTORS...................................................................................................55

Introduction....................................................................................................................................55
Lecture Objectives.........................................................................................................................55
9.1 Vectors (Co-Ordinate Systems).........................................................................................56
9.2 Dot product and cross product.........................................................................................58
9.3 Summary............................................................................................................................61
9.4 Activity 9...........................................................................................................................61
9.5 Further Reading.................................................................................................................62
9.6 Self Test Questions 9.........................................................................................................62

LECTURE TEN: VECTOR SPACES.......................................................................................63

Introduction....................................................................................................................................63
Lecture Objectives.........................................................................................................................63
10.1 Vector Spaces.....................................................................................................................64
10.2 Subspace of a vector Space...............................................................................................66
10.3 Summary............................................................................................................................67
10.4 Activity 10.........................................................................................................................67
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10.5 Further Reading.................................................................................................................68

10.6 Self Test Questions 10.......................................................................................................68

LECTURE ELEVEN: LINEAR COMBINATIONS................................................................69

Introduction....................................................................................................................................69
Lecture Objectives.........................................................................................................................69
11.1 Linear Combinations..........................................................................................................70
11.2 Summary............................................................................................................................73
11.3 Activity 11.........................................................................................................................73
11.4 Further Reading.................................................................................................................74
11.5 Self Test Questions 11.......................................................................................................74

LECTURE TWELVE: LINEAR DEPENDENCE AND INDEPENDENCE......................75

Introduction....................................................................................................................................75
Lecture Objectives.........................................................................................................................75
12.1 Linear Dependence and Independence..............................................................................76
12.2 Basis and Dimension.........................................................................................................79
12.3 Summary............................................................................................................................81
12.4 Activity 12.........................................................................................................................81
12.5 Further Reading.................................................................................................................82
12.6 Self Test Questions 12.......................................................................................................82

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LECTURE THIRTEEN: PLANES AND LINES IN 3 ...........................................................83

Introduction....................................................................................................................................83
Lecture Objectives.........................................................................................................................83
13.1 The Vector Equation of a line............................................................................................84
13.2 Equation of a Plane...........................................................................................................86
13.3 Summary............................................................................................................................88
13.4 Activity 13.........................................................................................................................88
13.5 Further Reading.................................................................................................................89
13.6 Self Test Questions 13.......................................................................................................89

CHAPTER 14: ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

Self Test Questions 1.....................................................................................................................90

Self Test Questions 2.....................................................................................................................90

Self Test Questions 3.....................................................................................................................90

Self Test Questions 4.....................................................................................................................90

Self Test Questions 5.....................................................................................................................91

Self Test Questions 6.....................................................................................................................91

Self Test Questions 7.....................................................................................................................91

Self Test Questions 8.....................................................................................................................92

Self Test Questions 9.....................................................................................................................92

Self Test Questions 10...................................................................................................................92

Self Test Questions 11...................................................................................................................93

Self Test Questions 12...................................................................................................................93

Self Test Questions 13...................................................................................................................93

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LECTURE ONE
MATRICES

LECTURE TITLE
INTRODUCTION

This lecture is divided into two subtopics.

In the first subtopic, the learner is introduced to the concept of matrices. Basic definitions are
given including the order of a matrix, equal matrices, row matrix, column matrix e.t.c.

The second subtopic deals with operations on matrices. These include addition, subtraction,
scalar multiplication, dot product and matrix multiplication.

Each concept is illustrated by several examples. An activity in the form of an exercise is

given at the end of the lecture.

Answers to the self test questions in Section 1.6 have been provided at the end of the module.

For further understanding, the learner is encouraged to read the books recommended in
Section 1.5

LECTURE OBJECTIVE

By the end of this lecture, the learner should be able to perform basic operations on matrices
Including addition, subtraction, scalar multiplication and matrix multiplication.

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1.1 DEFINITIONS
Matrices are used as a shorthand for keeping essential data arranged in rows and columns i.e
matrices are used to summarize data in tabular form.
Definition: A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers, usually enclosed in
parenthesis or square brackets. Capital (Upper – case) letters are used to denote matrices.
Order of a Matrix
The size of a Matrix is specified by the number of rows (horizontal) and the number of
columns (vertical).

A general matrix of order m ô n is

ù a11
úa
a12 ü a1n ù
 
ý a ij
a 22 ü a 22 úú
A ý ú 21 i  ith row
ú ý ú
ú ú j  jth column
ûa n1 an2 ü a mn û

A Square Matrix is a one with the same number of rows and columns i.e
m ô m matrix. Two matrices are of the same size if they have the same order.
A vector is a matrix with one row (1 ô n) or one column (n ô 1). A row vector is of the form
1 ô n, and a column vector is of the form m ô 1.
A zero matrix of order m ô n is the matrix with aij ý 0 i ý 1, ü m, j ý 1û n .
Similarly we talk of zero rows and column vector.

ù0 ù
ú0 ú
0 ý ø0,0, ü0ù or ú ú
úýú
ú ú
û0 û

Equal Matrices:
Two matrices A & B are said to be equal if they have the same order (size)
m ô n and aij ý bij i & j

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1.2 OPERATIONS ON MATRICES

Addition and Subtraction of matrices

This is performed on matrices of the same order (size). Let A and B be m ô n matrices.

A + B = ùûaij ùû  ùûbij ùû ý ùûaij  bij ùû ý ùûcij ùû ø m ô n ù

Scalar Multiplication
This is performed on any matrix and the resulting matrix is the same size
. c A ý c ùûaij ùû ý ùûcaij ùû . Each entry is multiplied by same number (scalar).
 
Dot product: let a and b be any two vector of size n (matrices with a single column or
row).
     
a =  a1 , a2 , an  , b ý ø b1 , b2 , bn ù . The dot product of a & b denoted a  b , is given by
  n
a  b ý a1b1 û a2b2 û û anbn ý õ a i bi .The dot product is also scalar product.
i ý1
Dot product of a row & column vector of order n.
ù b1 ù
úb ú n  
ø a1 , a2 an ù úú 2 úú ý a1b1 û a2b2 û û anbn ý õ aibi ý a  b
i ý1
ú ú
ûbn û

Matrix Multiplication:
Let A ý aik  be an m ô n matrix, and B ý ùûbkj ùû an n ô s matrix. The matrix product AB is
the m ô s matrix C ý ùûcij ùû where c ij the dot product of the ith row of A and the jth column of
B.
n
i.e. AB ý C ,  aik  ùûbkj ùû = ùûcij ùû ; C ij ý Ai  B j ý õa ik bkj
k ý1
Remark:
1.Let A ø m ô n ù , B ø s ô r ù be two matrices .
C ý AB exists iff n ý s & C is m ô n
C ý BA exists iff r ý m & C is s ô n
2. It’s possible for AB to be defined while BA is not defined. i.e. matrix multiplication is not
commutative.

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1.2 OPERATIONS ON MATRICES (Continued)

Examples

ö1  2 3 ö ö 3 0 2ö
1. Let A ý ÷÷ ÷÷ and B ý ÷÷ ÷÷ . Then
ø 4 5  6ø ø 7 1 8ø

ö 1 û 3  2 û 0 3 û 2 ö ö 4  2 5ö
A û B ý ÷÷ ÷÷ ý ÷÷ ÷÷
ø 4  7 5 û 1  6 û 8ø ø  3 6 2 ø

ö 3  1 3  ø 2ù 33 ö ö 3 6 9 ö
2. 3A ý ÷÷ ÷ ý÷ ÷
ø3  4 35 3  ø 6ù÷ø ÷ø12 15  18 ÷ø
ö2  4 6 ö ö9 0 6 ö ö7  4 0 ö
3. 2 A  3B ý ÷÷ ÷÷ û ÷÷ ÷÷ ý ÷÷ ÷÷
ø 8 10  12 ø ø 21  3  24 ø ø 29 7  36 ø

ö 1 2 öö 1 1 ö ö 1  1 û 2  0 1  1 û 2  2 ö ö 1 5 ö
4. ÷÷ ÷÷÷÷ ÷÷ ý ÷÷ ÷÷ ý ÷÷ ÷÷
ø 3 4 øø 0 2 ø ø 3  1 û 4  0 3  1 û 4  2 ø ø 3 11ø

ö 1 1 öö 1 2 ö ö 11 û 1 3 1 2 û 1 4 ö ö 4 6 ö
÷÷ ÷÷÷÷ ÷÷ ý ÷÷ ÷÷ ý ÷÷ ÷÷
ø 0 2 øø 3 4 ø ø 0 1 û 2  3 0  2 û 2  4 ø ø 6 8 ø
The above example shows that matrix multiplication is not commutative, i.e.the products
AB and BA of matrices need not be equal.

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1.3 SUMMARY.

In this lecture we have defined a matrix, the order of a matrix, equal matrices, row matrix,
column matrix and square matrix

We have also learnt how to perform addition, subtraction, scalar multiplication, dot product
and multiplication of matrices.

1.4 ACTIVITY 1

ö2 5 1 ö ö 1  2  3ö ö 0 1  2ö
5. Let A ý ÷÷ ÷÷ , B ý ÷÷ ÷÷ , C ý ÷÷ ÷÷ .Find 3 A û 4B  2C .
ø 3 0  4ø ø 0 1 5 ø ø 1 1 1 ø

öx yö ö x 6 ö ö 4 x û yö
6. Find x, y, z and w if 3÷÷ ÷÷ ý ÷÷ ÷÷ û ÷÷ ÷÷
ø z w ø ø  1 2 w ø ø z û w 3 ø

ö 1  2ö ö  3  1ö
7. Find AB and BA if (a) A = ÷÷ ÷÷ B= ÷÷ ÷÷
ø 5 4 ø ø 4 6 ø

ö 5 5  2ö ö 1 4ö
(b) A ý ÷÷ ÷÷ B ý ÷÷ ÷÷
ø 4 1  3 ø ø  1 2 ø

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1.5 FURTHER READING

1. Linear Algebra by Fraleigh & Beauregard

2. Linear Algebra: Schaum’s Outline Series
3. Linear Algebra by J. N. Sharma, A.R. Vasishta

1.6 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS 1

ö1 3 ö ö 2 0  4ö
1. Let A ý ÷÷ ÷÷ and B ý ÷÷ ÷÷ . Find (a) AB , (b) BA
ø 2  1ø ø3  2 6 ø

ö1  2 0 ö
2. Given A ý ø2,1ù and B ý ÷÷ ÷÷ , find (a) AB , (b) BA
ø 4 5  3ø

ö 2  1ö
÷ ÷ ö1  2  5ö
3. Given A ý ÷ 1 0 ÷ and B ý ÷÷ ÷ , find (a) AB , (b) BA
÷3 4 ÷ ø3 4 0 ÷ø
ø ø

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LECTURE TWO

PROPERTIES OF MATRIX OPERATIONS

LECTURE TITLE
INTRODUCTION

In this lecture we deal with the transpose of a matrix ad also properties of matrix operations.

The subtopic introduces the learner to the transpose of a matrix. The definition is given,
followed by a number of properties.

The second subtopic deals with properties of matrix operations. These include additive
commutativity, of additive and multiplicative associativity, distributive laws etc.

Each concept is illustrated by several examples. An activity in the form of an exercise is

given at the end of the lecture.

Answers to the self test questions in Section 2.6 have been provided at the end of the module.

For further understanding, the learner is encouraged to read the books recommended in
Section 2.5

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, the learner should be able to

1. Find the transpose of a given matrix.

2. Identify and verify properties of the transpose of a matrix.

3. Identify and verify properties of matrix operations like additive commutativity,

additive and multiplicative associativity, distributive laws etc.

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2.1 TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX

The transpose of the matrix A is matrix B ý AT , such that bij ý a ji i.e. the rows become
columns and vice versa.

1. If A ý AT , we say A is symmetric. (only for a square matrix). If A is symmetric,

a) A AT and A û AT are symmetric.
b) A k symmetric  k
c) If A, B are symmetric, ñ A û BA is symmetric.
2. If AT ý  A , we say A is skew symmetric. In that case,
(a) A  AT is skew symmetric
(b) If A, B are skew symmetric, ñ 4 û B A is skew symmetric.
3. If A, S are n ô n (square) matrices and A is symmetric, then S T A S , S A S T are
symmetric
4. Every square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric &
skew-symmetric matrix. i.e. A ý øA û AT ù û øA  AT ù
1 1
2 2
S ( A) ý øA û AT ù is the symmetric part; K ø Aù ý øA  AT ù is the skew-symmetric part.
1 1
2 2
5. If A is n ô n and f øx ù any polynomial, then f AT ý  f ( A)
T
ø ù

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2.2 PROPERTIES OF MATRIX OPERATIONS

1. A û B ý B û A - Addition is commutative
2. ø A û Bù û C ý A û øB û C ù - Addition is associative
3. A û 0 ý 0 û A ý A, 0 is the identity for addition
4. ñ ø A û Bù ý ñA û ñB , left distributive law.
5. øñ û ò ùA ý ñA û òA , right distributive law
6. øñ ò ùA ý ñ øòAù , associativity of scalar multiplication
7. øñ AùB ý Aøñò ù  scalar pull through
8. ø A Bù C ý AøBC ù - associativity of matrix multiplication
9. 1n A ý A , AI m ý A , A ø m ô m ù - identity for matrix multiplication
10. AøB û C ù ý AB û AC , left distributive law
11. ø A û Bù C ý AC û BC , right distributive law
12. ATø ù T
ýA
13. ø A û BùT ý AT û B T - transpose of the sum=sum of transpose
14. ø AB ùT ý B T AT - transpose of product = product of transpose
ø AB ùú ý B ú Aú .
Proof of most of these properties involve routine computations.

Show that ø A  B ùø A û B ù ý A 2  B 2 iff AB ý BA i.e A & B commute

Solution:
 Suppose ø A  B ùø A û B ù ý A 2  B 2 and show that A & B commute.
A 2  B 2 ý ø A  B ùø A û Bù
ý Aø A û Bù  Bø A û Bù
ý A 2 û AB  BA  B 2
Hence AB  BA ý 0 ; AB ý BA and so A& B commute.
 Assume A & B commute & show that ø A  B ùø A û B ù ý A 2  B 2
Since A & B commute AB ý BA
ø A  Bùø A û Bù ý Aø A û Bù  Bø A û Bù
ý A 2 û AB  BA  B 2
but AB ý BA; ý A 2 û AB  AB  B 2 ý A 2  B 2

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2.3 SUMMARY

In this lecture, we have learnt how to find the transpose of a given matrix and to identify and
verify their properties. We have also studied the properties of matrix operations including
additive commutativity, additive and multiplicative associativity and distributive laws.

