CHAPTER 17 The global coastlines

Introduction Little time is devoted to marine and coastal environments and processes in modern curricula, compared with their great extent or even, more pragmatically, their influence on a wide range of planetary environments. They are also, inevitably, a vast repository of evidence of recent environmental change which is central to most environmental studies. However, although the coast itself is accessible especially in the British Isles, to the preoccupation of its island people active processes are often inaccessible on grounds of safety and/or its underwater location. The treatment here emphasises the dynamic changes affecting coastlines recently and currently, and in an historical and human context, rather than review apparently static landforms. Much can also be gained from the field study of wave forms and associated sediment movements at an acceptable level of safety. Coastal energy, erosion and deposition are also treated in the context of a dynamic global coastline influenced by morphotectonic and planetary forces. Coastal geomorphic processes depend primarily on the energy of waves, wavegenerated currents and tidal currents, which are therefore set out first, emphasising breaking wave form and the extent of the intertidal zone. Erosion is outlined in terms of particular forces applied to specific coastal material properties, together with the enabling role provided by water-layer weathering in the intertidal and spray zones. Sediment transport and erosion are considered against a framework of breaking waves and longshore currents. Sediment sources are noted and the Holocene context of global sea-level rise, driving sediments inshore across the continental shelf and providing a finite source of nourishment for later Holocene coasts, should be emphasised. Following this review of processes, four principal coastal landsystems are described deltas, estuaries and lagoons, barriers and barrier islands and rock coasts. The chapter concludes with an assessment of the global coastline and suggests evidence for morphotectonic, tidal cycle, wave environment and sea-level controls. Chapter Summary Wave, current and tidal action Waves transmit energy which is converted to geomorphic work on meeting the coast. Wave form and wave train parameters are established offshore but are progressively modified by inshore water depth and coastal geometry. Waves may be reflected in deep water but are retarded and refracted inshore, where they are transformed into breaking waves in shallow water. Wave energy delivered to the shore increases with breaking height, which increases in turn with the rate of shoaling (shallowing), and breaking style influences the way in which kinetic energy is used. Breaking waves generate a shoreward pulse or current of water (swash) on breaking and, when this runs out of momentum, gravity draws it back seawards in due course (backwash). Lateral (longshore) currents drain water held up by 1

the mutual impedance of swash and backwash, swash moving onshore diagonally from refracted waves and from edge waves. This surf zone is characterized by turbulent water exchange and maximum geomorphic activity and its vertical amplitude is determined by normal tidal range and the height of storm surges. Tides also contribute ebb and flow currents of water, energy and sediment, determined initially by tidal wave velocity in open water which increases in estuaries and tidal passes. Variations in quantity and pattern depend on tidal frequency and the extent of the intertidal zone.

Coastal geomorphic processes Waves and tides dominate the coastal energy environment, with wind energy playing a subsidiary role except in the backshore and hinterland. Water energy is either reflected or dissipated in the intertidal zone by turbulence, bed friction or movement of earth materials. Prior to breaking, wave height increase converts potential to kinetic energy, which is then delivered through hydraulic pressure, water jets and sheets, depending on the breaking style. Energy is mostly dissipated by friction in spilling waves but collapsing and surging styles push water sheets shorewards. Plunging waves are the most dramatic, with a vortex, headed by a jet which can penetrate and scour the bed, and onward microbores. Wave run-up endows water percolating the beach and backwash with potential energy capable of erosion and transport. Erosion occurs through repeated hydraulic action capable of quarrying hard rock, through head-on compressive stresses and tangential shear stress along rock fractures. Erosion also mobilizes soft sediments, and entrained particles are effective agents of corrasion and attrition. Subaerial weathering prepares coastal materials for marine erosion but more specific coastal water-layer weathering processes occur in the intertidal zone and within reach of sea spray. Porous rocks experience slaking, hydration and salt weathering and marine biogenic activity, facilitating carbonate solution, etc. Coastal sediments are derived from terrigenous materials moved seaward by rivers and glaciers, offshore materials moved landward, coastal erosion products and biogenic sediments. Predominance of swash or backwash determines the constructive or erosional character of waves. Storm waves alone are capable of transferring coarse sediment seaward of the surf zone and substantial quantities of sediment are in longshore transit.

Coastal landsystems The coastline forms a major global boundary, separating land and sea, and four principal types are recognized. Deltas, estuaries and lagoons represent incursions of one domain into the other, whereas barriers and rock coasts tend to make a more clear-cut separation. 2

