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33
Elementary
Arithmetic-I
Number System
Number A number tells us how many times a unit is contained in a
given quantity.
Numeral A group of figures (digits), representing a number, is
called a numeral.

Face Value and Place Value of the Digits

In a numeral, the face value of a digit is the value.
In a numeral, the place value of a digit changes according to the
change of its place.
e.g. In the numeral 576432, the face value of 6 is 6 and the place value
of 6 is 6000.

Types of Number System

(i) Binary Number System (Base-2) It represents numerical
values using two digits usually ‘0’ and ‘1’. This system is used
internally by computers and electronics.
For binary systems, as we move left to the decimal point number
gets 2 times bigger and as we move right to the decimal every
number gets 2 times smaller.
e.g. 1011101
. = 1 × 2 3 + 0 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 1 × 20 + 1 × 2−1
+ 0 × 2−2 + 1 × 2−3
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5
Binary number 0 1 10 11 100 101

(ii) Octal Number System (Base-8) It represents numerical

values using 8 digits from ‘0’ to ‘7’.
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348 Handbook of Mathematics

As we move left to the decimal point number gets 8 times bigger

and as we move right to the decimal point number gets 8 times
smaller.
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Octal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12

(iii) Hexadecimal Number System (Base-16) Every numerical

value in this system is represented by decimal numbers 0 to 9
and letters ( A, B, C, D, E, F ) in place of number 10 to 15. As we
move left to decimal number gets 16 times bigger and as we
move right to the decimal numbers gets smaller by 16.

Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
number

(iv) Roman Number System Roman Numerals and their

corresponding Indo-Arabic numerals
Roman numerals I V X L C D M
Indo-Arabic numerals 1 5 10 50 100 500 1000

(v) Decimal Number System Numeric values are represented

by using digits from ‘0’ to ‘9’.

Classification of Numbers in
Decimal Number System
Real Number

Rational Number Irrational Number

Integer Non-Integer Rational Number

Positive Integer Negative Integer Whole Number Natural Number

Natural Numbers Numbers starting from 1, having no fraction

part, which we use in counting the objects, denoted by N.
N = { 1, 2, 3, K }
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Elementary Arithmetic-I 349

Whole Numbers The system of Natural numbers along with
number 0, is called whole number (W ).
W = { 0, 1, 2, 3, K }

Different Types of Natural Number

(i) Even Number A number, which is multiple of 2 is called an
even number.
(ii) Odd Number A number, which is not a multiple of 2 is called
an odd number.
(iii) Prime Number The number which can be divided only by
itself and 1 is called prime number.
e.g. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, ...
(iv) Composite Number The number which can be divided by a
number other than 1 and the number itself is called composite
number.
(v) Consecutive Number A series of numbers in which each
number is greater by 1 than the number which precedes it.
Method to Determine a Given Number is Prime or Not
Step I Find a new number larger than the approximate square
root of given number.
Step II Test whether the new number is divisible by any prime
number.
Step III If the new number is not divisible by any of the prime
number, then given number is a prime number otherwise
it is composite number.

Division on Numbers (Division Algorithm)

Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be two integers such that b ≠ 0 on dividing ‘ a ’ by ‘ b’.
Let ‘ q ’ be the quotient and ‘ r ’ the remainder, then the relationship
between a, b, q and r is a = bq + r.
or in general, we have
Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder
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350 Handbook of Mathematics