2.4 ACTIVITY 2

ö1 2ö ö 2 1ö
1. Given A ý ÷ ÷,B ý÷ ÷ , show that ø AB ù ý B A .
T T T

ø3 5ø ø 1 3ø
ö 2 1ö ö1 2ö
2. Let A ý ÷ ÷, Bý÷ ÷
ø3 1 ø ø0 1ø
(a)Find AT
(b)Calculate AT BA
(c)Use your results in (b) above to determine whether or not AT BA is symmetric.

3. For what values of x, y and z is the following matrix symmetric?

ùx y zù
ú 2 0 3ú
ú ú
úû 4 3 3úû

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2.5 FURTHER READING

1. Linear Algebra by Michael O’nan, Herbert Enderton

2. A First Course in Linear Algebra by Daniel Zelisky
3. Elementary Linear Algebra by Bennard Kolman
4. Elementary Linear Algebra by Howard Anton

2.6 SELF-TEST QUESTION 2

ö1 0 1 0ö
÷ ÷
1. Find the transpose A of the matrix A ý ÷ 2 3 4 5 ÷
t

÷ 4 4 4 4÷
ø ø

ö1 2 0ö
2. Let A ý ÷÷ ÷÷ . Find (a) AAt , (b) At A
ø 3  1 4 ø LECTURE THREE

DETERMINANTS OF 2ô 2 AND 3ô 3 MATRICES

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LECTURE THREE
DETERMINANTS OF 2 ô 2 AND 3ô 3 MATRICES

INTRODUCTION

This lecture is divided into two subtopics.

LECTURE TITLE
The first subtopic covers determinants of 2 ô 2 and 3ô 3 matrices. In each case, several
worked out examples are given

The second subtopic deals with a general formula for finding the determinant of n ô n
matrices.

An activity in the form of an exercise is given at the end of the lecture.

Answers to the self test questions in Section 3.6 have been provided at the end of the module.

For further understanding, the learner is encouraged to read the books recommended in
Section 3.5

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, the learner should be able to:

1. Find the determinants of a 2 ô 2 matrix

2. Find the determinants of a 3ô 3 matrix

3. Use the general formula for finding the determinant of n ô n matrices to find the
determinants of a 4 X 4 and 5 X 5 matrix

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3.1 DETERMINANTS OF 2 ô 2 AND 3ô 3 MATRICES

ùa a12 ù a a
Let A ý ú 11 ú . Det A ý 11 12 ý a11 a22  a12 a21 . The determinant is a scalar.
EEûa 21 a 22 û a21 a22
Examples:
ü ü
1. Find the value of ü such that ý0.
3 ü2
1û x 1 LECTURE TITLE
2. Let ý find x.
2 û 2x 2
x 3
3. Let ý 4 . Find x.
2 2x û 1

3ô 3 Matrices
ù a11 a12 a13 ù
Let A ý úúa 21 a 22 a 23 úú
úûa 31 a 32 a 33 úû

a11 a12 a12

a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22
det A ý a21 a22 a23 ý a11  a12 û a13
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
a31 a32 a33
ý a11 øa 22 a33  a 23a32 ù  a12 øa 21a33  a 23 a31 ù û a13 øa 21a32 ù
ý a11 a 22 a33  a11 a 23 a32  a12 a 21 a33 û a12 a 23 a31 û a13 a 21 a32  a13 a 22 a31
ý a11 a 22 a33 û a12 a 23 a31 û a13 a 21 a32  a11 a 23 a32  a12 a 21 a33  a13 a 22 a31

Note: This is a sum of 6 products, 3 positive and 3 negative. Each product has exactly one factor from
each row and column.

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DETERMINANT OF AN n ô n MATRIX
3.2
For a large square matrix the determinant is a sum of products, half of which have minus
signs added. Each product will have exactly one factor from each row and one factor from
each column.
There are n! summations.

3 1 2
1. Evaluate  1  1 4
 2 1 1
3 1 2
Solution:  1  1 4 ý 3[ø 1ù1 û 1ø 4 ù] 1[1(1) û 8] û 2[1  2] ý 0
 2 1 1

1 3 1
2. Evaluate 2 1 2
1 1 2
1 3 1
1 2 2 2 2 1
Solution: 2 1 2 =1 3 û1 ý 1ø4ù  3ø2ù û 1ø 3ù ý  5
1 2 1 2 1 1
1 1 2

1 2 3 1
2 1 2 0
3. Evaluate
1  2 1 1
1 1 3 3
1 2 3 1
1 2 0 2 2 0 2 1 0 2 1 2
2 1 2 0
Solution: ý 1 2 1 1  2 1 1 1 û 3 1 2 1  1 1 2 1
1  2 1 1
1 3 3 1 3 3 1 1 3 1 1 3
1 1 3 3
ý 1ø4ù  2ø 4ù û 3 ø 6ù  1 ø 6ù ý 0

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3.3 SUMMARY

In this lecture, we have learnt how to find the determinants of a 2 ô 2 matrix and a 3ô 3
matrix. We have also used the general formula for finding the determinant of n ô n matrices to
find the determinants of a 4 X 4 and 5 X 5 matrix

3.4 ACTIVITY 3
c 3c
1. Find the value of c such that ý 2
1 c
ùü ü ù
2. Find the value of ü if the matrix A ý ú
2úû
is singular.
û3 ü
2 3 4
3. Find 1 1 1
4 1 2
4. Determine the values of x for which the determinant of A is zero where
öx 2 4 3 ö
÷ ÷
A= ÷ 1 x û1  2 ÷
÷ 0 x  4 ÷ø
ø 0
2 3 4
5. Evaluate 0  4 2
1 1 5

ö 5 4 2 1 ö
÷ ÷
÷ 2 3 1  2÷
6. Compute the determinant of A ý ÷
5 7 3 9 ÷
÷ ÷
÷ 1  2 1 4 ÷
ø ø

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3.5 FURTHER READING

1. Linear Algebra by Fraleigh & Beauregard

2. Linear Algebra: Schaum’s Outline Series
3. Elementary Linear Algebra by Howard Anton

3.6 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS 3

1. Evaluate the determinant of each matrix:

ö 3  2ö öa b a ö
(a) ÷÷ ÷÷ , (b) ÷÷ ÷
ø4 5 ø ø b a û b ÷ø

3 2 ab a
(i) ý 3  5  ø 2ù  4 ý 23 (ii) ý øa  b ùøa û b ù  a  a ý b 2
4 5 b aûb

k k
2. Determine those values of k for which ý 0.
4 2k

k k
ý 2k 2  4k ý 0 , or 2k øk  2ù ý 0 .Hence k ý 0 ;and k ý 2 .That is, if k ý 0 or k ý 2 , the
4 2k
determinant is zero.
3. Compute the determinant of each matrix:

ö 1 2 3ö ö2 0 1 ö ö2 0 1 ö
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
(a) ÷ 4  2 3 ÷ (b) ÷ 4 2  3 ÷ (c) ÷ 3 2  3÷
÷ 2 5 1÷ ÷5 3 1 ÷ ÷1  3 5 ÷
ø ø ø ø ø ø

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LECTURE FOUR
PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS

LECTURE TITLE
INTRODUCTION

In this lecture, the learner is introduced to the concept of properties of determinants of

matrices, which can be used to find the determinant of a matrix from the determinant of
another matrix.

The concept is illustrated by several examples. An activity in the form of an exercise is given
at the end of the lecture.

Answers to the self test questions in Section 4.5 have been provided at the end of the module.

For further understanding, the learner is encouraged to read the books recommended in
Section 4 .4

LECTURE OBJECTIVE

By the end of this lecture, the learner should be able to use properties of determinants of
matrices to find the determinant of a given matrix from the determinant of another matrix.

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4.1 PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS

1. Det (AB) = Det A . Det B

2. If one row or column of A is multiplied by scalar r to get B, det (B) = r det A

3. If row i = 0 or column j = 0, det A =0.

4. For an n ô n matrix, det (r A) = r n det A

5. If two rows or columns are identical det A = 0

6. If one row or column is a scalar multiple of another, det A = 0.

7. Adding a scalar multiple of a row or a column to another row or column respectively

leaves the determinant unchanged.

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4.2 SUMMARY

In this lecture, we have learnt to use properties of determinants of matrices to find the
determinant of a given matrix from the determinant of another matrix.

4.3 ACTIVITY 4
2 3 4 18 21 6
1. (a) Evaluate 5 6 7 (b) Hence find 5 6 7
8 9 1 8 9 1

Using properties of determinants, evaluate:

4 2 2 0
4 0 0 4 1 3
3 0 2 1 2 0 0 0
2. 3. 4. 0 2 0 5. 2 3 0 6.
2 1 4 3 3 0 0 1
0 0 3 1 3 2
0 0 1 0
4 2 3 4
4 2 0 3 4 2 4 3 5
3 2 1 5 2 2
7. 8. 9. 0  2 5 10. 2 5 0 11. 5 2 0
2 0 1 3 3 1
0 0 3 3 0 0 2 0 4
8 2 6 4
4 0 0 0 2 0 1 4
1 2 0 0 3 2 4 2
12. 13.
1 2 3 0 2 3 1 0
1 5 3 5 11 8  4 6

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4.4 FURTHER READING

1. Linear Algebra by J. N. Sharma, A.R. Vasishta

2. Linear Algebra by Michael O’nan, Herbert Enderton
3. A First Course in Linear Algebra by Daniel Zelisky

4.5 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS 4

Evaluate
1 2 3 5 0 9 4 3 2 4 3 2
1. 2  1 3 2. 2  1 3 3. 3  2 5 4. 3  2 5
1 0 1 1 0 1 2 4 6 1 2 3

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LECTURE FIVE

INVERSES OF 2 x 2 AND 3 x 3 MATRICES

LECTURE TITLE
INTRODUCTION

This lecture is divided into two subtopics.

The first subtopic deals with inverses of 2 x 2 of matrices while the second one covers the
inverses of 3 x 3 matrices.

However this lecture restricts itself to the method of using the adjoint of a matrix to find the
inverses. Row reduction method is covered in the following lecture.

Each concept is illustrated by several examples. An activity in the form of an exercise is

given at the end of the lecture.

Answers to the self test questions in Section 5.6 have been provided at the end of the module.

For further understanding, the learner is encouraged to read the books recommended in
Section 5.5

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, the learner should be able to find the inverses of 2 x 2 and 3 x 3
matrices using the method of the adjoint of a matrix.

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5.1 INVERSE OF A 2 X 2 MATRIX

ùa b ù 1 ù d  cù
Let A ý ú ú det A ý ad  bc  0 ; A 1 ý
ûc d û ad  bc úû c a úû
Note:
1 ùa b ù ù d  bù 1 ùad  bc  ab û abù ù1 0ù
A A 1 ý ý ý ad  bc  0
ú ú
ad  bc û c d û û c a û ad  bc úûcd  cd
ú ú sd  bc úû úû0 1úû

Let A ý ùû aij ùû be a square matrix. The classical adjoint of A is the matrix

T
ø ù
adj ø Aù ý ùû aij ùû , aij ' ý ø 1ù det Aij where a ij is the øi, j ù cofactor of A.
iû j

1
A 1 ý adj ø Aù
det ø Aù

ù a b ù ù a11 a12 ù
For a 2 x 2 matrix A ý ú úýú ú
û c d û û a21 a22 û
T
ù a11 ' a12 ù ù d  bù ù d  bù
T
ù d  cù 1
Adj(A) = ú ú = ú ú = ú ú ; A 1 ý ú c a ú
ûa 21 ' a 22 'û û b d û û c a û ad  bc û û

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5.2 INVERSE OF A 3 X 3 MATRIX

T T
ù a11 a12 a13 ù ù a11 ' a12 ' a13 'ù ù A11  A12 A13 ù
Let A ý úúa 21 a 22 a 23 úú ; Adj (A) = úa ' a ' a 'ú = ú  A A22
ú
 A23 ú
ú 21 22 23 ú ú 21
úû a11 a 32 a 33 úû úûa 31 ' a 32 ' a 33 'úû úû A31  A32 A33 úû
a 22 a 23 a a 23
A11 ý ý a 22 a33  a 23 a 32 ; A12 ý 21 ý a 21 a33  a 23 a31
a32 a 33 a31 a33
a 21 a 22 a a13
A13 ý ý a 21 a32  a 22 a 31 ; A21 ý 12 ý a12 a 33  a13a 32
a 31 a 32 a32 a33
a11 a13 a11 a12
A22 ý ý a11 a33  a31 a13 ; A23 ý ý a11 a32  a12 a 31
a 31 a33 a31 a32

a12 a13 a11 a13

A31 ý ý a12 a 23  a13 a 22 ; A32 ý ý a11 a 23  a13 a 21
a 22 a 23 a 21 a 23

a11 a12 1
A33 ý ý a11 a 22  a12 a 21 ; Det A ý a11 A11  a12 A12 û a13 A13 ; A 1 ý adj(A)
a 21 a 22 det A

ù4 0 1ù
Examples: Find the inverse of A ý úú2 2 0úú
úû3 1 1úû
Solution:
2 0 2 0 2 2
Det A = 4 0 û1 ý 4ø2ù  0 û 1 ø2  6ù ý 8  4 ý 4 ; Therefore, A 1 exists.
1 1 3 1 3 1

T
ù A11  A12 A13 ù
ú ú
adj ( A) ý ú A21 A22  A23 ú 2 0 2 2
úû A31 A11 ý ý2 A13 ý ý 4
 A32 A33 úû 1 1 2 0 3 1
;
; A12 ý ý 2; ;
3 1
0 1 4 1 4 0 0 1 4 1
A21 ý ý 1 ; A22 ý ý 1 ; A23 ý ý 4 ; A31 ý ý2 A32 ý ý 2
1 1 3 1 3 1 2 0 2 0
ù 2  2  4ù  12 ù
T
ù 2 1  2ù ù 12 1
4

ý 8 ý 8 adj ( A) ý úú 1 1  4úú ý úú 2 1 2 úú ; A1 ý úú 12 14 1 ú

4 0
A33 ý 2 ú
2 2
úû 2 2 8 úû úû 4  4 8 úû úû  1  1 2 úû

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5.3 SUMMARY

In this lecture we have learnt to find the inverses of 2 x 2 and 3 x 3 matrices using the
method of the adjoint of a matrix.