Deltas are seaward extensions of river flood plains, best developed on trailing edge coasts. Modern deltas may continue to prograde but are often versions of deltas drawn across the continental shelf during low Pleistocene sea levels and cut back by Holocene transgression. A variety of delta forms exist, shaped by the relative influence of tides, waves or sediment flux. The surface is typically an unstable mosaic of channels, plains, lagoons, salt pans and barriers prone to subsidence, storm surges and sea-level change. Estuaries and lagoons are partially enclosed bodies of saline and fresh water, orthogonal and parallel to the coast respectively. They are river-, rain- and marine-fed environments with appropriate water stratification and mixing between freshwater and hypersaline extremes. Stratification or zonation also extend to the biogeomorphic environment. Sandbanks tend to develop in the stronger currents of outer estuarine and tidal pass areas. Algal mats and shell beds develop in more sheltered areas, and a halophyte plant succession colonizes higher, more protected mudbanks with fewer tidal inundations. Coast-parallel barriers develop as the product of constructive sediment transfers and take the form of beaches, barrier islands or spits, nearshore and offshore bars, coastal dune systems and biogenic reefs. For all their wide diversity, soft coasts form only 25 per cent of the global coastline. Rock coasts face direct attack by the sea and typically develop an active cliff at the erosion front which retreats across a wave-cut rock platform. Remnant cliff elements mark the advancing erosion front but platforms and cliffs may themselves be inundated or stranded by rising and falling sea-level change.

The global coastline Coastal landsystems are inevitably products of global patterns of tectonic activity, tides, waves and sea-levels and dominant elements of all four controls are evident in the global coastline. Morphotectonic influences relate to the youth and vigour of sea-floor spreading and the Cenozoic uplift of continental-margin orogens. Leading edge (convergent margin) coasts are dominated by wave erosion and cliffs, whereas trailing edge (passive, or divergent margin) coasts are dominated by river-fed wave deposition and large deltas. Tidal influences vary in both tidal frequency and range. An uneven semi-diurnal tidal cycle in low and mid-latitudes gives way to a diurnal cycle in high latitudes. Tidal range involves a closer interplay with the coastline, being modest on steeply shelving open coasts but increasing on gently shelving and enclosed coasts. Mid-latitude westerlies and tropical cyclone storm belts create high wave environments on affected coasts, in contrast to low wave influences in areas of atmospheric divergence. 3

Sea-level interest focuses on the current dominance of glacio-eustatic and isostatic sea-level changes, although longer tectonic cycles should not be neglected. Overall estimates of Quaternary sea-level change should not obscure the reality of a complex pattern of emergent and submergent coastlines.

CASE STUDY : Climate Change and Human Security in Coastal Urban Areas Aims and Objectives The Case Study for Chapter 17 covers several examples one of Earths most problematic environments ~ one of coastal, low-lying, flood-prone land supporting large human populations and lying in the direct path of rising sea levels and increased storm surge risk associated with global climate change. The 2007 4th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) forecasts that the global population living at the coastline will increase from 1.2 billion today to 1.8 5.2 billion by 2100 and the number living in the direct path of storm surges will increase from 197 million today to 399 million by 2080. The case study provides a primarily web-based opportunity to consider the geomorphic, biological and socioeconomic processes which draw so many people to such a high-risk landsystem and their consequences. Introduction Chapter 17 in the main text reminds us that the immediate geomorphic impact of sealevel rise is to inevitably increase the extent and frequency of coastal flooding. It is quickly appreciated that this becomes exacerbated by non-linear multiplier effects associated with elevated SSTs driving increasing maritime storm intensity and, hence, higher storm surges. Flood risks are highest in low-lying estuarine, delta and lagoon coastlines where heavy precipitation during intense storms also increases land-based run-off. Net coastal erosion is the most likely consequence of these climate-driven changes. Unfortunately for both sides, natural processes and human occupation of the coastline will come into increasing conflict in future centuries as sea-levels rise, global population increases and the many socio-economic advantages of coastlines continue to attract coastward migration. IPCC predicts, with very high confidence ( 90% likelihood), forecasts that the global population living at the coastline will increase from 1.2 billion today to 1.8 5.2 billion by 2100 and the number living in the direct path of storm surges will increase from 197 million today to 399 million by 2080. Whilst it could be argued that this level of confidence may be achieved by virtue of the wide margin of error in these two trends, it is indicative of the convergence of factors in both the natural and human worlds and the uncertainty of the efficacy and timing of a management response. The impacts of the 26th December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami and 29th August 2005 hurricane Katrina on New Orleans within 9 months of each other underline the magnitude of the hazard. In two decades prior to Katrina, there were > 250,000 deaths from tropical cyclones worldwide in coastal regions. In those two decades ~ and just a matter of hours, as the Indian Ocean tsunami and hurricane Katrina hit ~ the death tolls exceeded by 100-200 times those of the terrorist attacks on 9/11. Highest risk is associated with densely-populated, low-lying and subsiding areas with low adaptative capacity (for environmental as well as socio-economic reasons) such as the large Asian 4

and African deltas, although the New Orleans catastrophe illustrated the substandard levels of risk assessment and coastal defences even in the worlds greatest economic power.

Case Details This overall Case Study is supported by the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change (IHDP) 2007 report on The Implications of Global Environmental Change for Human Security in Coastal Urban Areas. IHDP is sponsored, from 1st January 2007, by the International Council for Science (ICSU), International Social Science Council (ISSC) and United Nations University (UNU), based in Bonn, Germany (see http://www.idhp.org then on the main website, first click on Publications, then IDHP Newsletter updates and then Update Issue 2/2007 for Implications of Global Environmental Change for Human Security in Coastal Urban Areas with 9 major articles on the subject).