Test of Divisibility on a Natural Number

(i) Divisibility by 2 A number is divisible by 2, if digit on unit
place is 0, 2, 4, 6, 8.
(ii) Divisibility by 3 If the sum of the digits of a number is
divisible by 3, then the number is divisible by 3.
(iii) Divisibility by 4 If the last two digits of a number is divisible
by 4 or the last two digits are ‘00’, then the number is divisible
by 4.
(iv) Divisibility by 5 A given number is divisible by 5, if 0 or 5
comes at unit place.
(v) Divisibility by 6 If a given number is divisible by 2 and 3,
then it is divisible by 6.
(vi) Divisibility by 7
(a) If a number is formed by repeating a digit six times, the
number is divisible by 7, 11 and 13. e.g. 666666.
(b) If a number is formed by repeating a two-digit number three
times, the number is divisible by 7. e.g. 676767.
(c) If a number is formed by repeating a three-digit number two
times, the number is divisible by 7, 11 and 13. e.g. 453453.
(vii) Divisibility by 8 If the last 3 digits of a number is divisible
by 8 or the numbers ends with ‘000’, then it is divisible by 8.
(viii) Divisibility by 9 If the sum of the digits of a number is
divisible by 9, then the number is divisible by 9.
(ix) Divisibility by 10 If ‘0’ comes at unit place of a number, then
it is divisible by 10.
(x) Divisibility by 11 A given number is divisible by 11, if the
difference between the sum of the digits in odd places and the
sum of the digits in the even places is either 0 or a multiple by 11.
(xi) Divisibility by 12 If a given number is divisible by 4 and 3,
then it is divisible by 12.
(xii) Divisibility by 25 When the number formed by last two
digits is divisible by 25.
(xiii) Divisibility by 27 When the sum of the digit of the number is
divisible by 27.
(xiv) Divisibility by 125 When the number formed by last three
digits is divisible by 125.
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Elementary Arithmetic-I 351

Important Results on Divisibility
1. If N is a composite number of the form a p ⋅ bq ⋅ cr ... , where a , b
and c are primes, then the number of divisors of N is given by
( p + 1) ( q + 1) (r + 1)... .
2. The sum of the divisors of N is given by
( a p + 1 − 1) ( bq + 1 − 1) ( cr + 1 − 1)
S= ⋅ ⋅
a−1 b−1 c−1

Important Results of Natural Numbers

n( n + 1)
(i) The sum of first n natural numbers =
2
n
n( n + 1)
i.e. ∑ r=
2
r =1

(ii) The sum of the squares of first n natural numbers

n
n( n + 1) ( 2n + 1)
∑r2 = 6
r =1

(iii) The sum of the cubes of first n natural numbers

2 2
n
 n( n + 1)  n 
∑ r3 =  2  =  ∑ r
r =1 r =1

(iv) The sum of first n odd numbers

(1 + 3 + 5 + 7 +K + upto n terms) = n 2
(v) The sum of first n even numbers
(2 + 4 + 6 + K + upto n terms) = n( n + 1)
(vi) The sum of the square of first n odd numbers
n
(12 + 32 + 52 + K + upto n terms) = ( 4n 2 − 1)
3
(vii) The sum of the square of first n even numbers
2n( n + 1)( 2n + 1)
(22 + 42 + 62 + K + upto n terms) =
3
(viii) The sum of n terms of the series
1 + (1 + 2) + (1 + 2 + 3) + K + (1 + 2 + 3 + K + n )
1
= n( n + 1)( n + 2)
6
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352 Handbook of Mathematics

Important Points to be Remembered

(i) The product of any n consecutive numbers is divisible by n!.
(ii) The product of any two consecutive odd or even numbers increased by 1
is a perfect square.
e.g. (i) 11 × 13 + 1 = 144 = 122 (ii) 12 × 14 + 1 = 169 = (13) 2
(iii) The difference between the squares of two consecutive numbers is equal
to the sum of those consecutive numbers.
152 − 142 = 15 + 14 = 29

Rule to Determine the Digit at Unit Place

Rule 1. For odd numbers When there is an odd digit at the unit
place of the base (except 5), multiplying the number itself until you get
1 in the unit place.
(K1)n = (K1) (K3)4n = (K1)
(K7) = (K1)
4n
(K9)2n = (K1)
Rule 2. For even numbers When there is an even digit at unit place
of the base, multiplying the number by itself until you get 6 in the unit
place.
(...2)4n = (...6) (K6)n = (K6)
(K4)2n = (K6) (K8)4n = (K6)
Rule 3. 1, 5, 6 at unit’s place. If there is 1, 5 or 6 at the unit place of
base, then any times of its multiplication, it will get the same digit in
unit place.
(... 1)n = (... 1)
(... 5)n = (... 5)
(... 6)n = (... 6)