5.4 ACTIVITY 5
ö2 0 1ö
÷ ÷
1. Let A ý ÷ 4 2 3 ÷ .Find A1
÷5 3 1 ÷ø
ø
ö1 2 1ö
÷ ÷
2. Let A ý ÷ 3 4 2 ÷
÷5 3 5 ÷ø
ø
ùü ü ù
3. Find the value of ü if the matrix A ý ú
2úû
is singular.
û3 ü
ù2  5 2 ù
4. Let A= úú1 2  4úú
úû3  4  6úû
(a)Find det A
(b)Find Adj (A)
(c)Hence find A 1
ö1 2 3ö
÷ ÷
5. Let A = ÷ 6 5 4 ÷ Find A1
÷2 0 7÷
ø ø

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5.5 FURTHER READING

1. Linear Algebra by Fraleigh & Beauregard

2. Elementary Linear Algebra by Bennard Kolman
3. Elementary Linear Algebra by Howard Anton

5.6 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1
Find A if
ö 2 3  4ö ù1 2 3ù
÷ ÷
1. A = ÷ 0  4 2 ÷ 2. A ý úú 2 3 1 úú
÷ 1 1 5 ÷ úû 4 5  2úû
ø ø

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LECTURE SIX
ROW-ECHELON FORM

LECTURE TITLE
INTRODUCTION

This lecture is divided into three sections, each section dealing with a specific subtopic.

The first subtopic covers the inverse of a matrix using row reduction method, while the
second one covers the general concept of reducing a matrix to echelon form.

Finally, the learner is introduced to the canonical form of a matrix.

Each concept is illustrated by several examples. An activity in the form of an exercise is

given at the end of the lecture.

Answers to the self test questions in Section 6.7 have been provided at the end of the module.

For further understanding, the learner is encouraged to read the books recommended in
Section 6.6

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, the learner should be able to:

1. Find the inverse of a matrix using row reduction method

2. Reduce a given matrix to echelon form.

3. Reduce a given matrix to canonical form.

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6.1 INVERSE OF A MATRIX (ROW REDUCTION METHOD)

The inverse of a matrix a can be found using row reduction to echelon form of the augmented
ø ù
matrix (A/I) to get I / A 1 .

Example:
ù4 0 1ù
Find the inverse of A ý úú2 2 0úú
úû3 1 1úû

Solution:
ù 4 0 1 1 0 0ù ù4 0 1 1 0 0ù
ú ú ú ú
ú2 2 0 0 1 0ú 2 R2  R1  ú 0 4 1 1 2 0 ú
úû3 1 1 0 0 1úû 4 R3  3R1 úû 0 4 1 3 0 4 úû R3  R2
ù 4 0 1 1 0 0 ù 2 R1  R3 ù8 0 0 4 2 4 ù R1 8
ú ú ú ú
ú 0 4 1 1 2 0 ú 2 R2 û R3  ú0 8 0 4 2 4 ú R 2 8
úû 0 0 2 2 2 4 úû úû0 0 2 2 2 4 úû R 3 2
ù1 0 0 12 1
4  12 ù ù 12 1
4
 12 ù
ú ú ú 1 ú
 ú0 1 0  1 2 1 4 1 2 ú ; Inverse ú 12 14 2 ú
úû0 0 1 1 1 2 úû úû  1  1 2 úû

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6.2 ECHELON FORM OF A MATRIX

A m ô n matrix B is said to be in row echelon form if it is of the form.
ùb11 b12 b13 ü b1n ù
ú0 b b23 ü b xn ú
ú 22 ú
ú0 0 b33 ü b3n ú
ú ú
Býú ý ý ý ý ú if m þ n
ú0 0 û bii ü bin ú
ú ú
úý ý ý ú
ú0 0 ü bmm bmn úû
û

ùb11 b12 b13 û bin ù

ú0 b b23 û b2 n úú
ú 22

ú0 0 b33 ü b3n ú
ú ú
Býú ý ý  ú if n þ m
ú0 0 0 ü bnn ú
ú ú
ú0 0 0 ü 0 ú
ú0 û û 0 úû
û 0

ùb11 b12 ü bin ù

ú0 b ü b2 n úú
ú 22

ú ý ú
Býú ú mýn
ú  ý ú
ú üú
ú ú
ûú  bnn ûú

Note:
For a matrix in echelon form, for subsequent rows, the non-zero entries occur in later and later
columns.

For a matrix in echelon form, all entries below the main diagonal are zero. Given any matrix B
(not in echelon form) we perform the following elementary row operations to change it to
echelon form:
1. Change the order of the rows (interchange some rows)
2. Multiply one row by a nonzero constant.
3. Add a multiple of one row to a nonzero multiple of another row.

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6.3 REDUCED ROW-ECHELON FORM

Definition: A matrix is said to be in reduced row echelon form (canonical form) if:
1. Each nonzero row begins with a pivot entry 1. (Leading 1 of the row)
2. The rest of the columns containing the pivot entry 1 consists of 0s.
3. In subsequent rows, the pivot entries occur in later and later columns.
4. The all-zero rows are at the bottom (they are the unused rows).
Examples
ù3 4  1 1ù
1. Reduce úú1  1 3 1úú to reduced row-echelon (canonical) form.
úû4  3 11 2úû

ù3 4  1 1ù ù1  1 3 1 ù
Solution: úú1  1 3 1úú R1  R2 ú 3 4  1 1 ú R  3R
ú ú 2 1

úû4  3 11 2úû úû4  3 11 2úû R3  4 R1

ù1 1 3 1ù ù1 1 3 1 ù R1 û R2 ù1 0 117 5
ù
ú 2ú
7
ú ú 10 ú ú
 ú0 7 10 2 ú R2 7  ú0 1   ú  ú0 1  107  ú
2
7 
ú0 7 7
úû0 1 1 2 úû  1  1  2 úû R3 û R2 úû0 0  177  úû  177 R3
16
û 7

ù1 0 117 7 ù
5
R1  117 R3 ù1 0 0  17 13
ù
ú 2ú ú 18 ú
ú0 1  7  7 ú R2 û 7 R3  ú0 1 0 17 ú
10 10

úû0 0 1 16 ú
17 û
úû0 0 1 17 16 ú
û

2. Reduce to echelon form

ù1 2 3 1ù ù1 2 3 1 ù
ú2 1 2 0ú R2  2 R1 úú0
ú 3 4  2úú
ú  
ú 1  2  1 1ú R3 û R1 ú0 0 2 2 ú
ú ú ú ú
û 1  1 3 4û R4  R1 û0 3 0 2 û R4  R2
ù1 2 3 1 ù ù1 2 3 1 ù
ú0  3  4  2 ú ú0 3 4  2úú
ú ú ú
ú0 0 2 2 ú ú0 0 2 2 ú
ú ú ú ú
û0 0 4 4 û R 4  2 R3 û0 0 0 0 û

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6.4 SUMMARY

In this lecture, we have learnt to find the inverse of a matrix using row reduction
method, reduce a given matrix to echelon form and to canonical form.

6.5 ACTIVITY 6
ö 1 2 3 1ö
÷ ÷
1. Reduce ÷ 2 1 2 2 ÷ to (a) echelon form (b) row-reduced echelon form
÷3 1 2 3 ÷
ø ø
ù1 2 3 1ù
2. Reduce matrix A ý úú 2 1 2 2 úú to row-reduced echelon form.
úû 3 1 2 3 úû
3. Which one of the following matrices are row-reduced and which one is not.
ö 2 3 2 0 4 5 6 ö
ö 1 2 3 0 1 ö ö 0 1 7 5 0 ö ÷ ÷
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ 0 0 7 1 3 2 0 ÷
(a) ÷ 0 0 5 2 4 ÷ (b) ÷ 0 0 0 0 1 ÷ (c) (d)
÷0 0 0 7 4 ÷ ÷0 0 0 0 0÷ ÷0 0 0 0 0 6 2 ÷
ø ø ø ø ÷ ÷
ø0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ø
ö1 0 5 0 2ö
÷ ÷
÷0 1 2 0 4÷
÷0 0 0 1 7÷
ø ø

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6.6 FURTHER READING

1. Linear Algebra: Schaum’s Outline Series

2. Linear Algebra by J. N. Sharma, A.R. Vasishta
3. Linear Algebra by Michael O’nan, Herbert Enderton

6.7 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS 6

ö1  2 1 ö
÷ ÷
1. Reduce the matrix ÷ 2 1  1÷ to echelon form .
÷7  4 1 ÷
ø ø

ö2 0 1 ö
÷ ÷
2. Let A ý ÷ 4 2 3 ÷ .Find A1 using row-reduction method
÷5 3 1 ÷
ø ø

2. Determine if the following matrices are in echelon canonical form or not.

LECTURE ù1 SEVEN
0 0 0 0ù ù5 8 7  3ù
ù1 0 0 1 ù ù7 5  2 0 ù ú0 0 1 0 6 ú ú0 0 2 1 ú
ú0 SOLUTION
0 1 3 ú úOF
0 3
SYSTEMS
1 1 ú úOF LINEAR ú EQUATIONS
ú ú
(a) ú ú (b) ú ú (c) ú0 1 0 0 3ú (d) ú0 0 0 0 ú
ú0 0 0 0 ú ú0 0 4  6 ú ú ú ú ú
ú ú ú ú ú 0 0 0 1 0ú ú 0 0 0 4ú
û0 0 0 0 û û0 0 0 2û
úû0 0 0 0 0úû úû0 0 0 0 úû
LECTURE TITLE

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LECTURE SEVEN
SOLUTION OF SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

INTRODUCTION

This lecture starts with a general introduction to the solution of a system of linear equations,
followed by a more detailed section on the solution of equations using Gauss Jordan method.

Other methods are covered in the following lecture.

Several worked out examples have been included, and an activity in the form of an exercise
is given at the end of the lecture.

Answers to the self test questions in Section 7.6 have been provided at the end of the module.

For further understanding, the learner is encouraged to read the books recommended in
Section 7.5

LECTURE OBJECTIVE

By the end of this lecture, the learner should be able to solve a system of linear equations
using Gauss Jordan method.

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7.1 SOLUTION OF SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS:

A Linear equation is an equation of the form
a1 x1 û a 2 x2 û ü û a n xn ý b
a1 , a 2 , ü, a n , b are constants while x1 , x 2 , ü x n are the variables to be determined. A
solution to the equation is an n-tuple øc1 , c 2 , ü, c n ù such that
a1 c1 û a 2 c2 û ü û a n cn ý b
Example: 5x1  3x2 û 6 x3  4 x2 ý 10 ; x1 ý 3 ; x2 ý 5 ; x3 ý 3 ; x4 ý 2 . i.e. (3,5,3,2) is a
solution.
Two systems of equations are equivalent if they have the same solution set. We get
equivalent system if we perform any of the following:
1. Change the order of listing the equations
2. Multiply one or more equations by a non-zero constant.
3. Add a multiple of one equation to a multiple of another equation.
There are various methods of solving a system of linear equations
Elimination Method:
The strategy is to eliminate one variable at a time:
Example:
Solve by elimination method
x1 û x2 û x3 ý 5 ü (1)
x1 û 2 x2 û 3x3 ý 10 ü (2)
2 x1 û x2 û x3 ý 0 ü (3)
Solution:
Eliminate x1
(2) – (1) x 2 û 2 x3 ý 5ü (4)
(3)-2(1) - x2  x3 ý 4 (5)
Eliminate x2
(4) +(5) x3 ý 1
Substitute in equation 5
 x 2  1 ý 4 , x2 ý 3
Substitute in equation 1
x1 û 3 û 1 ý 5, x1 ý 1
The elimination method is very tedious when there are many variables. We use a much
organized elimination method in matrix form called Gauss-Jordan method.

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7.2 GAUSS-JORDAN ELIMINATION METHOD

Given a linear system
a11 x1 û a12 x2 û ü û a1n xn ý b1
ax1 x1 û a 22 x2 û ü û a 2n xn ý b2
ý
a n1 x1 û a n 2 x2 û ü û a nn xn ý bn
The system can be represented in matrix form
ù a11 a12 û a1n ù ù x1 ù ù b1 ù
úa ú ú ú ú ú
ú 21 a 22 û a 2 n ú ú x 2 ú ý úb2 ú
ú ý ú úýú úýú
ú ú ú ú ú ú
ûa n1 a n 2 û a nn û û x n û ûbn û
Or simply Ax = b
Where A is the n ô n is the coefficient matrix
x ý øx1 , x 2 ü x n ù , b ý b1 , b2 ûbn 
T T

An augmented matrix is the matrix A b

The Gauss-Jordan method involves reducing the augmented matrix to reduced row echelon
form.