Learning Objectives Appreciate the nature of the coastline, as a very narrow but extremely long and continentally-continuous ribbon, bridging the dynamic interface of land and sea and possessing regional elements of global patterns. Understand the rle of principal coastal geomorphic processes driven by tides, waves and wind with cquire an understanding of the nature of permafrost, its genesis, physics, distribution and stability Recognise the influence of tectonics, climate and human impact in determining the seemingly-capricious position and impermanence of the coastline at any point or time.

Essay Titles 1. Explain the types and origin of wave-generated currents in the foreshore zone and outline their impact on beach morphology. 2. Suggest the likely geomorphic effects and human consequences of a 3 m storm surge at the following locations: Ganges delta; the Outer Banks on the Carolinas coast of the south-eastern United States; Thames estuary; north-west Scotland. 3. Explain the nature and role of tectonic influences on the global coastline.

Discussion Topics 1. How may our prehistoric ancestors have responded to and utilized the dramatic changes in the British coastline from 12 ka BP to 5 ka BP?. 2. Write an account of the probable biogeomorphic development of a mid-latitude shoreline protected by a offshore bar and assuming stable sea level. 5

3. Identify five coastal areas in Britain which are very vulnerable to rising sea level and the potential local/regional consequences of coastal flooding at these locations.

Further Reading Davis, R.A. and Fitzgerald, D.M. (2004) Beaches and Coasts, Malden (USA) and Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd. A copiously-illustrated modern textbook (b & w photos and two-tone figures, with a good introduction to global and tectonic coastlines, followed by comprehensive cover of coastal geomorphology. French, P.W. (2001) Coastal Defences: Processes, problems and solutions, London and New York: Routledge. An excellent volume, complementing geomorphological texts with the coastal management side of dynamic contemporary coastlines. Haslett, S. K. (2000) Coastal Systems, London and New York: Routledge. A comprehensive introductory text to the coastline, with a good balance between coastal processes and coastal management studies. The latter reflect both the cultural use of a wide variety of coastlines and problems posed to them by sea-level change. Woodroffe, C.D. (2003) Coasts: form, process and evolution, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. An outstanding textbook that has more or less everything needed for a comprehensive understanding of coastal processes and systems, very well illustrated including many Australasian and Pacific case studies.

References Bird, E. (2000) Coastal Geomorphology: an introduction, Chichester and New York: Wiley.. Carter, R. W. G. (1988) Coastal Environments, London: Academic Press Carter, R.W.G. (1993) Coastal Environments, London and San Diego, CA: Academic Press Clark, J. A., Farrell, W. E. and Peltier, W. R. (1978) Global changes in postglacial sea level: a numerical calculation, Quatern. Res. 9, 26587 Davies, J. L. (1980) Geographical Variations in Coastal Develop-ment, second edition, New York: Longman Elliot, T. (1986) Deltas in H. G. Reading (ed.) Sedimentary Environments and Facies, second edition, Oxford: Blackwell, 11354 Galloway, W. E. (1975) Process framework for describing the morphologic and stratigraphic evolution of deltaic depositional systems in M. L. Broussard (ed.) Deltas: models of exploration, Houston, TX: Houston Geological Society, 8798 Goudie, A. S. (1995) The Changing Earth: rates of geomorphological processes, 6

Oxford: Blackwell Ince, M., ed. (1990) The Rising Seas: Proc. Conf. Cities on Water, Venice Inman, D. L. and Nordstrom, K. F. (1971) On the tectonic and morphological classification of coasts, J. Geol. 79, 121 Smith, D. G., ed. (1982) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Stride, A. H. (1982) Sand transport in A. H. Stride (ed.) Offshore Tidal Sands: processes and deposits, London: Chapman & Hall, 5894

Web Resources http://www.idhp.org/ The home page for the website of the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change, providing information and access to its mission, scientific projects, research grants, networks and many highlytopical and downloadable publications. On the main website, first click-on Publications, then IDHP Newsletter Updates and then Update Issue 2/2007 for Implications of Global Environmental Change for Human Security in Coastal Urban Areas with 9 major articles on the subject . http://www.eucc.nl/en/index/htm The website of the European Coastal Union, providing access to the work of 40 countries sharing the European coastline (including the Black Sea) in terms of the integration of coastal and marine environmental science, management, conservation, planning and policy. http://thamesweb.com This is the River Thames Partnership website, which covers all aspects of the Thames estuary physical and built environment and its management, linking the towns and cities along its banks and their history of river usage. Flood defence, environmental quality, planning and events connected to the use of the river are at the heart of the partnership and the website carries many useful hyperlinks. http://www.soton.ac.uk/~imw/ A treasure-trove of a personal website, compiled by Ian West, covering the geology and geomorphology of the southern Englands Wessex Coast ~ including the World Heritage Dorset coast ~ and a few miscellaeous sites elsewhere in the world. The site is packed with recent and historic landform photographs, air photos and site maps and explanatory text, as well as photos of individual fossils from strata exposed by coastal erosion.