Integers
Any number having sign ‘+’ ve or ‘–’ ve without having any fractional
part is called integer (including zero).
I or Z = {K ,− 3, − 2, − 1, 0, 1, 2, 3,K }

Important Points to be Remembered

(i) If n is a natural number, then the number of integers between − n and n
is 2n − 1.
(ii) If n and m are natural numbers such that n < m, then numbers of integers
between n and m is m − n − 1.
(iii) If n and m are natural number, then number of integers between − n and
m is m + n − 1.
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Elementary Arithmetic-I 353

Rational Numbers
p
A number which can be written in the form of , where p, q ∈ Z and
q
q ≠ 0, is called rational number. A rational number can be expressed as
decimal based, on which rational number are of two types :
(i) Terminating If the prime factors of denominator contains no
factor other than 2 and 5, it is terminating.
(ii) Non-terminating Recurring If the prime factors of
denominator contains factor other than 2 and 5, is
non-terminating recurring rational number.

Rational Number between Two Rational Numbers

If a and b are two distinct rational numbers such that a < b, then
n rational numbers between a and b, may be
b− a
ai = a + × i, where i = 1, 2, 3, K , n.
n +1

Irrational Number
An irrational number is a non-terminating, non-recurring decimal,
which cannot be written in the form of p / q, is called irrational number.

Important Points to be Remembered

(i) The number x , x is not a perfect square, is an irrational number and
x + y is also irrational.
(ii) π is an irrational number.
(iii) 0 is not an irrational number.
(iv) Sum, difference, product and quotient of two irrational numbers may be
rational or irrational.
(v) Sum, difference, product and quotient of one rational and other irrational
number is always irrational.
(vi) If a and b are two distinct rational numbers, then for a < b, n irrational
numbers between a and b may be
b−a
ai = a + 2 × i, where i = 1, 2, 3,K , n.
2(n + 1)

Real Number
Any number, which is either rational or irrational is called real
number and it is denoted by the symbol R.
i.e. R = {Set of all rational and irrational numbers}
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354 Handbook of Mathematics

Properties of Real Numbers

(i) Commutative property of addition
a+ b= b+ a
(ii) Commutative property of multiplication
a ⋅ b = b⋅ a
(iii) Associative property of addition
a + ( b + c) = ( a + b) + c
(iv) Associative property of multiplication
a ⋅ ( b ⋅ c) = ( a ⋅ b) ⋅ c
(v) Left distributive property
a ⋅ ( b + c) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c
(vi) Right distributive property
( b + c) ⋅ a = b ⋅ a + c ⋅ a
(vii) Additive identity property
a+ 0= a
(viii) Multiplicative identity property
a ⋅1 = a
(ix) Additive inverse property
a + (− a) = 0
(x) Multiplicative inverse property
 1
a⋅  =1
 a
Note Here, a cannot be 0.
(xi) Zero property a ⋅ 0 = 0

Complex Numbers
If a and b are two real numbers, then the number ( a + ib) is called the
complex number and it is denoted by the symbol C.
i.e. C = { a + ib, a , b ∈ R }
Here, a is called real part and b is called imaginary part.
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Elementary Arithmetic-I 355