Example:
Solve using Gauss-Jordan method
2 x1  4 x2 û 6 x3 ý 20
3x1  6 x2 û x 3 ý 22
 2 x1 û 5x2  2 x3 ý  18

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7.2 GAUSS-JORDAN ELIMINATION METHOD (continued)

Solution:
Matrix form
ù 2 4 6 ù ù x1 ù ù 20 ù
ú 3 6 1 ú ú x ú = ú 22 ú
ú ú ú 2ú ú ú
úû 2 5  2úû úû x 3 úû úû 18úû
Augmented matrix
ù 2  4 6 20 ù
ú ú
ú 3  6 1 22 ú
úû 2 5  2  18úû
1
Divide row 1 by 2 i.e. 2
R1 and use it to reduce a 21 and a 31 to zeros
ù1 2 3 10 ù
ú ú
ú3 6 1 22 ú R2  3R1
úû 2 5 2 18úû R3 û 2 R1
ù1 2 3 10 ù
ú ú
ú0 0 8 8ú R2  R3
úû0 1 4 2 úû
ù1 2 3 10 ù
ú ú
ú0 1 4 2 ú R1 û 2 R2
úû0 0 8 8úû

ù1 0 11 14 ù 8R1 û 11R3 ù8 0 0 24 ù R1 / 8
ú ú ú ú
ú0 1 4 2 ú 2 R2 û R3 ú0 2 0 4 ú R2 / 2
úû0 0 8 8úû úû0 0 8 8úû R3 /  8

ù1 0 0 3 ù
ú ú
ú0 1 0  2ú Solution x1 ý 3, x2 ý 2, x3 ý 1
úû0 0 1 1 úû

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7.2 GAUSS-JORDAN ELIMINATION METHOD (continued)

The general procedure to solve Ax ý b by Gauss-Jordan method is as follows:

1. Get the augmented matrix A b
2. Get 1 in (1,1) position of matrix by
a) rearranging the rows
b) dividing row 1 by all  0
3. Get zeros in all other positions of column 1
4. Get 1 in (2,2) position by rearranging rows or dividing all of row 2 by a 22  0
5. Get zeros in all other positions of column 2.
6. Get 1 in (3,3), (4,4)… and in each case get zeros in other positions of that column.
7. Each row gives the solution
ù ù
ú ci ú x1 ý c1 ; x2 ý c2 ,...xn ý cn
ú ú
ú I c2 ú
ú : ú
:
ú ú
úû cn úû

A system of linear equations may have a unique solution, many solutions or no solution.
Unique solution: A b reduces to øI c ù
No solution: The last row is a form 00ûa  0
Many solutions: Some variables can be written in terms of others

Previous examples have unique solutions

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7.3 SUMMARY.

In this lecture, we have learnt to solve a system of linear equations using Gauss Jordan
method.

7.4 ACTIVITY 7
Solve for x, y and z using Gauss-Jordan method
2x  5 y û 2z ý 7
1. x û 2 y  4 z ý 3
3x  4 y  6 z ý 5
xû yûz ý5
2. x û 2 y û 3z ý 10
2x û y û z ý 6

x1 û 2 x 2  x3 ý 1
3. 3x1 û 8 x 2 û 2 x3 ý 28
4 x1 û 9 x 2  x3 ý 14
4. X 1 û X 2  X 3 û 2 X 4 ý 4
 2 X 1 û X 2 û 3X 3 û X 4 ý 5
 X 1 û 2 X 2 û 2 X 3 û 3X 4 ý 6

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7.5 FURTHER READING

1. Linear Algebra: Schaum’s Outline Series

2. Linear Algebra by J. N. Sharma, A.R. Vasishta
3. Linear Algebra by Michael O’nan, Herbert Enderton

7.6 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS 7

Solve the following system by Gauss Jordan (elimination) method.
1. x1  x2 û x3 û 2 x4 ý 1
2 x1  x2 û 3x4 ý 0
 x1 û x2 û x3 û x4 ý 1
x2 û x4 ý 1

2. x1 û x 2 û x3 û x 4 ý 4
x1 û 2 x2  x3  x4 ý 7
2 x1  x2  x3  x4 ý 8
x1  x2 û 2 x3  2 x4 ý 7

3. x1 û x2 û 2 x3 û x4 ý 3
LECTURE EIGHT
x1 û 2 x2 û x3 û x4 ý 2
x1 û x2 û x3 û 2 x4 ý 1
2 x1 û x2 û x3 û x4 RULE
CRAMER’S ý4 AND INVERSE MATRIX METHOD

4. X1  X 2 û 2X 3 ý 2
2 X 1 û 3 X 2  X 3 ý 14
3 X 1 û 2 X 2 û X 3 ý 16
X 1 û 4 X 2  3 X 3 ý 12

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LECTURE EIGHT
CRAMER’S RULE AND INVERSE MATRIX METHOD

LECTURE TITLE
INTRODUCTION

The content of this lecture is divided into two subtopics.

In the first subtopic, the learner is introduced to the solution of a system of linear equations
using Cramer’s rule, or the method of determinants.

The second subtopic deals with the inverse matrix method of solving linear equations. Gauss
Jordan method is covered in the previous lecture.

Each method is illustrated using several examples. An activity in the form of an exercise is
given at the end of the lecture.

Answers to the self test questions in Section 8.6 have been provided at the end of the module.

For further understanding, the learner is encouraged to read the books recommended in
Section 8.5

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, the learner should be able to:

1. Solve a system of linear equations using Cramer’s rule, or the method of

determinants.

2. Solve a system of linear equations using inverse matrix method

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8.1 CRAMERS RULE

This method uses determinants to solve a linear system Ax ý b provided det A (coefficient
matrix) is nonzero.

1
Suppose det A  0 , A square matrix x ý A 1b, A 1 ý adj ( A)
det A
T
ù A11  A21 ù ù a11 a21 an1 ù
ú ú
1 ú  A12 A22 ú 1 ú ú
; Let aij ý ø 1ù
iû j
1
A ý Aij ; A1 ý ú a12 a22 an 2 ú
det A ú ú det A ú ú
ú ú
û û ûú a1n a2 n ann ûú

ù x1 ù ù a11 a 21 ü a n1 ù ù b1 ù
úx ú ú ú úb ú
ú 2ú = 1 úa12 a 22 an2 ú ú 2ú
úýú det A ú ý ý ý ú úýú
ú ú ú ú ú ú
ûxn û úûa1n a 2 n a nn úû ûb n û
1
xj ý ùb1 a1 j û b2 a2 j û û bn anj ùû
det A û

But b1 aij û b2 a2 j û û bn anj is the determinant of the matrix

ù a11 a12 û a ij 1 b1 a ij û1 û a1n ù
úa ú
ú 21 a 22 û a1 j 1 b2 a 2 j û1 û a 2 n ú
úû û û û û û û û ú
ú ú
úûa n1 a n 2 û a nj1 bn bnjû1 û a nn úû
i.e. matrix A with column j replaced with ø b1 , b2 , bn ù . The expansion is done along column
j. Note that the determinant of A expanded along column j is
a1 j aij û a 2 j a 2 j û û û a nj a nj
Thus by replacing columns j by b1 , b2 übn  we have the determinants of the new matrix.

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8.1 CRAMERS RULE (Continued)

For 3 ô 3 matrix Ax ý b
ù a11 a12 a13 ù ù x1 ù ù b1 ù
úa ú ú ú ú ú
ú 21 a 22 a 23 ú ú x 2 ú ý úb2 ú
úûa 31 a 32 a 33 úû úû x3 úû úûb3 úû

b1 a12 a13 a11 b1 a13 a11 a12 b1

b2 a22 a23 a21 b2 a23 a 21 a 22 b2
b3 a32 a33 a31 b3 b33 a 31 a 32 b3
X1 ý X2 ý X3 ý
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23 a21 a22 a23 a 21 a 22 a 23
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33 a 31 a 32 a 33
Example
Solve the linear system using Crammer’s rule
 2 x1 û 3x2  x3 ý 1
x1 û 2 x2  x3 ý 4
 2 x1  x2 û x3 ý 3
Solution
1 3 1 2 1 1
4 2 1 1 4 1
2 3 1
 3 1 1 4 2 3 1 6
Aý 1 2  1 ý 2 .Then x1 ý ý ý 2 , x2 ý ý ý 3,
A 2 A 2
 2 1 1
2 3 1
1 2 4
 2 1  3 8
And x3 ý ý ý4
A 2

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8.2 INVERSE MATRIX METHOD

Consider the system of linear equations represented in matrix form A x ý b . Where A is an m ô
n matrix.
If det A  0 , then A 1 exists and A 1 ø A x ù ý A 1b ; Ix ý x ý A 1b . This method works only
ù x1 ù ù c1 ù
úx ú úc ú
if det A  0 , and there is a unique solution ú 2ú
ý A b ýú 2ú

ú ú ú ú
ú ú ú ú
û xn û ûcn û
Examples:
1. Solve the linear system using the inverse matrix
x û 2y ý 6
4x û 3 y ý 3
Solution:
ù1 2ù ù x ù ù6ù ù1 2 ù 1 ù 3  2ù
ú4 3ú ú y ú ý ú3ú ; Aýú det A ý 3  8 ý 5 ; A 1 ý 
û û û û û û
ú ,
û 4 3û 5 úû 4 1 úû
ù xù 1 ù 3  2ù ù6ù 1 ù 12 ù ù 12 5 ù
ú 21ú ý ú 21 ú ; Solution: x ý  5 , y ý 5
1
ú yú ý A b ý  ú 4 1 ú ú3ú ý  12 21
û û 5 û û û û 5 û û úû 5 úû
2. Solve the linear system using the inverse matrix
x1 û 3x2 û 2 x3 ý 3
2 x1 û 4 x2 û 2 x3 ý 8
x1 û 2 x2  x3 ý 10
Solution:
ù 2 7 1 ù
ù1 3 2 ù ù x1 ù ù3ù ù1 3 2 ù ú 4 2ú
ú2 4 2 ú ú x ú = ú 8 ú ; A ý ú 2 4 2 ú ; det A = 4; A1 ý ú 1  3 1 ú
ú ú ú 2ú ú ú ú ú ú 4 2 ú
úû1 2  1úû úû x3 úû úû10úû úû1 2 1úû ú0
úû
1  1 úú
4 2û

ù x1 ù ùú 2 1 ù
7
4 2ú ù3ù ù 3 ù
úx ú ý ú 1  3 1 ú ú 8 ú ý ú 2 ú ; x ý 3, x ý 2 , x ý 3
ú 2ú ú 4 2 ú ú ú ú ú 1 2 3
úû x3 úû ú 0 1  ú
1 úû10úû úû 3úû
û 4 2û

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8.3 SUMMARY.

In this lecture, we have learnt to solve a system of linear equations using Cramer’s rule, or
the method of determinants and also by using inverse matrix method

8.4 ACTIVITY 8

Solve by Cramers rule

1. 2 X 1  4 X 2 û 6 X 3 ý 20 2. X1 û X 2 û X 3 ý 5 2x  5 y û 2z ý 7
3.
3 X 1  6 X 2 û X 3 ý 22 X 1 û 2 X 2 û 3 X 3 ý 10 x û 2 y  4z ý 3
 2 X 1 û 5 X 2  2 X 3 ý 18 2X1 û X 2 û X 3 ý 6 3x  4 y  6 z ý 5

Solve by inverse matrix method

4. 2x+3y+4z=1 5. 2x-5y=-2z 6. y+x+z=5

x+y-z=0 x-4z=b-2y z+y+2x=6
4x-y+2z=0 -4y-6z=c-3x x+2y+3z=10

x1 û 3x2 û 2 x3 ý 3
7. 2 x1 û 4 x2 û 2 x3 ý 8
x1 û 2 x2  x3 ý 10

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8.5 FURTHER READING

1. A First Course in Linear Algebra by Daniel Zelisky

2. Elementary Linear Algebra by Bennard Kolman
3. Elementary Linear Algebra by Howard Anton

8.6 SELF-TEST QUESTION 8

Solve using Crammer’s rule. LECTURE NINE
1. 2x  5 y û 2z ý 7 VECTORS
x û 2 y  4z ý 3
3x  4 y  6 z ý 5

x1 û 3x2 û 2 x3 ý 3
2. 2 x1 û 4 x2 û 2 x3 ý 8
x1 û 2 x2  x3 ý 10
Solve the following three equations using inverse matrix method
x û y û 2z ý 1 x û 2y û z ý 4
3. x û 2 y  z ý 2 4. 3x  4 y  2 z ý 2
x û 3y û z ý 5 5 x û 3 y û 5 z ý 1

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LECTURE NINE
VECTORS

INTRODUCTION LECTURE TITLE

This lecture covers the concept of vectors, their dot product and cross product. The application
of dot product in looking for the angle between vectors is included. Application of cross
product in the equations of lines and planes is covered in the last lecture in the module.

Each concept is illustrated by several examples. An activity in the form of an exercise is given
at the end of the lecture.

Answers to the self test questions in Section 9.6 have been provided at the end of the module.

For further understanding, the learner is encouraged to read the books recommended in
Section 9.5

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, the learner should be able to

1. Perform addition subtraction and scalar multiplication of vectors.

2. Find the magnitude of a given vector.

3. Find dot product and cross product of vectors.

4. Use dot product to find the angle between vectors .

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9.1 VECTORS (CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS)

Any point on the Cartesian x-y plane can be represented as a pair ø x0 , y0 ù where x 0 is the
x coordinate and y 0 is y-coordinate. The Cartesian plane is simply 2 . 3 consists of three
planes, x-y plane, x-z plane & y-z planes. The x-axis, y-axis and z – axes all meet at 90  (are
perpendicular) at the origin (0,0,0). The x-axis consists of points ø x0 ,0,0 ù , y-axis ø 0, y0 ,0 ù
and z-axis ø0,0, z 0 ù . The x-y plane ø x0 , y0 ,0ù the x-z plane ø x0 ,0, z0 ù and the y-z plane
ø 0, y0 , z0 ù .

n consists of all n-tuples consisting of real entries i.e.

n ý ø a1 , a2 , , an ù : ai þ i ý 1, 2, n

VECTORS: (Quantities defined by magnitude & direction)

ù ai ù
A column vector is an n-tuple of numbers written vertically úú ý úú (or n ô 1 matrix)
úûa n úû
If the numbers a1 , a2 , an are real we have a real column vector. If they are complex we
have a complex column vector. The number a i in the ith (row) slot is the ith component.
A row n-vector is an n-tuple a1 , a 2 , û, a n  of numbers written horizontally.
Equality of vectors
ù a1 ù ù b1 ù
úa ú ú b ú
ú 2 ú ý ú 2 ú  m ý n ai ý bi i ý 1, û n i.e. a1 ý b1 , a 2 ý b2 , û, a n ý bn
ú ú ú ú
ú ú ú ú
û an û ûbm û

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9.1 VECTORS (CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS) (continued)

Addition & Subtraction
ù a1 ù ù b1 ù ù a1  b1 ù
ú a ú úb ú ú a  b ú
ú 2ú ú 2ú ý ú 2 2ú
ú ú ú ú ú ú
ú ú ú ú ú ú
û an û ûbn û û an  bn û

Scalar multiplication
ù a1 ù ùñ a1 ù
úa ú úñ a ú
ñ ú 2 ú ý ú 2 ú Where ñ is real scalar or complex scalar.
úýú ú ý ú
ú ú ú ú
ûa n û ûñ a n û

Properties:
Let a, b, c be n-column vectors , ü , ý scalars
1. a û b ý bû a - Commutative law

2. ø aû bù û c ý aû øbû c ù - Associative law

3. 0û a ý aû 0 ý a - Additive identity
4. aû ø a ù ý ø a ù û a ý 0 Additive inverse

ø ù
5. ü a û b ý ü aû ü b

6. ø ü û ý ù a ý ü aû ý a ; ø üý ù a ý ü ø ý a ù

Length/Magnitude of Vector:
Let a ý  a1 , a2 , , an 

a ý a12 û a22 û û an 2
aûb  a û b ra ý r a

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9.2 DOT PRODUCTAND CROSS PRODUCT

Let a ý  a1 , a2 , , an  , b ý b1 , b2 , , bn 

a  b ý a1b1 û a2b2 û û anbn

a  b ý a b if a & b are column vectors
T

ý a b if a & b are row vectors.

