METROLOGY

BY

MUKHTAR MALIK

TATiUC

INTRODUCTION
Metrology is defined by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) as "the science of measurement, embracing both experimental and theoretical determinations at any level of uncertainty in any field of science and technology. The ontology and international vocabulary of metrology (VIM) is maintained by the International Organisation for Standardisation.

CONCEPT
A core concept in metrology is metrological traceability,[5] defined by the BIPM as "the property of the result of a measurement or the value of a standard whereby it can be related to stated references, usually national or international standards, through an unbroken chain of comparisons, all having stated uncertainties."

METROLOGY
The level of traceability establishes the level of comparability of the measurement: whether the result of a measurement can be compared to the previous one, a measurement result a year ago, or to the result of a measurement performed anywhere else in the world.

METROLOGY
Traceability is most often obtained by calibration, establishing the relation between the indication of a measuring instrument and the value of a measurement standard. These standards are usually coordinated by national metrological institutes: National Institute of Standards and Technology, National Physical Laboratory, UK, PhysikalischTechnische Bundesanstalt, etc.

DEFINE
Traceability is used to extend measurement from a method that works in one regime to a different method that works in a different regime, by calibrating the two using an overlapping range where both work. An example would be the measurement of the spacing of atomic planes in the same crystal specimen using both X-rays and an electron beam. Traceability also refers to the methodology used to calibrate various instruments by relating them back to a primary standard.[6]

DEFINATION
Accuracy is the degree of exactness which the final product corresponds to the measurement standard. Precision refers to the ability of a measurement to be consistently reproduced. Reliability refers to the consistency of accurate results over consecutive measurements over time. Traceability refers to the ongoing validations that the measurement of the final product conforms to the original standard of measurement.

TRUE ANALOGY
Dimensional Metrology is the science of calibrating and using physical measurement equipment to quantify the physical size of or distance from any given object. Inspection is a critical step in product development and quality control..

METROLOGY
Dimensional Metrology requires the use of a variety of physical scales to determine dimension, with the most accurate of these being holographic etalons or laser interferometers. The realization of dimension using these accurate scale technologies is the end goal of dimensional metrologists

PRECISE VS ACCURATE

Metrology: The fabric of science and technology

What is metrology?
The science of measurement (not weather!)
Metrology establishes the international standards for measurement used by all countries in the world in both science and industry Examples: distance, time, mass, temperature, voltage, values of physical and chemical constants

Why is metrology important and interesting?

Standard units and values of constants needed for all science

Technological standards make all technology work better and can save lives: fire hydrant standards Measurement of constants can give fundamental insights into the universe: drift of fine structure constant

Who does metrology?

Government labs around the world.

From Article I, section 8 of the U.S Constitution: The Congress shall have Power To fix the Standard of Weights and Measures;

SI: The International System of Units

Seven base units: Length: meter (m) Mass: kilogram (kg) Time: second (s) Electric current: ampere (A) Thermodynamic temperature: kelvin (K) Amount of substance: mole (mol) Luminous intensity: candela (cd) Lots of derived units: Area: m2 Speed: m/s Force: 1 newton = 1 kgm/s2

Voltage: 1 volt = 1 m2kg/s3A

Frequency: 1 hertz = 1/s Power: 1 watt = 1 kgm2/s3

Electric Charge: 1 C = 1 As

Hierarchy of units: Kings and queens of units: Time, frequency, distance Dukes and Earls: Current, voltage, resistance

Peasants: Mass, temperature, pressure, luminosity

Clocks: Atomic time

One part per quadrillion accuracy!!!

Accurate frequency gives accurate distance and time.

Artifact vs. quantum standards:

A metal bar: 1889-1960

The modern meter:

The meter is the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second

The story of mass I: the modern kilogram

The SI kilogram drifts!

http://www.bipm.fr

The story of mass II: possible replacements

Goal: 10 parts per billion accuracy

Avogadros number Measurement: Roundest object in the world!

Watt-balance

Temperature: Kelvin, Celsius, and Fahrenheit

21 C 0C -196 C

70 F 32 F -321 F

294 K 273.15 K 77 K

Room temperature Water freezes Air liquefies

-269 C

-452 F

4.2 K

Helium liquefies

-273.15 C -459.67 F

0K

Absolute zero

The kelvin: the SI unit

The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.

(0.006 atm)

ITS-90: the practical realization of the kelvin

PV=NkBT

Platinum resistance standard Not primary!!!

Constant volume gas thermometer

PLTS-2000: the low temperature definition of the kelvin

Not primary, and very hard!!

Helium-3 melting pressure thermometer

Superconducting fixed points

Electrical noise and temperature: The basic idea

All resistors make electrical noise proportional to temperature: hissing of a radio

Electrical noise and temperature: applications of noise thermometry

By measuring the electrical noise of antennas pointed towards space, astronomers can measure the background temperature of the universe!
(images courtesy ofNASA/WMAP Science Team)

Why noise thermometry is hard:

Amplifiers add noise, and have complex behavior

Must be calibrated accurately to measure temperature accurately

The Shot Noise Thermometer

P

{
2kBT / e

Relates temperature to voltage, Simplifying amplifier calibration.