Fraction
Fraction A fraction is a number representing ratio or division of two
natural numbers.
Types of Fractions
(i) Proper Fraction A fraction, having numerator smaller than
2 5 3
the denominator. e.g. , , .
3 8 7
(ii) Improper Fraction A fraction, having numerator greater
2 2 5 9
than or equal to denominator. e.g. , , , .
2 1 3 6
(iii) Like Fractions Fractions having same value in denominator.
2 6 11 7
e.g. , , , .
5 5 5 5
(iv) Unlike Fractions Fractions having different values in
2 2 2 2
denominator. e.g. , , , .
3 5 11 13
(v) Equivalent Fraction Fractions representing the same ratio
3 6 9 12
or numbers are called equivalent fraction. e.g. = = = .
5 10 15 20
(vi) Mixed Fraction It consists of two parts, an integer and a
1 1
fraction. e.g. 2 , 5 .
3 4
(vii) Decimal Fraction A fraction having 10 or power of 10 in the
5 2 61
denominator. e.g. , , .
100 10 1000
(viii) Vulgar/Common Fraction Fraction having denominator
7 5
other than 10 (or power of 10). e.g. , .
3 6
(ix) Complex Fraction A fraction, in which numerator and
7/ 3 2/ 7
denominator, both are fractions. e.g. , .
2/ 5 5/ 6
Comparison of Fractions
Fraction can be compared by any of the given method.
(i) LCM Method By taking LCM of all the denominators in the
given fraction, then comparing their numerators by making
their denominators equal.
(ii) Decimal Method By converting fractional numbers into their
corresponding decimal numbers, which can be easily compared.
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356 Handbook of Mathematics

a
(iii) Cross-multiplication Method If we have two fractions
b
c
and , then cross-multiply the fraction. i.e. we get ad and bc.
d
The fraction, whose numerator after cross-multiplication gives
the greater value is greater.
a c
i.e. If ad > bc, then > .
b d

Ascending/Descending Orders in Fraction

Rule 1. When numerator and denominator of the fractions increase
by a constant value, then the last fraction is the greatest fraction.
x x + a x + 2a x + na
i.e. , , ,K , .
y y + b y + 2b y + nb
x + na
Then, is greatest, if a ≥ b.
y + nb
Rule 2. In above case, consider a < b
a x x + na
(i) If > , then is greatest.
b y y + nb
a x x + na
(ii) If < , then is smallest.
b y y + nb
a x
(iii) If = , all values are equal.
b y
Rule 3. For arranging fractions in ascending/descending order
Step I Compare first two numbers.
Step II Compare the third number with the one obtained in Step I
(larger/smaller depending upon ascending/descending
order).
Step III Repeat Step II until the last term.

Power and Index

If a number a is multiplied by itself n times, then product is called nth
power of a and is written as a n . In a n , a is called the base and n is the
index.
(i) If a is a rational number and m is a positive integer, then
a m = a × a × K × a( m times) or a m = a × a × a × K × a
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Elementary Arithmetic-I 357

(ii) If a is a non-zero rational number and m is a positive integer,
then
a − m = a −1 × a −1 × a −1 × ... × a −1( m times)
m
1 1 1  1
= × × K × (m times) =  
a a a  a
(iii) If a and b are non-zero rational numbers and m is a positive
integer such that a m = b, then we may write b1/ m = a.
b1/ m may also be written as m b (mth root of b).
(iv) Let a be a non-zero rational number and p/ q be a positive
rational number, then a p/ q may be defined as
a p/ q = ( a p )1/ q read as ‘qth root of the pth power of a’.
q
or a p/ q = ( a1/ q ) p = ( a ) p read as ‘ pth power of qth root of a’.
(v) If a is a non-zero rational number, then for positive rational
exponent p / q, then number a − p/ q may be defined as
p/ q
1  1
a− p/ q
= =   . We say a − p/ q is reciprocal of a p/ q on
a p/q  a
( p / q )th power of the reciprocal of a.
(vi) Laws of Exponents If a and b are positive rational numbers
and m and n are rational exponents (positive or negative), then
Rule 1. a m × a n = a m + n Rule 2. a m ÷ a n = a m − n
Rule 3. ( a m )n = a m × n Rule 4. a m bm = ( a ⋅ b)m
Rule 5. a 0 = 1 Rule 6. ( a / b)m = a m / bm
Rule 7. a − m = 1 / a m Rule 8. ( a / b)− m = ( b / a )m
(vii) Exponential Radical Forms If y is a positive rational
number and q is a positive integer, then y1/ q = x, or x = q y
denotes the positive real qth root of y.
(a) The form y1/ q is called exponential form. The number y is
called the base and 1 / q is called its exponent.
(b) The form q y is called the radical form. The number q is
called the index of the radical and y is called the radicand.
The index of the radical is always taken positive.
Note (i) A number written in exponential form can also be expressed in radical
form and vice-versa.
(ii) If a number expressed in exponential form has a negative exponent,
then first the exponent must be changed to positive by taking the
reciprocal of the base.
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358 Handbook of Mathematics