T

Properties of the dot product:

1. u  v ý v  u Commutative property
2. u  øv û wù ý u  v û u  w Distributive Property
3. ø ru ù  v ý u  rv ý r ø u  v ù Homogeneous property
4. u  u ó 0 and u  u ý 0 iff u ý 0
Note: a ý a  a

Definition: A unit vector is a vector of length (magnitude) 1 i.e a ý a  a =1

Angle between vectors
Let u and v be nonzero vectors and let  be the angle between them.
Then
u  v ý u v cos 
uv
cos  ý
u v
uv
 ý cos 1
u v
Example:
Find the angle between u ý i û j û k and v ý i û j  k
øi û j û k ù  øi û j  k ù ý i û j û k i û j  k cos 
1û11ý ø 3 ùø 3 ù cos 
ö1ö
Cos  ý 1 ,  ý cos 1 ÷ ÷ ý 70.5 0
3 ø 3ø

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9.2 DOT PRODUCT AND CROSS PRODUCT (Continued)

T Orthogonal /Perpendicular vectors:

The vectors u and v are orthogonal/perpendicular if the angle between then is 90 0 .

 ý 90 0 , cos 900 = 0
and so u  v ý u v cos 90 and therefore u  v ý u v (0)=0  u.v ý 0 (where u  0, v  0) .

Exercise: Show that the vectors u = sin  , cos   and v= cos   sin   are orthogonal

Cross/vector product:
The cross product of a ý a1i û a2 j û a3k and b ý b1i û b2 j û b3k , denoted by a ô b is a vector
orthogonal to both a and b defined by

i j k
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
a ô b ý a1 a2 a3 ýi j ûk
b2 b3 b1 b2 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3

ø ù
Example: Let a ý 3i  j û k ; b ý i û 2 j  k ø ù
(a) Find a ô b
(b) Show that a ô b is orthogonal to a
(c) Show that a ô b is orthogonal to b

Solution:

i j k
ø ù ø ù
(a) 3i  j û k ô i û 2 j  k ý 3 1 1 ý i(1  2)  j (3  1) û k (6  1) ý i û 4 j û 7k
1 2 1

ø ù
(b) a (a ô b) ý ø 3i  j û k ù  i û 4 j û 7k ý 3  4 û 7 ý 0 and therefore a ô b is orthogonal to a

(c) b (a ô b) ø i û 2 j  k ù  ø i û 4 j û 7k ù ý  1 û 8  7 ý 0 and therefore a ô b is orthogonal to b

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9.2 DOT PRODUCT AND CROSS PRODUCT (continued)

i j k
ù b b3 b1 b3 b1 b2 ù
a  (b ô c) ý (a1i û a2 j û a3k )  b1 b2 b3 ý (a1i û a2 j û a3k )  úi 2 j ûk ú
c c c û c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2 û
1 2 3

a1 a2 a3
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
ý a1  a2 û a3 = b1 b2 b3
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
c1 c2 c3
Properties of the cross product:
Let a , b , c be vectors, ñ , ò and y scalars
1. a ô b ý  b ô a
2. a ô ø b û c ù ý ø a ô b ù û ø a ô c ù
ø a û bùô c ý a ô c û bô c
3. ñ ø a ô b ù ý øñ a ô b ù ý a ô ñ b
4. a ô a ý øaôaù

Two vectors a and b are parallel if a ý kb for some scalar k.

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9.3 SUMMARY.

In this lecture, we have learnt performed addition, subtraction and scalar multiplication of
vectors. We have also learnt to find the magnitude of a given vector and the dot product and
cross product of vectors. Finally we have used the dot product to find the angle between
vectors .

9.4 ACTIVITY 9
1. Find the angle between the vectors a=3i-j+k and b=-i+j+3k
2. Use the vectors a ý i û j  3k , b ý 2i û j û 2k and c ý 3i  2 j  k to prove that
a ô øb û c ù ý a ô b û a ô c
3. Find the angle between the vectors u ý i û 2 j û k and v ý 2i  j û 2k
x ý x1i û x2 j û x3k
4. Let y ý y1i û y2 j û y3k be vectors. Find x  y ô z ø ù
z ý z1i û z2 j û z3k
x ý x1i û x2 j û x3k x1 x2 x3
5. Let y ý y1i û y2 j û y3k be vectors. Show that x  y ô z ý y1 ø ù y2 y3
z ý z1i û z2 j û z3k z1 z2 z3
6.Find the angle between the vector u ý 2i  j û 3k and v ý  i û 3 j  k
7. For any three vectors a ý a1i û a2 j û a3k , b ý b1i û b2 j û b3k and c ý c1i û c2 j û c3k
Show that a ô ø b û c ù ý a ô b û a ô c

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9.5 FURTHER READING

1. A First Course in Linear Algebra by Daniel Zelisky

2. Elementary Linear Algebra by Bennard Kolman
3. Elementary Linear Algebra by Howard Anton

9.6 SELF-TEST QUESTION 9

ù1 ù
1. Compute the length of the vector v ý úú2úú
úû3úû
ùu ù ùv ù
2. Let u ý ú 1 ú and v ý ú 1 ú .Find LECTURE TEN
the angle between u and v.
ûu 2 û û v2 û
VECTOR SPACES
ù2ù ù 4ù
3. Show that the vectors u ý ú ú and v ý ú ú are orthogonal
û  4û û 2û

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LECTURE TEN
VECTOR SPACES

LECTURE TITLE
INTRODUCTION

This lecture is divided into two subtopics.

In the first subtopic, the learner is introduced to the concept of a vector space.

The second subtopic deals with subspaces of vector spaces.

Each concept is illustrated by several examples. An activity in the form of an exercise is

given at the end of the lecture.

Answers to the self test questions in Section 10.6 have been provided at the end of the
module.

For further understanding, the learner is encouraged to read the books recommended in
Section 10.5

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, the learner should be able to

1. Define a vector space and a subspace of a vector space

2. Show that a given set is a vector space

3. Show that a given set is a sub space of a vector space

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10.1 VECTOR SPACES

Definition of vector spaces

Let K be a given field and let V be a non empty set with rules of addition and scalar
multiplication which assigns to any u, v þ V a sum u û v þV and to any u þV , k þ K a
product ku þV . Then V is called a vector space over K (and the elements of V are called
vectors) if the following axioms hold:
A1 : For any vectors u, v, w þV , øu û vù û w ý u û øv û wù .
A2 : There is a vector in V ,denoted by 0 and called the zero vector, for which u û 0 ý u for
any vector u þV
A3  : For each vector u þV there is a vector in V ,denoted by  u ,for which u û ø u ù ý 0 .
A4 : For any vectors u, v þV , u û v ý v û u .
M 1 : For any scalar k þ K and any vectors u, v þV , k øu û vù ý ku û kv .
M 2 : For any scalars a, b þ K and any vector u þV , øa û bùu ý au û bu .
M 3 : For any scalars, a, b þ K and any vector u þV , øabùu ý aøbu ù .
M 4 : For the unit scalar 1þ K , 1u ý u for any vector u þV .

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10.1 VECTOR SPACES (Continued)

Examples:

1. Show that the set n ý ø a1 , a2 , , an ù an þ is a vector space. 
2. Show that M n,m øù , the set of all n ô m matrices is a vector space.
3. Show that p ø x ù , the set of all polynomials in x with real coefficients is a vector space.
4. Show that F ø  ù ,the set of all functions f :    ,is a vector space.
5. Define nû to be the set of n-tuples ø x1 , , xn ù such that xi þ 0 i
Define addition and scalar multiplication by:
ø x1, x2 , , xn ù õ ø y1, y2 , , yn ù ý ø x1 y1, , xn yn ù
ü ô ø x1 , ø
xn ù ý x1ü , ù
, xnü . Show that  n û is a vector space.
Solution:
Condition 1
ø x1, x2 , , xn ù õ ø y1, y2 , , yn ù ý ø x1 y1, , xn yn ù þnû
Condition 2
ø
ü ô ø x1 , xn ù ý x1ü , , xnü þnû ù
Condition 3
ø
0 ô ø x1 , , xn ù ý x10 , ù
, xn0 ý ø1, ,1ù
ø x1, x2 , , xn ù õ ø1, ,1ù ý ø x1, , x2 ù  ø1, ,1ù is the zero vector
Condition 4
ö ö ö ö ö ö ö ö öö
ø x1 , , xn ù õ ÷ 1 , , 1 ÷ = ÷÷ x1 ÷ 1 ÷ , x2 ÷ 1 ÷ , , xn ÷ 1 ÷ ÷÷ = (1, 1,…,1)
ø x1 xn ø ø ø x1 ø ø x2 ø ø xn ø ø
ö1 1ö
Then additive inverse of ø x1 , , xn ù is ÷ , , ÷ . Therefore  n û is a vector space.
ø x1 xn ø

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10.2 SUBSPACE OF A VECTOR SPACE:

Definition: Let V be a vector space. A subset W of V is a subspace of V if W fulfils the
requirements of a vector space, where addition and scalar multiplication in W produce the
same vectors as these operations did in V.

Lemma: (Test for subspace)

A non-empty subset W of a vector space V is a subspace of V if and only if
(i)  u, w þW , u û w þW -Closure under addition:
(ii)  r þ , w þW , rw þ W -Closure under scalar multiplication.
i.e. W is a subspace of a vector space V iff its closed under vector addition and scalar
multiplication.

Examples:
1. The set of diagonal n ô n matrices is a subspace of M n , the set of (n ô n matrices).
2. Let W ü  n with w ý øw1 û wn ù / Wi þ with
a) w1 ý 0
b) w1 even
c) w1 is divisible by k
Show that each of them is a vector space.
3. The set D of all differentiable functions from f :    is a subspace of F, the set of all
functions f :   
4. (a)The set of all functions f :   R such that f ø0ù ý 1 is not a subspace of the set
f :  .
(b) The set of all functions f :   R such that f(1)=0 is a subspace of the set f :    .

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10.3 SUMMARY

In this lecture, we have defined a vector space and a subspace of a vector space.
We also have learnt to show that a given set is a vector space, or a sub space of a
vector space

10.4 ACTIVITY 10

1. Show that the set C 0,1 of continous functions mapping  to 0,1 is a vector space.

2. Show that 2 with ø x1 , x2 ù õ ø y1 , y2 ù ý ø x1 û y1 , x2 û y2 ù

ø x1, x2 ù ô ø y1, y2 ù ý ø x1 x2  y1 y2 , x1 y2 û x2 y1 ù is a vector space corresponding toC, the set
of complex numbers).

V ý 3 .Show that U ý ø x, y, 0 ù : x, y þy is a subspace of V.

3. Show whether or not the following are subspaces of 4 .

(a) U ý ø x, y, z ù x ý 2 y (b) V ý ø x, y, z ù x 2

û y2 û z2  1
4. Let V ý 3 .Show that W is a subspace of V where W ý ø a, b, 0 ù : a, b þ
5. Determine whether or not the following are subspaces of 3 .
(a) W ý ø x, y, z ù x û y û z ý 0 (b) U ý ø x, y, z ù xy ý 0
6. Let V be a vector space over a field F and suppose A is a non-empty subset of V. State 2
necessary and sufficient conditions that A is a subspace of V

7. Let u1 , u 2 , u3 ,üu m þ  n , and let A be the set of all linear combinations of

u1 , u 2 , u3 ,üu m . Prove that A is a subspace of  n .

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10.5 FURTHER READING

1. Linear Algebra by Fraleigh & Beauregard

2. Linear Algebra: Schaum’s Outline Series
3. Linear Algebra by J. N. Sharma, A.R. Vasishta

10.6 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS 10

1. Show that the line y ý 2 x is a subspace of 2
2. Show that the line y ý x û 1 is not a subspace of  .i.e.
W ý ø x, y ù / y ý x û 1 ý {ø x, x û 1ù / x þ}
3. Show that the set of all invertible n ô n matrices is not a subspace of the set M n øR ù of all
n ô n matrices.

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LECTURE ELEVEN

LINEAR COMBINATIONS

LECTURE TITLE
INTRODUCTION

This lecture covers linear combinations and linear spans. Several examples have been given
on how to write a given vector as a linear combination of other vectors. The relationship
between linear spans, vector spaces and subspaces is also included.

Each concept is illustrated by several examples. An activity in the form of an exercise is

given at the end of the lecture.

Answers to the self test questions in Section 11.5 have been provided at the end of the
module.

For further understanding, the learner is encouraged to read the books recommended in
Section 11.4

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, the learner should be able to:

1. Write a given vector as a linear combination of a given set of vectors.

2. Prove theorems on the relationship between linear spans, vector spaces and subspaces.

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11.1 LINEAR COMBINATIONS

Let v1 , v2 , , vn be vectors in a vector space V over scalar field K, and a1 , a2 , an þ K . A
linear combination of the vectors v1 , v2 , , vn is any expression of the form
v ý a1v1 û a2 v2 û û anvn
Example 1 2 ø 3  1, 4 ù û 5 ø1, 0, 1ù  6 ø 0, 0,1ù is a linear combination of (3, -1, 4), ø1,0,1ù and
ø0,0,1ù .
Example 2 Write the vector v ý ø1,2,5ù ,as a linear combination of the vectors
e1 ý ø1,1,1ù, e2 ý ø1,2,3ù and e3 ý ø2,1,1ù .
Solution: We wish to express v as v ý xe1 û ye2 û ze3 , with x, y and z as yet unknown
scalars. Thus we require
ø1,2,5ù ý xø1,1,1ù û yø1,2,3ù û zø2,1,1ù
ý øx, x, x ù û ø y,2 y,3 y ù û ø2 z, z, z ù
ý ø x û y û 2 z, x û 2 y  z, x û 3 y û z ù
Form the equivalent system of equations by setting corresponding components equal to each
other, and then reduce to echelon form:
x û y û 2z ý 1 x û y û 2z ý 1 x û y û 2z ý 1
x û 2 y  z ý 2 or y  3z ý 3 or y  3z ý 3
x û 3y û z ý 5 2y  z ý 4 5 z ý 10
Note that the above system is consistent and so has a solution. Solve for the unknowns to
obtain x ý 6, y ý 3, z ý 2 .Hence v ý 6e1 û 3e2 û 2e3 .