The Shot Noise Thermometer:

A new practical low temperature thermometer
Copper Tubing for DC lines Copper Plumbing parts

SMA Connectors for RF Built-in Bias Tee (on-board SMT Components)

Tunnel Junction

Total cost of package <10$

ENGINEERING & INSTRUMENTATION

Engineering Metrology and Instrumentation

Measurement Standards Line-graduated Instruments Measuring Straightness, Flatness, Roundness and Profile Coordinate Measuring and layout Machines Gages Optical Instruments Automated Measurement Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing

Engineering Metrology

Measurement of dimensions
Length Thickness Diameter Taper Angle Flatness profiles

Engineering Metrology
Postprocess Inspection In-process, on-line, real-time inspection Dimensional Tolerances

The smaller tolerancehigh cost, but more accurate

Measurement Standard
Inch, foot; based on human body 4000 B.C. Egypt; Kings Elbow=0.4633 m, 1.5 ft, 2 handspans, 6 hand-widths, 24 finger-thickness AD 1101 King Henry I yard (0.9144 m) from his nose to the tip of his thumb 1528 French physician J. Ferneldistance between Paris and Amiens

Measurement Standard
1872, Meter (in Greek, metron to measure)- 1/10 of a millionth of the distance between the North Pole and the equator Platinum (90%)-iridium (10%) X-shaped bar kept in controlled condition in Paris39.37 in In 1960, 1,650,763.73 wave length in vacuum of the orange light given off by electrically excited krypton 86.

Measurement Standard
Sensitivity (Resolution); the smallest difference in dimensions that the instrument can detect or distinguish Precision; the degree to which the instrument gives repeated measurements of the same standard (sometimes called accuracy) Standard measuring temperature 20 0C Instrument, gage

Line-graduated Instruments
Graduatedmarked to indicate a certain quantity Rules; Steel rule (machinists rule), bar or tape, [1 mm or 1/64 in] Vernier calipers; after P. Vernier 1600s, caliper gages, [25 mm or 0.001 in],With digital readout Micrometers; sensitivity [2.5 mm or 0.0001 in],

Line-graduated Instruments
Diffraction gratings; with two flat optical glasses, interference fringes with 40 lines/mm (1000 lines/in) gratings. [2.5 mm or 0.0001 in] Indirect-reading; dividers, calipers, telescoping gage for holes and cavities.

Comparative Length-Measuring Instruments

Also called deviation-type instruments Dial Indicator; using rack-and-pinion and gear-train mechanism, accuracy [1 mm or 40 min] Electronic gage; using sensors (strain gage, inductance or capacitance),
LVDT (Linear variable differential transformer) for small displacement

Laser Scan micrometer; non-contact measurement; high temperature, too elastic or brittle material, on-line measuring, [0.125 mm or 5 min]

Other Measurements

Straightness; Knife edge, dial indicator, autocollimator (like a telescope with a light beam that bounces), Optical (transits and laser) Flatness; dial indicator, precision steel square, interferometry (if not flat, light fringes are curved) Roundness;
V-block with dial gage, read TIR(total indicator reading) Circular tracing; platform rotates

Other Measurements

Profile
Template, profile gage to check shape conformity

Measuring screws and gear teeth

Threaded plug gages, screw-pitch gages (similar to radius gages), micrometer with cone shaped points, snap gages

Optical contour projector Coordinate measuring machines

Gages

Heat treated, stress-relieved alloy steels or from carbide C.E. Johansson 1900s Gage blocks [0.05 mm or 2 min]
Grade 0.5 (AAA)-reference gage, very high precision work Grade 1 (AA)-laboratory grade, for calibration of instruments Grade 2 (A+)-precision grade, tool room and inspection Grade 3 (A)-working grade, use in production

Plug gage, GO gage, NOT-GO (NO-GO) Pneumatic (air) gage

Selection of Measuring Instruments

Accuracy The degree of agreement of the measured dimension with its true magnitude Magnification (amplification) Precision Resolution the smallest dimension that can be read on an instruments Rules of 10 (gage makers rule) At least 10 times accurate than the tolerance Sensitivity Stability (drift); capability to maintain calibrated status

Precision vs. Accuracy

Tolerance

Tolerare; put up with, endure Impossible to make perfect parts Too small tolerance, cost is high Boeing 747-400 has 6 million parts, measurement of 28 features, 150 million measurements NIST (U.S. National Institute of Standard and technology); tolerance shrink by a factor of 3 every 10 yearsultraprecision ion-beam machining 0.001mm

Importance of tolerance

Parts from the same machine can be different

Speed of operation Temperature Lubrication Variation of incoming material Other factors

ISO system; definitions

Definitions

Allowance; the specific difference in dimensions between mating parts Basic size; dimension from which limits of size are derived Bilateral tolerance; deviation from the basic size (+ or -) Clearance; the space between mating parts Clearance fit; fit that allows for rotation or sliding between mating parts Datum; theoretically exact axis, point, line or plane

Definitions

Feature; Physically identifiable portion of a part, e.g. hole, slot, pin, chamfer Fit; the range of looseness or tightness Geometric tolerancing; tolerances that involve shape features of the part Hole-basis system; tolerances based on a zero line on the hole Interference; negative clearance Interference fit International Tolerance grade (IT); a group of tolerances that the same relative level of accuracy within a grade (varies depending on basic size)

Definition

Limit dimension; Maximum and minimum dimension of a part, MMC(maximum material condition); condition where a feature of size contains the maximum amount of material within the stated limits of size Nominal size; Positional tolerancing; A system of specifying the true position, size, and form of the feature of a part, including allowable variation Shaft-based system; Standard size Transition fit; Fit with small clearance or interference that allows for accurate location of mating parts

Tolerances
Unilateral tolerancing Zero line; reference line along the basic size from which a range of tolerances and deviations are specified. Limits and Fits See the separate lecture note

Micrometer

The micrometer is a basic precision measuring tool. To a machinist, this tool is indispensable. The engineer should also realize the importance of being able to use this tool properly. This discussion should help in mastering the use of the common "Mike," whether it is an outside, inside or depth type.

MEASURING EQUIPMENTS

LASER MEASURING TOOLS

PRECISION MEASURING TOOLS

DIGITAL MEASURING TOOLS