Surds
Irrational root of a rational number is called a surd.
If n is a positive integer and a is a positive rational number, which
cannot be expressed as the nth power of some rational number, then
the irrational number, n a or a1/ n that is the positive nth root of a, is
called surd or a radical. The symbol n is called the radical sign, n
is called the order of the surd (or radical) and a is called the
3
radicand. Hence, 2 is not a surd as 2 is not a rational number.
However, 7 is a surd as 7 is a rational number and square root of 7 is
not a rational number.
64 is not a surd as though 64 is a rational number but 64 = 8, which
is not an irrational number.
∴ 6
12 is a surd of order 6.

Properties of Surds
1. Every surd is a real number. However, every real number is not
a surd.
2. A surd of order 2 is called a quadratic surd or square root. Hence,
4
7 , 25 , are quadratic surds.
7
3. A surd of order 3 is called a cubic surd or cubic root. Hence,
3
2 , 33 5 , 3 2 / 5 are cubic surds.
4. A surd of order 4 is called a biquadratic surd.
7
Hence, 4 5 , 2 4 7 , 4 4
are biquadratic surds.
5
5. A surd containing only one term is called a monomial surd.
Hence, − 2 3 5 , 34 7 are monomial surds.
6. If n a is surd, then ( n a )n = a.
7. If n a and n b are surds, then n a × n
b= n
ab
n
a a
8. If n a and n b are surds, then =n n
b b
n
9. If a is a surd and m is a positive integer, then
m n
a = n m
a = mn
a.
n n mn
10. If p
a is a surd and m is a positive integer, then ap = a pm
(index of the radical and the exponent of the radical are
multiplied by same positive integer m).
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Elementary Arithmetic-I 359

11. A surd which has a rational factor other than unity, the other
factor being irrational is called a mixed surd.
2
Thus, 2 3 , 7 3 2 , 4 7 are mixed surds.
3
12. A surd which has unity as its rational factor, the other factor
being rational, is called a pure surd.
Thus, 10 , 3 4 , 5 7 are pure surds.
13. Two surds of same order can be compared by just comparing
their radicands. If n a and n b are surds, then n a > n b, if a > b
and n a < n
b, if a < b.
14. If two surds are not of same order, then to compare them they
must first be reduced to same order.
Let n a and m b are surds such that m ≠ n.
Let LCM of m and n be p. Then, to compare them both must be
reduced to pth order.
15. Surds having same irrational factor are called similar or like
surds.
4 1
Thus, 3 2 , 2, − 2 2, − 2 are similar surds (each has same
3 3
irrational factor of 2).
16. Only like surds can be added or subtracted. If x n a and y n a are
surds, then x n a + y n a = (x + y) n a
and x n a − y n a = (x − y) n a.
17. Product of a surd with a rational number is again a surd.
n
18. If p and q are rational numbers and a is a surd, then
p × ( q n a ) = pq n a .
19. Surds of same order can be multiplied as follows
n
a×nb= n a × b (radicands get multiplied and order remains
same).
Also, p n a × q n
b = p× q n
a × b (rational factor of first gets
multiplied by rational factor of second. Radicand of first gets
multiplied by radicand of second. Order remains same).
20. If n a is a surd in simplest form, then its simplest rationalising
a n −1 .
n
factor is
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360 Handbook of Mathematics