The span of v1 , v2 , , vn  over K is the set of all linear combinations of v1 , v2 , , vn .

i.e. Span ø v1 , v2 , , vn ù ý a1v1 û a2v2 û û an vn / a1 , a2 an þ K 
For real vector spaces, Span ø v1 , v2 , , vn ù ý a1v1 û a2v2 û û anvn / ai þ
Theorem: Span ø v1 , v2 , , vn ù is a subspace of the vector space V.
Proof: Show closure under addition & scalar multiplication.
Let u, w þ span ø v1 , v2 , , vn ù
Condition 1 of a subspace-Closure under addition:
w ý b1v1 û b2v2 û û bnvn
Let u ý a1 v1 û a2 v2 û û anvn for some ai þ and for some
b þ
u û w ý ø a1 û b1 ù v1 û ø a2 û b2 ù v2 û û ø an û bn ù vn þ span ø v1 , v2 , , vn ù .
Since ai û bi þ  for i ý 1, 2, ,n
i.e. a linear combination of ø v1 , v2 , , vn ù + a linear combination of ø v1 , v2 , , vn ù
= a linear combination of ø v1 , v2 , , vn ù

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11.1 LINEAR COMBINATIONS (continued)

Condition 2 of a subspace-Closure under scalar multiplication:

ñ u ý ñ (a1 v1 û a2 v2 û û anvn )= øñ a1 ù v1 û øñ a2 ù v2 û û øñ an ù vn þ span ø v1 , v2 , , vn ù .

since ñ ai þ i ý 1, 2, , n
i.e. a scalar multiple of a linear combination of ø v1 , v2 , , vn ù is also a linear combination of
ø v1 , v2 , , vn ù
 span ø v1 , v2 , , vn ù is a subspace of V.

Example:
1. Let P øx ù be the set of all polynomials in x with real coefficients over  .
ø ù  
Span 1, x, x 2 ý a û bx û cx 2 / a, b, c þ = P2 ø x ù , set of all polynomials in P øx ù of
degree  2 .
Observe that
ø ù ø ù
1. Span 1, x, x 2 ,3 û 5 x ü Span 1 x, x 2
2. Span ø1,3 û 5x, x ù ü Span ø1, x, x ù
2 2

Theorem: Let V be a vector space and W1 and W2 be subspaces of V with W1 = Span

ø v1 , v2 , , vn ù , W2 ý Span ø u1 , u2 , , um ù . If each ui is a linear combination of the vi ' s ,
Then Span ø u1 , u2 , , um ù ü Span ø v1 , v2 , , vn ù . W2 ü W1
Proof: Since each ui is a linear combination of vi ' s, ui þWi i ý 1, 2, ,n .
By definition of subspace, any linear combination in W2 is in W2
 Span ø u1 , , un ù ý W2 ü W1

Corollary: Let W1 = Span ø v1 , v2`, , vn ù and W2 = Span ø u1 , u2 , , un ù . If each vi is a linear

combination of ui ' s and each ui is a linear combination of vi ' s . Then W1 ý W2

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11.1 LINEAR COMBINATIONS (continued)

Proof: W1 ü W2 and W2 ü W1 implies that W1 ý W2
If W = Span ø v1 , v2 , , vn ù , we say W is a subspace generated or spanned by v1 , v2 , , vn and that
v1 , v2 ,, vn  is a generating/spanning set for W. If a vector space V has a finite generating set, we
say V is finitely generated.
Claim:
1. Span øv1 , v 2 , ûv n ù = span ø v1 , v2 , vi 1 , üvi , vi û1 ,..., vn ù for any ü  0 .Thus, replacing a generator
by a nonzero scalar multiple of itself leaves the subspaces unchanged.
2. Span ø v1 , v2 , , vi , , v j û üvi , , vn ù = Span ø v1 , , vn ù i  j .
Replacing a generator by the sum of itself and a scalar multiple of another generator leaves the
space unchanged.

Definition: Let W1 ,W2 , ,Wn be subspaces of a vector space V. The set spanned by W1 ,W2 , ,Wn
is the sum of W1 , W2 , ,Wn , denoted W1 û W2 û û W2 and defined by
W1 û W2 û û W2 ý u1 û u 2 û ûu n / u i þWi 

Lemma: If W1 ,W2 , ,Wn are subspaces of V, then W1 û W2 û û û Wn is a subspace of V

Examples:
1. Let V ý P5 ø x ù , the set of all polynomials with real coefficients with degree  5 . Then,
W2 ý P2 ø x ù , the set of all polynomials with real coefficients with degree  2 is a subspace of V.
W2 ý P3 ø x ù , the set of all polynomials with real coefficients with degree  3 is a subspace of
V. W4 ý P4 ø x ù , the set of all polynomials with real coefficients with degree  4 is a subspace of V.
Now, W2 û W3 ý W3 and W2 û W1 û W4 ý W4
2. Let V ý 3 , e1 ý ø1,0,0 ù , e2 ý ø 0,1,0 ù , e3 ý ø 0,0,1ù
Let also W1 = Span øe1 ù, W2 = Span ø e2 ù , W3 ý Span ø e3 ù and W4 = Span ø e2 , e3 ù
Then V ý W1 û W2 û W3 ; ý W1 û W4 ý W1 û W2 û W4 Also, W4 ý W2 û W3

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11.2 SUMMARY.

In this lecture we have learnt to write a given vector as a linear combination of a given set of
vectors and prove theorems on the relationship between linear spans, vector spaces and
subspaces.

11.3 ACTIVITY 11
1. Show that ø11,3,8ù is a linear combination of ø1,1, 0 ù and ø2,1,1ù
2. If W , W1 ,W2 are subspaces of V, prove that
(a) W û W ý W ,W û 0 ý W , W û V ý V
(b) If W1 ü W2 , then W1 û W2 ý W2
(c) W1 ü W2 û W1 û W2 ý W2
(d) W1 W2 is a subspace of V iff W1 ü W2 or W2 ü W1
3. For which value of m will the vector u ý ø1, 2, m ù in 3 be a linear combination of
v ý ø 3,0, 2 ù and w ý ø 2, 1, 5ù

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11.4 FURTHER READING

1. Linear Algebra: Schaum’s Outline Series

2. Linear Algebra by J. N. Sharma, A.R. Vasishta
3. Linear Algebra by Michael O’nan, Herbert Enderton

11.5 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS 11

1. Write the vector v ý ø2,5,3ù in 3 as a linear combination of the vectors

e1 ý ø1,3,2ù, e2 ý ø2,4,1ù and e3 ý ø1,5,7ù .

2. For which value of k will the vector u ý ø1,2, k ù in 3 be a linear combination of the
vectors u ý ø3,0,2ù and w ý ø2,1,5ù ?

3. Show that the vectors u ý ø1,2,3ù, v ý ø0,1,2ù and w ý ø0,0,1ù generate 3 .

4. Find conditions on a, b and c so that øa, b, c ùþ 3 belongs to the space generated by

u ý ø2,1,0ù, v ý ø1,1,2ù and w ý ø0,3,4ù .

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LECTURE TWELVE
LINEAR DEPENDENCE AND INDEPENDENCE

INTRODUCTION LECTURE TITLE

The content of this lecture is divided into two subtopics.

In the first subtopic, the learner is introduced to the concept of linear dependence and
independence.

The second subtopic deals with the application of linear dependence and independence in
finding the basis and dimension of a given vector space.

Each concept is illustrated by several worked out examples. An activity in the form of an
exercise is given at the end of the lecture.

Answers to the self test questions in Section12.6 have been provided at the end of the
module.

For further understanding, the learner is encouraged to read the books recommended in
Section 12.5

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, the learner should be able to:

1. Determine whether a given set of vectors is linearly dependent and independent.

2. Use the concept of linear dependence and independence to find the basis and
dimension of a given vector space.

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12.1 LINEAR DEPENDENCE AND INDEPENDENCE

Definition: The vectors v1 , v2 , , vn of a vector space V are linearly dependent if there exists real
numbers a1 , a2 , , an with at least one ai  0 such that ai vi û a2v2 û û anvn ý 0. The vectors are
linearly independent if they are not dependent i.e. for every linear combination
a1v1 û a2v2 û û anvn ý 0 then ai ý 0  i ý 1, 2, , n .

Note:
1. Any set of vectors including the zero vector is linearly dependent.

2. If none of the vectors is zero and a1v1 û a2 v2 û û û an vn ý 0 with vi ' s dependent, then at least
two of the ai ' s are non-zero.

Criterion for dependence

A finite list of nonzero vectors v1 , , vn in a vector space V is linearly dependent iff some vector is
a linear combination of its predecessors. (OR v1 , , vn are linearly dependent iff one vi is a linear
combination of others)
Proof:
 Suppose a vector vk is a linear combination of v1 , v2 , , vk 1 , say vk ý b1v1 û û bk 1vk 1 , bi  0
for some i. Then b1v1 û b2v2 û û bk 1 vk 1  1vk û 0vk û1 û û 0vn ý 0 .

ü Suppose a1v1 û a2 v2 û an vn ý 0 where v1 , , vn is a linearly dependent set.

Let ak  0 where ak û1 ý 0, ak û2 ý 0,..., an ý 0

Then a1 v1 û û û ak 1 vk 1 û ak vk ý 0 i.e.
ö a ö ö a2 ö ö a ö
vk ý ÷  1 ÷ v1 û ÷ ÷ v2 û û ÷ k 1 ÷ vk 1 i.e. vk is a linear combination of its predecessors.
ø ak ø ø ak ø ø ak ø

Criterion for independence

A finite list of vector v1 , v2 , , vn in a vector space V is linearly independent iff no vector is a linear
combination of the others.
Claim: Let v1 , v2 , , vn  be a linearly independent set in V, and u þV . Then v1 , v2 , , vn ,u are
linearly dependent iff u is a linear combination of v1 , v2 , , vn .

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12.1 LINEAR DEPENDENCE AND INDEPENDENCE (Continued)

Examples:
1. The vectors e1 ý ø1,0,0,...,0 ù , e2 ý ø 0,1,0, ,0 ù ,..., en ý ø 0,0,0, ,0,1ù in  n are linearly
independent.
 
2. The set 1, x, x 2 , , x n in P nû1 øx ù is linearly independent.
3. The set 1, x,3  2 x is linearly dependent since 3  2 x ý 3ø1ù  2øx ù
4. Determine whether or not ø1, 2,3,1ù , ø 2, 2,1,3ù , ø 1, 2,7  3ù in  4
is linearly dependent.
Method 1:
Find a1 , a2 , a3 such that a1 ø1, 2,3,1ù û a2 ø 2, 2,1,3ù û a3 ø 1, 2,7, 3ù ý (0,0,0,0)
ö1 2 3 1ö
÷ ÷
Method 2: Simply reduce the matrix ÷ 2 2 1 3 ÷ to echelon form.
÷ 1 2 7 3 ÷
ø ø

ö1 2 3 1ö ù1 2 3 1 ù ù1 2 3 1 ù
÷ ÷ ú ú ú0 2 5 1ú
÷ 2 2 1 3 ÷ R2  2 R1  ú0 2 5 1ú  ú ú
÷ 1 2 7 3 ÷ R û R úû0 4 10 2 úû R3  2 R2 úû0 0 0 0 úû
ø ø 1 3

OR

ö1 2 3 1 ö V1 ù1 2 3 1 ù V1
÷ ÷
÷2 2 1 3 ÷ V2  úú0 2 5 1úú V2  2V1
÷ 1 3 ÷ø V3 úû0 4 10 2 úû V1 û V3
ø 2 7
ù1 2 3 1ù V1
 úú0 2 5 1ú ú V2  2V1
úû0 0 0 0 úû øV1 û V3 ù  2 øV2  2V1 ù

 øV1 û V3 ù  2 øV2  2V1 ù ý 0  3V1 û 2V2 û V3 ý 0 but the coefficients of V1 ,V2 ,V3 are not
zero  V1 ,V2 ,V3 are linearly dependent.

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12.1 LINEAR DEPENDENCE AND INDEPENDENCE (Continued)

 
5. Show that the set 1,sin 2 x,cos 2 x is a linearly dependent set of functions in the vector
space F of all functions mapping  to  .

Solution: cos2 x ý 1  sin 2 x ,i.e. cos2 x is a linear combination of sin 2 x and 1.

OR sin 2 x ý 1  cos2 x i.e. sin 2 x is a linear combination of cos2 x and 1.
Since one vector can be written as a linear combination of the others, we conclude that
 
1,sin 2 x,cos2 x is linearly dependent.
6. Any set of more than n vectors in n is linearly dependent. In particular, ø1,2,1ù, ø3,5,2ù,
ø2,3,6ù and ø1,2,1ù in 3 are linearly dependent.
Theorem: Let v1 , v2 , , vn be n vectors in  n .The following conditions are equivalent

1. The vectors are linearly independent.

2. The vectors generate all of n
3. The matrix A having these vectors as columns (or rows) is invertible.

An infinite set S of vectors in a vector space V is linearly independent if there is no

dependence relation involving a finite number of vectors in S.

e.g. The set 1, x, x 2 , x3 
is linearly independent in the vector space Pøx ù of all
polynomials with real coefficients.

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12.2 BASIS AND DIMENSION

Consider a vector space V generated/spanned by v1 , v2 , , vn . If this set of vector is linearly dependent
, then one vector, say vn ,is a linear combination of v1 , v2 , , vn1 and hence
Span ø v1 , v2 , , vn ù ý Span ø v1 , v2 , , vn1 ù .
We may delete superfluous generators until we have a linearly independent, set say v1 , v2 , , vk
Span v1 , v2 , , vn = Span v1 , v2 , , vk , k  n .
If we delete any vector in the linearly independent set, we would no longer generate V. A set of
generators is minimal if every proper subset of them fails to span/generate V. Minimality and
Independence are equivalent for a set of generators.

Definition: Let V be a vector space. A set of vectors in V is a basis for V if

(1) The vectors generate/span V
(2) The vectors are linearly independent
Examples:
1. The set e1 , e2 , , en  where e1 ý ø1,0,0,...,0 ù , e2 ý ø 0,1,0, ,0 ù ,..., en ý ø 0,0,0, ,0,1ù form a basis
for  n

2. The set 1, x, x 2 , 
, x n1 form a basis for p ø x ù , the set of all polynomials in x of degree  n with
real coefficients.
3. Vectors e1 ý (1,0) and e2 ý (1,1) from a basis for  2
Theorem: Let V be a vector space with basis B ý b1 , b2 , , bn  .Each vector v þ V can be uniquely
expressed in the form v ý ñ1b1 û ñ 2b2 û û ñ nbn , ñi þ (i.e. there is exactly one choice for each ñ i )
Proof: Suppose v ý ñ1b1 û ñ 2b2 û û ñ n bn ñi þ
ý ò1b1 û ò 2 b2 û û û ò n bn ò i þ  with ñ i  ò i for some i. Then
øñ1  ò1 ù b1 û øñ2  ò2 ù b2 û û øñi  òi ù bi û û øñ n  òn ù bn ý 0 with ñi  òi  0 . This contradictions
the fact that b1 , b2 , , bn are linearly independent by definition of a basis. Hence ñi ý òi i
Example
1.Show that the vectors ø1,2,1,0ù (0,1,0,1), (-1,-5,2,0) and (2,3,-2,7) form a basis for  4 .
Solution: Show that the vectors are linearly independent.
Theorem: Let V be a vector space and v1 , , vn  a basis of V.
(a) If m þ n , then any set of m vectors of V is linearly dependent.
(b) Any other basis contains precisely n elements.
(c) n can be characterized as either the minimum number of generators of V or the maximum number
of linearly independent vectors in V.

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12.2 BASIS AND DIMENSION (Continued)

Definition: The dimension of a finitely generated vector space V is the number of elements in any basis of
V, denoted dim(V). We say V is an n-dimensional vector space.
Example: Find dimension of the subspace W ý Span ø1, 3,1ù , ø 2,6,2ù, ø2,1,4ù , ø 1,10,7ù of  3 .
Solution:
ù 1 3 1 ù ù1 3 1 ù ù1  3 1 ù
ú 2 6 2 ú ú0 0 0 ú ú ú
ú ú ú ú  ú0 7  6ú ; W = span ø1,3,1ù, ø2,1,4ù  Dim(W)=2.
ú 2 1 4 ú ú0 7 6 ú ú0 0 0ú
ú ú ú ú ú ú
û 1 10 7 û û0 7 6 û û0 0 0û
Theorem: Let V be an n-dimensional vector space and v1 , , vm  a linearly independent set of vectors in
V.
(i) The set v1 , , vm  is a basis for V iff m ý n .
(ii) Any linearly independent set of vectors of a finite dimensional space can be enlarged to a basis.
Proof:
(i)  Suppose v1 , v2 , , vm  is a basis for V. Any two basis for a finitely generated
vector space V have same number of elements called dim V. Hence m ý n .
ü Suppose m ý n . If u þV is not a linear combination of v1 , v2 , , vm . Then v1 , , vm , k  ý S is a
linearly independent set with S ý n û 1 . But dim V = n is the maximum number of linearly independent
vectors in V. This is a contradiction and hence uþ Span øv1 , v2 ,ûvm ù and ø v1 , v2 , , vm ù is a basis of V.
(ii) Let v1 , v2 , , vk  be a linearly independent set. If k=n, the proof follows from (i).
If k ü n take Vk û1 ÿ Span ø v1 , , vk ù .Then v1 , v2 , , vk , vk û1 is a linearly independent set. If k û1 ý n , we
have a basis from (i). If k û 1 ü n we can repeat the process. The process stops when the number of
elements in the enlarged set is n.
If V is an n-dimensional vector space and W a subspace of V, then W is finite dimensional, dim W ý dim V
and any basis of W can be extended to a basis of V.
W ý V iff dim W ý dimV .
Example: Let V ý  4 , W = Span {(1,0,0,0), (1,0,1,0)}. ø1,0,0,0ù, ø1,0,1,0ù is a basis for W. To enlarge
this basis to a basis of  4 , we start with U ý ø1,0,0,0 ù , ø1,0,1,0 ù , e1, e2 , e3 , e4  where { e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 } is the
usual basis for 4 .  4 = span (U)
We delete vectors in U that are a linear combination of (1,0,0,0) and (1,0,1,0).
e1 ý ø1,0,0,0 ù , e3 ý  ø1,0,0,0 ù û ø1,0,1,0 ù
The set ø1,0,0,0ù , ø1,0,1,0ù , e  is linearly independent.
2

The set ø1,0,0,0 ù , ø1,0,1,0 ù , e , e  is linearly dependent since e ý  ø1,0,0,0 ù û 1ø1,0,1,0 ù ;

2 3 3 Delete e3
The set ø1,0,0,0 ù , ø1,0,1,0 ù e , e  is linearly independent hence a basis of  .
2 4
4

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12.3 SUMMARY.

In this lecture we have learnt to determine whether a given set of vectors is linearly dependent and
independent and to use the concept of linear dependence and independence to find the basis and
dimension of a given vector space.

12.4 ACTIVITY 12
ö 1 1ö ö1 0ö ö1 1ö
1. Determine whether or not the matrices A ý ÷ ÷, B ý ÷ ÷ and C ý ÷ ÷ are linearly
ø 1 1ø ø0 1ø ø 0 0ø
independent.
2. Determine whether or not the following vectors in  4 are linearly dependent {(1,3,-4,2),(3,8,-
5,7),(2,9,4,23)}
3. Let X be the subspace x ý ø x, y, w, z ù : y û w û z ý 0 . Find the dimension and the basis of X.
4. Find a basis and the dimension of the subspace W of 4 spanned by ø1, 4, 2,1ùø1, 3, 1, 2 ù and
ø 3, 8, 2,7 ù .Extend the basis of W to a basis of the whole space 4 .
5. Let U be the following subspace of 4 : W ý ø a, b, c, d ù a û b ý 0, c ý 2d  . Find the dimension and a
basis of U.
6. Show that the vectors ø1,1,1,1ù , ø 0,1,1,1ù , ø0,0,1,1ù and ø 0, 0, 0,1ù form a basis for 4 .
7. Determine whether or not the vectors u ý ø 6, 2,3, 4 ù ,v ý ø 0,5, 3,1ù and w ý ø 0,0,7, 2 ù are linearly
independent.
8. Let V be the vector space of polynomials of degree  3 over  .Determine whether or not the
polynomials u ý t 3  3t 2 û 5t û 1, v ý t 3  t 2 û 8t û 2 and w ý 2t 3  4t 2 û 9t û 5 are linearly dependent.
9. Let W be a subspace of 5 spanned by ø1, 2,0,0,3ù , ø 2, 5, 3, 2,6 ù , ø0,5,15,10,0 ù and
ø 2,6,18,8,6ù .Find the dimension and a basis of W.
10. Show that the vectors u ý ø1, 2,3ù , v ý ø 0,1, 2 ù and w ý ø 0,0,1ù span 3 .
11. Let U and W be the following subspaces of 4 : U ý ø a, b, c, d ù b  x û d ý 0 ;
W ý ø a, b, c, d ù a ý d , b ý 2c . Find the dimension and a basis of: (a)U (b)W (c) U W

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12.5 FURTHER READING

1. Linear Algebra by Michael O’nan, Herbert Enderton

2. A First Course in Linear Algebra by Daniel Zelisky
3. Elementary Linear Algebra by Bennard Kolman
4. Elementary Linear Algebra by Howard Anton

12.6 SELF-TEST QUESTION 12

1. Determine whether or not u and v .are linearly dependent if:

(a) u ý ø3,4ù, v ý ø1,3ù (b) u ý ø2,3ù, v ý ø6,9ù (c) u ý ø4,3,2ù, v ý ø2,6,7ù

LECTURE THIRTEEN
ö 1  LINES
2 4 ö IN ö 2 3 4 8 ö
(d) u ý ø 4,6,2ù, v ý øPLANES
2,3,1ù (e) u ý
AND
÷÷ ÷÷, v ý ÷÷  ÷
ø3 0  1ø ø6 0  2 ÷ø

ö 1 2  3ö ö6  5 4 ö
(f) u ý ÷÷ ÷÷, v ý ÷÷ ÷÷ (g) u ý 2  5t û 6t 2  t 3 , v ý 3 û 2t  4t 2 û 5t 3
ø 6  5 4 ø ø 1 2  3 ø

2. Determine whether or not the following vectors in 3 are linearly dependent:

(a) ø1,2,1ù, ø2,1,1ù, ø7,4,1ù (c) ø1,2,3ù, ø1,3,2ù, ø2,1,5ù

(b) ø1,3,7ù, ø2,0,6ù, ø3,1,1ù, ø2,4,5ù (d) ø2,3,7ù, ø0,0,0ù, ø3,1,4ù

3. Determine whether or not the following form a basis for the vector space 3 :

(a) ø1,1,1ù and ø1,1,5ù (c) ø1,1,1ù, ø1,2,3ù and ø2,1,1ù

(b) ø1,2,3ù, ø1,0,1ù, ø3,1,0ù and ø2,1,2ù (d) ø1,1,2ù, ø1,2,5ù and ø5,3,4ù

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LECTURE THIRTEEN

PLANES AND LINES IN 

3

INTRODUCTION LECTURE TITLE

This lecture is divided into two subtopics.

In the first subtopic, the learner is introduced to the vector equation of a line, while the
second subtopic covers the vector equation of a plane.

Each concept is illustrated by several examples. An activity in the form of an exercise is

given at the end of the lecture.

Answers to the self test questions in Section 13.6 have been provided at the end of the
module.

For further understanding, the learner is encouraged to read the books recommended in
Section 13.5

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, the learner should be able to:

1. Find the parametric and symmetric equation of a line.

2. Find the equation of a plane.

3. Find the line of intersection of two planes

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13.1 THE VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE

Example: Find the equation of the line through the point A(1,2,3) and B(4,4,4), and find the
co-ordinates of the point where the line meets the plane z = 0.

Solution:
ö 4 ö ö1 ö ö 3 ö
AB ý ÷ 4 ÷  ÷ 2 ÷ ý ÷ 2 ÷ ý 3i û 2 j û k
÷ 4 ÷ ÷ 3 ÷ ÷1 ÷
ø ø ø ø ø ø
Let R be any point on line AB, then
OR ý OA û t AB, where t is a scalar.
ö1ö ö 3ö
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
r ý ÷ 2÷ û t ÷ 2÷ OR
÷ 3÷ ÷1÷
ø ø ø ø
ö 4ö ö 3 ö ö 4 ö ö  3 û 3t ö ö 1 ö ö 3 ö
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
OR = OR + (1-t) BA ý ÷ 4 ÷ û ø1  t ù ÷ 2 ÷ ý ÷ 4 ÷ û ÷  2 û 2t ÷ ý ÷ 2 ÷ û t ÷ 2 ÷
÷ 4÷ ÷ 1 ÷ ÷ 4 ÷ ÷  1 û t ÷ ÷ 3 ÷ ÷ 1 ÷
ø ø ø ø ø ø ø ø ø ø ø ø
The line meets Z = 0 where the z-coordinate is 0. i.e. where 3 +t =0  t = -3.
ö 1 ö ö 3 ö ö 8 ö
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
At this point, r ý ÷ 2 ÷  3 ÷ 2 ÷ ý ÷ 4 ÷ . Point R has coordinates ø 8,  4,0 ù
÷ 3÷ ÷ 1÷ ÷ 0 ÷
ø ø ø ø ø ø

ö pö
÷ ÷
The equation of a line through a point Aøx1 , y0 , z 0 ù and parallel to vector ÷ q ÷ is given by
÷s÷
ø ø
ö x0 ö ö p ö ö x ö ö x0 ö ö p ö ö x ö ö x0 û tp ö
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
r ý ÷ y0 ÷ û t ÷ q ÷ . i.e. ÷ y ÷ ý ÷ y0 ÷ û t ÷ q ÷  ÷ y ÷ ý ÷ y0 û tq ÷
÷z ÷ ÷s ÷ ÷ z ÷ ÷ z ÷ ÷ s ÷ ÷ z ÷ ÷ z û ts ÷
ø 0ø ø ø ø ø ø 0ø ø ø ø ø ø 0 ø
This can be written as
x  x0 y  y 0 z  z 0
tý ý ý
p q s

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13.1 THE VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE (Continued)