n
21. If a p is a surd in simplest form, then its simplest rationalising
an − p.
n
factor is
n
22. If a pbq is a surd in simplest form, then its simplest
a n − pbn − q .
n
rationalising factor is
23. A surd containing only two distinct terms is called a binomial
surd. Hence, 2 + 3 , 2 3 + 3 2 , 7 + 3 are binomial surds.
24. Two binomial surds are said to be conjugates of each other, if
they differ only in sign (+ or –) connecting them.
Thus, 2 2 + 3 3 and 2 2 − 3 3 are conjugates of each other.
25. Rationalising factor of a binomial surd is its conjugate.
e.g. Rationalising factor of a b + c d is a b − c d .
26. Surds containing three distinct terms is called a trinomial
surd. Hence, 7 + 2 + 3 3 , 7 − 2 + 3 are trinomial surds.

Some Useful Results

(i) ( a ) = a2
(ii) ( a b )2 = a × a × b
1 a 1 a− b
(iii) = (iv) =
a a a+ b a −b
1 a+ b a + b a + b + 2 ab
(v) = (vi) =
a− b a −b a− b a −b
a − b a + b − 2 ab a+ b a − b 2( a + b)
(vii) = (viii) + =
a+ b a −b a− b a+ b a −b

General Formulae Used for Solving Product

(i) ( x ± y )2 = x 2 ± 2xy + y 2
(ii) ( x + y )( x − y ) = x 2 − y 2
(iii) ( x + y )3 = x3 + 3x 2 y + 3xy 2 + y3
(iv) ( x − y )3 = x3 − y3 − 3xy ( x − y ) = x3 − y3 + 3xy 2 − 3x 2 y
(v) ( x + y + z )2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2xy + 2 yz + 2xz
(vi) x3 + y3 = ( x + y )( x 2 + y 2 − xy )
(vii) x3 − y3 = ( x − y )3 + 3xy ( x − y ) = ( x − y )( x 2 + y 2 + xy )
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Elementary Arithmetic-I 361

(viii) ( x + a )( x + b) = x 2 + ( a + b)x + ab
(ix) ( x3 + y3 + z3 − 3xyz ) = ( x + y + z ) ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − xy − yz − zx )
If x + y + z = 0 ⇔ x3 + y3 + z3 = 3xyz
(x) x 4 + x 2 y 2 + y 4 = ( x 2 + xy + y 2 )( x 2 − xy + y 2 )
(xi) x3 + y3 + z3 = ( x + y + z )3 − 3( x + y )( y + z )( x + z )
(xii) ( x + y )( y + z )( z + x ) = ( x + y + z )( xy + yz + zx ) − xyz
(xiii) ( x − y )2 + ( y − z )2 + ( z − x )2 = 2( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − xy − yz − zx )
(xiv) a + b = ( a − b)2 + 4ab

(xv) a − b = ( a + b)2 − 4ab

HCF and LCM

Factor and Multiple
Factor A number which can divide a given number exactly, is called
a factor of that number.
Multiple A number which is divisible by a given number, is called
multiple of that number.

HCF (Highest Common Factor)

HCF of two or more numbers is the greatest number, which divides all
the given numbers exactly.

1. Prime Factorization Method

Break the given numbers into their prime factor, the product of the
prime factors, common to all numbers gives the HCF.

2. Division Method
Step I Divide the larger number by smaller number.
Step II Take remainder (as obtained in Step I) as divisor and the
last divisor as the dividend.
Step III Repeat Step II until 0 is obtained as remainder. The last
divisor will be the required HCF.
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362 Handbook of Mathematics

1. HCF of More than Two Numbers

First, find the HCF of first two numbers by any of the two methods.
Next, find HCF of the third number and previously found HCF.
Similarly, it can be done for any number of numbers.