Example:
x2 y 4 z 7
1. (a) Write the line ý ý in form r ý a û tu
3 5 2
(b)Show that the line passes through (8,14,11)
(c) Find the unit vector parallel to this line
Solution:
x2 y 4 z 7
(a) t ý ý ý  x ý 2 û 3t , y ý 4 û 5t, z ý 7 û 2t
3 5 2
ö x ö ö 2 û 3t ö ö 2 ö ö 3 ö
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
÷ y ÷ ý ÷ 4 û 5t ÷ ý ÷ 4 ÷ û t ÷ 5 ÷
÷ z ÷ ÷ 7 û 2t ÷ ÷ 7 ÷ ÷ 2 ÷
ø ø ø ø ø ø ø ø
(b) Showing that it passes through (8,14,11)
ö x ö ö 2 û 3t ö 8
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ö ö ö 2 û 3t ý 8 ö
y
÷ ÷ ÷ ý 4 û 5 t ÷ ý ÷÷14 ÷÷  ÷÷ 4 û 5t ý 14 ÷÷  t ý 2
÷ z ÷ ÷ 7 û 2t ÷ ø11 ø ø 7 û 2t ý 11 ø
ø ø ø ø
ö 8 ö ö 2ö ö 3ö
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
÷14 ÷ ý ÷ 4 ÷ û 2 ÷ 5 ÷
÷ 11 ÷ ÷ 7 ÷ ÷ 2 ÷
ø ø ø ø ø ø
(c)The unit vector parallel to this line is
ö 3ö ö 3ö
1 ÷ ÷ 1 ÷ ÷
uý ÷ 5 ÷ ý 39 ÷ 5 ÷
32 û 5 2 û 2 2 ÷ 2 ÷ ÷ 2÷
ø ø ø ø
ö x ö ö 2ö ö 4 ö ö x ö ö 10 ö ö  2ö
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
2. Show that the equations ÷ y ÷ ý ÷ 3 ÷ û m ÷ 6 ÷ and ÷ y ÷ ý ÷ 15 ÷ û n ÷  3 ÷ represent the
÷ z ÷ ÷1÷ ÷  2÷ ÷ z ÷ ÷  3÷ ÷ 1 ÷
ø ø ø ø ø ø ø ø ø ø ø ø
same line.
ö 4 ö ö  2ö ö 4ö ö 2 ö
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
Solution: ÷ 6 ÷ is parallel to ÷  3 ÷ since ÷ 6 ÷ ý 2 ÷ 3 ÷
÷  2÷ ÷ 1 ÷ ÷ 2 ÷ ÷1÷
ø ø ø ø ø ø ø ø
ö 10 ö ö 2 ö ö 4 ö
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
÷ 15 ÷ ý ÷ 3 ÷ û 2 ÷ 6 ÷ ; (10,15,-3) and (2,3,1) are on this line.
÷  3÷ ÷ 1 ÷ ÷  2÷
ø ø ø ø ø ø

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13.2 EQUATION OF A PLANE

It is always possible to find a plane through 3 points. A fourth point may not lie on the plane.
A plane is uniquely determined by 3 points.
The general equation of a plane through points A,B and C is given by
AP ý mAB û n AC i.e. OP ý ñ OA û ò OB û  OC
where ñ û ò û  ý 1
ø ù ø
Since OP  OA ý m OB  OA ý n OC  OA ù
OP ý ø1  m  n ù OA û m OB û n OC
ø1  m  nù û m û n ý 1
Examples:
Find the equation of the plane through Aø1,1,1ù, Bø5,0,0ù and C ø3,2,1ù
Solution:
AP ý mAB û n AC where P (x,y,z)
ö x  1ö ö4ö ö 2ö
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
÷ y  1÷ ý m ÷  1÷ û n ÷ 1 ÷
÷ z  1÷ ÷  1÷ ÷0÷
ø ø ø ø ø ø
ö x ö ö1ö ö4ö ö 2ö
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
÷ y ÷ ý ÷1÷ û m÷  1÷ û n ÷ 1 ÷
÷ z ÷ ÷1÷ ÷  1÷ ÷ 0÷
ø ø ø ø ø ø ø ø

x = 1 + 4m + 2n
y = 1- m +n
z = 1-m
Eliminate n from equation 1 and 2 to get
x – 2y = -1 + 6m
z = 1- m
Eliminate m to get
x – 2y + 6z = 5 which is the equation of the plane

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13.2 EQUATION OF A PLANE (Continued)

Intersection of two planes
Two planes always meet in a straight line.
Examples:
1. Find the equation of the line of intersection for the planes 3x  5 y û z ý 8 and
2x  3 y û z ý 3
Solution: At the line of intersection, the values of x,y,z satisfy both equations.
3x-5y+z = 8
2x-3y+z = 3 -
x-2y = 5
i.e.eliminate z from equation 1and 2 to get
x – 2y = 5, or x = 5+2y. Thus the equation of line is x – 2y – 5 = 0
Since the line can also be obtained by eliminating x or y, we get it in the form
r ý a û tu we Let y = t,  x = 5+2t
,
Substitute in plane 3x-5y+z = 8 to get 3(5+2t) – 5t+z = 8  z = -7 – t
ö x ö ö 5 û 2t ö ö 5 ö ö2ö
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
÷ y÷ ý ÷ t ÷ ý ÷ 0 ÷ û t ÷ 1 ÷
÷ z ÷ ÷  7  t ÷ ÷ 7÷ ÷  1÷
ø ø ø ø ø ø ø ø
Note that the point ø5 û 2t , t ,  7  t ù lies in both planes. i.e.
3x -5y+z=3(5+2t) – 5t+(-7-t) = 8 and
2x – 3y+ z = 2(5+2t) – 3t + (-7-t) = 3
ö x ö ö1ö ö1ö
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
2. Show that the line ÷ y ÷ ý ÷ 2 ÷ û t ÷1÷ lies on the plane 2x +3y-5z = -7.
÷ z ÷ ÷ 3÷ ÷1÷
ø ø ø ø ø ø
Solution: Substitute the point (1+t, 2+t, 3+t) on line in plane equation 2x +3y-5z = -7 to
get
2x+3y – 5z = 2(1+t) +3( 2+t)-5(3+t)=2+2t+6+3t-15-5t=-7
ö 3ö ö1ö ö1ö ö 2ö
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
3. Show that the lines r ý ÷ 5 ÷ û m ÷ 2 ÷ and s ý ÷ 2 ÷ û n ÷ 3 ÷ do not meet i.e. they are skew
÷7÷ ÷1÷ ÷ 3÷ ÷5÷
ø ø ø ø ø ø ø ø
lines.
3 û m ý 1 û 2n ü
Solution: Suppose they meet. Then, 5 û 2m ý 2 û 3n ý . Solving equation 1 and 2 gives
7 û m ý 3 û 5n þ
n ý 1, and m ý 0 . Substituting these values in equation 3 gives 7 û 0  3 û 5  There is no

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13.3 SUMMARY.

In this lecture, we have learnt to find the parametric and symmetric equation of a line, the
equation of a plane and the line of intersection of two planes

13.4 ACTIVITY 13
1. Find the angle between the planes 2 x û y  2 z ý 1 and x  2 y  2 z ý 2 .
2. Find the equation of the plane through the points A ø1,1,1ù , B ø 2,0, 2 ù and C ø 1,1, 2 ù
3. Find the equation of the plane through ø 1, 2,3ù and perpendicular to the planes
2 x  3 y û 4 z ý 1and 3x  5 y û 2 z ý 3 .
x 1 y  3 z  4
4. Write the line û û in the form r ý a û tu and show that it passes
2 3 5
ö7ö
÷ ÷
through ÷ 12 ÷ .
÷ 19 ÷
ø ø
5. Find the distance between the parallel planes x û 2 y  2 z ý 3 and 2 x û 4 y  4 z ý 7
6. Find the equation of the plane passing through the points P ø 4, 1, 1ù , Q ø 2,0,1ù and
R ø 1, 2, 3ù .
7.Find the equation of the line of intersection for the planes 4x+3y + z=10 and x + y + z = 6
8.Find the point of intersection of the lines r ý ø1 û m ù i û ø 2 û m ù i û ø 4 û 2m ù k and
s ý ø1 û 3n ù i û 5nj û ø 3 û 7n ù k . Ans: (4,5,10)

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13.5 FURTHER READING

1. Linear Algebra: Schaum’s Outline Series

2. Linear Algebra by J. N. Sharma, A.R. Vasishta
3. Linear Algebra by Michael O’nan, Herbert Enderton
4. Elementary Linear Algebra by Bennard Kolman
5. Elementary Linear Algebra by Howard Anton

13.6 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS 13

1. Find an equation of the plane passing through the point ø3,1,7ù and perpendicular to the
vector n ý ø4,2,5ù .

2. Find the equation of the plane passing through the points P1 ø1,2,1ù, P2 ø2,3,1ù and P3 ø3,1,2ù .

3. Find The line through the point ø1,2,3ù and parallel to the vector v ý ø4,5,7ù has
parametric equations

4. (a)Find parametric equations for the line l passing through the points P1 ø2,4,1ù and P2 ø5,0,7ù .

(b)Where does the line intersect the xy -plane?

5. Find parametric equations for the line of intersection of the planes 3x û 2 y  4 z  6 ý 0 and
x  3 y  2z  4 ý 0 .

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ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

SELF TEST QUESTIONS 1

ö11  6 14 ö
1 (a) AB ý ÷÷ ÷÷ 1(b) BA is not defined. 2. (a) AB ý ø6,1,3ù (b) BA is not defined.
ø 1 2  14 ø

ö  1  8  10 ö
÷ ÷ ö15  21ö
3. (a) AB ý ÷ 1  2  5 ÷ (b) BA ý ÷÷ ÷÷
÷ 9 22 15 ÷ ø 10  3 ø
ø ø

SELF TEST QUESTIONS 2

ö1 2 4ö
÷ ÷ ö1 3 ö ö 10  1 12 ö
÷0 3 4÷ ÷ ÷ ö 5 1 ö ÷ ÷
At ý ÷ ÷ 2. At ý ÷ 2  1÷ , Then AAt ý ý ÷÷ ÷÷ ; At A ý ÷  1 5  4 ÷
÷
1 4 4
÷ ÷0 4 ÷ ø 1 26 ø ÷ 12  4 16 ÷
÷0 ÷ ø ø ø ø
ø 5 4ø

SELF TEST QUESTIONS 3

3 2 a b a
1. (a) ý 23 (b) ý b 2 2. k ý 0 ;and k ý 2 .That is, if k ý 0 or k ý 2
4 5 b aûb

1 2 3 2 0 1 2 0 1 1 0 0
3. (a) 4  2 3 ý 79 (b) 4 2  3 ý 24 (c) 3 2  3 ý 5 (d) 3 2  4 ý 10
2 5 1 5 3 1 1  3 5 4 1 3

SELF TEST QUESTIONS 4

1 2 3 5 0 9
1. 2  1 3 ý 2  1 3 ,obtained by adding twice the second row to the first row Det=4.
1 0 1 1 0 1

2. -120

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ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS (Continued)

SELF TEST QUESTIONS 5

ö  18 /  46  11 /  46  10 /  46 ö ö 9 / 23 11 / 46 5 / 23 ö
÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
1. A ý øadjA ù ý ÷ 2 /  46
1
1
14 /  46  4 /  46 ÷ ý ÷  1 / 23  7 / 23 2 / 23 ÷
A ÷ 4 /  46
ø 5 /  46  8 /  46 ÷ø ÷ø  2 / 23  5 / 46 4 / 23 ÷ø

2.

SELF TEST QUESTIONS 6

ö1  2 1 ö
÷ ÷
1. ÷ 0 5  3 ÷
÷0 0 0 ÷ø
ø

2. b,e,f are in echelon form; a and f are in canonical form. c and d are not in echelon form.

SELF TEST QUESTIONS 7

1. x1 ý 132 , x2 ý 4, x3 ý 9 2 , x4 ý 3

2. x1 ý 41 x2 ý 1, x3 ý 3, x4 ý 2

3. x1 ý 2, x2 ý 0, x3 ý 1, x4 ý 1

x3 ý k , x 2 ý 2 û k , x, ý 4  k
4.

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ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS (Continued)

SELF TEST QUESTIONS 8

2. 0    , ý 600 3. u.v ý ø2ùø4ù û ø 4ùø2ù ý 0

v ý 12 û 2 2 û 32 ý 14
1.

SELF TEST QUESTIONS 9

SELF TEST QUESTIONS 10

1. L= øx, y ù / y ý 2 x= øx,2 x ù / x þ R

2. Let w1 , w2 þW . w1 ý ø x1 , x1 û 1ù , w2 ý øx2 , x2 û 1ù
w1 û w2 ý ø x1 û x2 , x1 û x2 û 2ù ÿW .OR: ñ ø x1 , x1 û 1ù ý øñ x1 , ñ x1 û ñ ù ÿW ,since ñ  1 . Therefore the
line y ý x û 1 is not a subspace of 
3. For any invertible n ô n matrix A, -A is also invertible.
But A û ø Aù ý 0 not invertible and therefore the set of all invertible n ô n matrices is not a
subspace of the set M n øR ù

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ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS (Continued)

SELF TEST QUESTIONS 11
1. Set v as a linear combination of the e1 using the unknowns x, y and z : v ý xe1 û ye2 û ze3 .
v cannot be written as a linear combination of the vectors e1 ,e2 and e3 .
2. Set u ý xv û yw ; k ý 8 .
3We need to show that an arbitrary vector øa, b, c ùþ 3 is a linear combination of u, v and
w . x ý a, y ý b  2a, z ý c  2b û a is a solution. Thus u, v and w generate 3 .
4. Set øa, b, c ù as a linear combination of u, v and w using unknowns x, y and z :
øa, b, cù ý xu û yv û zw ; 2a  4b  3c ý 0 .
SELF TEST QUESTIONS 12
1. Two vectors u and v are dependent if and only if one is a multiple of the other.
(a)No (b) Yes; for v ý 3u (c)No (d)Yes; for u ý 2v (e)Yes; for v ý 2u (f)No (g)No (h)Yes;
2. (a) Since the echelon matrix has a zero row the vectors are dependent. (The three given
vectors generate a space of dimension 2.)
(b)Yes, since any four (or more) vectors in 3 are dependent.
(c)Since the echelon matrix has no zero rows, the vectors are independent. (The three given
vectors generate a space of dimension 3.)
(d)Since 0 ý ø0,0,0ù is one of the vectors, the vectors are dependent
3. (a)and (b). No; for a basis of 3 must contain exactly 3 elements, since 3 is of dimension 3.
(c)The vectors form a basis if and only if they are independent. The echelon matrix has no
zero rows; hence the three vectors are independent and so form a basis for 3 .
(d)The echelon matrix has a zero row, i.e. only two non zero rows; hence the three vectors are
dependent and so do not form a basis for 3 .

SELF TEST QUESTIONS 13

x ý 1 û 4t x ý 2 û 3t
1. 4 x û 2 y  5z û 25 ý 0 2. 9 x û y  5z 16 ý 0 3. y ý 2 û 5t 4.(a) y ý 4  4t
z ý  3  7t z ý  1 û 8t
26 16
x ý û t
11 11
ö 19 7 ö
(b) øx, y, z ù ý ÷÷ , ,0 ÷÷
6 2
5. y ý   t where   ü t ü û
ø8 2 ø 11 11
z ý t

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