2. HCF of Decimals
Step I First make the same number of decimal places in all the
given numbers.
Step II Remove the decimals as if they are integers, thus obtain
the HCF of obtained integers.
Step III Place as many decimal places in the obtained HCF as
there are decimal places in each of the numbers.

3. HCF of Fractions
HCF of fractions, after expressing them in their lowest form
HCF of numerator
=
LCM of denominator

LCM (Least Common Multiple)

The least number which is exactly divisible by two or more given
numbers is called LCM of those numbers.

Factorization Method to Find LCM

Step I Find prime factors of each of the given number.
Step II Find the product of all the prime factors which appears
greatest number of times in the prime factorization of any
given numbers. The product is the required LCM.

1. LCM of Decimals
Step I Make the same number of decimal places in all the given
numbers.
Step II Remove the decimal and consider the numbers as integer.
Step III Find LCM of obtained integers.
Step IV Mark as many decimal places as there are decimal places
in each of the number.
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2. LCM of Fractions
LCM of the fraction numbers, after expressing them in their lowest
LCM of numerator
form = .
HCF of denominator

Important Points to be Remembered

(i) For two numbers a and b, HCF × LCM = a × b.
a ×b × c
(ii) For three numbers a, b, c; LCM = .
(HCF)2
(iii) For n numbers a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ,... , an
a × a × a × K × an
LCM = 1 2 3 n − 1 .
(HCF)
(iv) If x is a factor of y, then HCF = x and LCM = y
(v) To obtain the greatest number that divide x , y and z leaving remainders
p, q and r, we will find the HCF of ( x − p), ( y − q) and ( z − r).
(vi) To obtain the lowest number, which when divided by x , y and z leaving
remainder p , q and r respectively, then
( x − p) = ( y − q) = ( z − r) = k (say).
Required number = (LCM of x , y and z) − k

Simplification
In mathematical expression, which consists of several operations.
Then, operations should be performed in the order of each of the letter
of ‘BODMAS’.
B → Brackets ( ), { }, [ ]
O → Of of
D → Division ÷
M → Multiplication ×
A → Addition +
S → Subtraction −
Note Brackets must be removed in the order of ( ) , { } and [ ].

Quicker Methods
(i) For addition/subtraction of mixed fraction.
Step I Add/subtract integer part only.
Step II Add/subtract fraction part only.
Step III Add both the results.
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364 Handbook of Mathematics

(ii) For subtraction of a whole number and fraction.

Step I Subtract 1 from the whole number.
Step II In the fraction number, subtract numerator from the
denominator and write in numerator.
Step III Add both the results.
23
e.g.Consider mixed fraction 6 −
25
Step I 6 − 1 = 5
25 − 23 2
Step II =
25 25
2 2
Step III 5 + =5
25 25

Average
Average is the ratio of the sum of the distributed data among different
objects divided by number of data.
Sum of data
i.e. Average =
Number of data
and Sum of data = Average × Number of data

Combined Average
(i) If x and y is the average of objects m and n respectively, then the
mx + ny
combined average of the data =
m+n
(ii) If x , y and z are the average of objects m, n and p respectively,
then combined average of the data
mx + ny + pz
=
m+n+ p

Important Results on Average

(i) When the same value x is added to each element of the data,
then new average = original average + x
(ii) When the same value x is subtracted from each element of the
data, then new average = original average − x
(iii) When the same value x is multiplied to each element of data,
then new average = original average × x
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Elementary Arithmetic-I 365

(iv) When one element, x is removed from the data, then
Sum of data − x
New average =
Number of elements − 1
(v) When one element x is added to the data, then
Sum of data + x
New average =
Number of elements + 1
(vi) When one of the data is wrongly taken, then
New average
Number of data × Incorrect average − Incorrect value
 
 + Correct value
=
Number of data
(vii) When more than one value is wrongly taken,
Correct average
Number of data × Incorrect average − Sum of incorrect data
 
 + Sum of correct data 
=
Number of data
n +1
(viii) The average of first n natural numbers =
2
(ix) If a person travels half of the distance at x km/h and rest of the
distance at y km/h, then average speed during whole journey
2xy
=
x+ y
(x) If the average age of m boys is x and the average age of n boys out
of them is y, then the average age of the rest of the boys is
mx − ny
.
m−n

Ratio and Proportion

Ratio
Ratio is the relation between one quantity and another quantity, given
that both quantity must be of the same kind and same unit, denoted by
x : y , read as ‘x ’ is to ‘y’
where, x is called antecedent and y is called consequent.
Note If antecedent and consequent of a ratio is multiplied/divided by the same
number, then ratio remains same.
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366 Handbook of Mathematics

Compositions of Ratios
(i) Compound Ratio Ratio obtained by multiplying together the
antecedents of different ratios to get a new antecedent and
consequents to get a new consequents is called compound ratio.
i.e., for a : b, c : d , e : f , compound ratio = ace : bdf
(ii) Duplicate Ratio For x : y , duplicate ratio = x 2 : y 2
(iii) Triplicate Ratio For x : y , triplicate ratio = x3 : y3
(iv) Subduplicate Ratio For x : y, subduplicate ratio = x : y
(v) Subtriplicate Ratio For x : y, subtriplicate ratio = x1/ 3 : y1/ 3
(vi) Inverse Ratio/Reciprocal Ratio
For x : y, inverse ratio = y : x

Types of Ratios
For a ratio x : y,
(i) if x = y, then ratio is of equality.
(ii) if x > y , then ratio is of greater inequality.
(iii) if x < y , then ratio is of lesser inequality.

Some Important Results

(i) If ratio between first and second quantity is a : b and the ratio
between second and third quantity is c : d, then ratio among
first, second and third quantity is
ac : bc : bd
(ii) If the ratio between first and second quantity is a : b, ratio
between second and third quantity is c : d and the ratio between
third and fourth quantity is e : f , then ratio among first, second,
third and fourth quantity is
ace : bce : bde : bdf
(iii) To divide n things between two objects in the ratio x : y : z, then
x y
First object share = × n; Second object share = ×n
x+ y x+ y

Proportion
When the ratio of two quantities is same as the ratio of two other
quantities, then these quantities are said to be in proportion. i.e.
If a : b = c : d, then a, b, c and d are in proportions, where a and d are
called extremes and b and c are called means. And a : b = c : d is
denoted by a : b :: c : d or ad = bc ⇒ Product of means = Product of
extremes
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Elementary Arithmetic-I 367

1. Continued Proportion
(i) Quantities a , b and c are called continued proportion, if
a b
a : b = b : c i.e. = .
b c
‘b’ is called mean proportional of a and c and b = ac
b2
and c is called third proportional of a and b and c =
a
(ii) Quantities a , b, c, d and e are called in continued proportion, if
a b c d
a : b = b : c = c : d = d : e i.e. = = = .
b c d e

2. Direct Proportion
Two quantities are said to be in direct proportion, if by increasing or
decreasing one of the quantities, the other increases or decreases,
respectively to the same extent.

3. Indirect Proportion
Two quantities are said to be in indirect proportion, if by increasing or
decreasing one of the quantities, the other decreases or increases,
respectively to the same extent.

Some Important Results

(i) Invertendo If a : b :: c : d, then b : a : : d : c
(ii) Alternendo If a : b : : c : d, then a : c : : b : d
(iii) Componendo If a : b : : c : d, then ( a + b) : b :: ( c + d ) : d
(iv) Dividendo If a : b : : c : d, then ( a − b) : b :: ( c − d ) : d
(v) Componendo and Dividendo If a : b : : c : d, then
( a + b) : ( a − b) : : ( c + d ) : ( c − d )
a c e
(vi) If = = = K , then each ratio is equal to
b d f
a + c + e +K pa + qc + re + K
(a) (b)
b + d + f +K pb + qd + rf + K
1/ n
 pa n + qcn + ren + K 
(c)  n 
 pb + qd + rf + K
n n