By

Mian Waqas
Philosophy
Love for Wisdom
 Past Questions
Philosophy & Its Nature/value

• Define Philosophy and justifies its

value in modern times. PMS-2009

• What benefits are to be achieved from

the study of Philosophy? Discuss .CSS
2000
 Philosophy

• Greek Philosopher Pythagoras coined the term

“Philosophy”.
 Definitions of Philosophy (from Different Angles)
• It is a set of uncritically held attitudes (or
beliefs) about life and universe. (Having
Philosophy)
• It is a process of reflection and criticism on our
deeply held attitudes (or beliefs). (Doing Philo)
• It is a process of looking at world as a whole.
• It is a process of analyzing language logically
and clarifying meaning (of words and ideas).
• It is a group of perennial problems (or
questions) to be solved by philosophers.
 Characteristics of Philosophical Attitudes

• Sense of Wonder
• Doubt
• Criticism
• Reflections
• Tolerance
 Value of Philosophy
• Philosophy is valuable b/c it Improves:
• Both personal/social aspects of our Life
• Analytical Skills (to describe abstract problems
better, to argue effectively, to use analysis and
strong arguments)
• Vision & Insight: (Philosophy is helpful in
imagination, problem solving, looking at world
from different angles, decision making, shaping
our destiny).
• “Unexamined life is not worth living”. (Socrates)
 Transferable skills and personal characteristics
caused by philosophy are:
1. Reasoning skills: logic; analysis and synthesis; handling
of concepts; critical ability; identifying and questioning
assumptions; arguing a case; problem solving and
decision making
2. Handling symbolism: formal systems; statistical
arguments; computer literacy
3. Communication skills: clarity, relevance, and
succinctness in written and oral presentations
4. Comprehension: mastery of difficult and complex
texts; listening to what others say, and appreciating
different points of view; coping with a high level of
5. Depth and breadth of view: seeing beyond traditional
disciplinary boundaries; identifying first principles and
practical applications; tracing connections; objectivity
6. Reflexivity: handling of second-order questions; awareness
of one's own thinking and use of language; ability to assess
one's own strengths and weaknesses, and those of others
7. Originality: independence of thought; flexibility of
approach; adaptability to a changing environment;
inventiveness in producing examples and counter-
examples
8. Cooperativeness: ability to work in teams in different
capacities; constructive contribution to group discussion
and joint products
9. Responsibility: ability to act autonomously and to learn
independently; awareness of ethical implications.
Since western philosophy is based
on Greek Philosophy, hence an
overview of Greek Philosophy
is important.

Pre-Socratic (Naturalist/Materialist)
Philosophers
 What is Ultimate Cause or
Ultimate Substance of which this
universe (everything) is based on?

That’s one the most basic questions

answered by Greek Philosophers
 1. Ionian (Milesian) Philosophers
• What is nature of Cosmic matter/ world-stuff?
• They agree, it is One, but disagree to its type.
1. Thales/Father of Science/Founder of Philosophy
• Ultimate substance/matter is Only Water.
2. Anaximander/ Originator of philosophical concept of God
• Ultimate substance is “infinity” Or “Apeiron” which
is boundless, infinite corporeal mass (like divine).
3. Anaximenes
• Ultimate substance is Air.
Thales: Ultimate stuff from which our
universe is originated is WATER.
 Anaximander: Ultimate cause or stuff of our universe is
APEIRON( Unknown, limitless & boundless, primordial mass).
Anaximenes: Air is the source of this
Universe.
 2. Pythagoreans
4. Pythagoras
• Coined the term “Philosophy.”
• Ultimate reality is Mathematical (Number).
• Mathematics is the lord of universe.
• There are Two Kinds of world (Dualism)
1. Mathematical world which is Perfect, Infinite, Original.
2. Physical world: imperfect, limited, Copies, shadows
• The real essence of our material objects is mathematical
forms (numbers, formulas, formulas, calculations,
conceptions).
• Everything is in accordance with a Number.
Pythagoreans: Ultimate reality is MATHEMATICAL.
(Numbers)
 3. The Eleatic School
5. Xenophanes: He criticizes anthropomorphic
polytheism, & brings Monotheism/Pantheism
• Supreme Being/God/World-stuff is one. Or World is
God, God is World.
6. Parmenides (Father of Materialism):Being/God/Ultimate
world-stuff is The One. (Ultimate reality is single entity)
• (If a being is thinkable, it must exist. If a being is
unthinkable, it can’t exist—non-being). God is
thinkable, so He exists—Being).
• Void/empty space can’t exist (non-being). similarly
motion & plurality can’t exist. No Change in the world.
 Xenophanes:
• Xenophanes rejects anthropomorphic (having man-
like qualities) gods.
Parmenides: Ultimate reality is One
Being. (unchanging & indestructible)

• As Only one being is everywhere, so there is

no void, as there is no void, so there is no
movement to fill it. Every thing is constant and
unchangeable.
• Zeno’s Paradoxes to prove his teacher Parmenides. Suppose YOU want to catch a
stationary bus. Before you can get there, you must cover halfway there. Before you
can cover halfway there, you must get a quarter of the way there. Before traveling
a quarter, you must travel one-eighth; before an eighth, one-sixteenth;. and so on.
So you can never catch the buss.
 Eleatic School
7. Heraclitus, the Obscure (weeping philosopher)
• Unlike Parmenides (who says there is no change, no motion in
the world), Heraclitus says everything is in change/motion/
becoming. “You can’t step twice into the same
river.”
• Fire is the Ultimate substance of this universe.

• Everything is under Law/Reason/Logos.

• So reason/natural law arranges meaningless
(disordered) things in orderly manner.
Heraclitus: Fire is ultimate Substance.
Everything is in Change.

Everything is compose of fire. You can’t step twice into the same river
 1. Pluralist/Atomists
• Unlike One changeless being, World is made up of
many things.
1. Empedocles: Four elements (water/air/earth/fire)

2. Anaxagoras: Countless elements/seeds which are

moving under the law of reason.
• Mind/Nous/reason gives direction/purpose to world.
 Empedocles:
Four Elements (Water, Air, Fire, Earth)
are source of our universe
• Life come into existence when these element
combine with each other through forces of Love.
• Death is the scattering of these elements due forces
of hatred.
Anaxagoras: countless small seeds are source
of everything. They are determined by
omnipotent/omniscient reason (or Nous).

• Life & Death depends upon

combination & scattering of
these seeds.
 2. Pluralist/Atomists
3. Leucippus says universe is made up of many atoms.
• Atoms are under systematic mathematical laws.
• Nothing comes without any reason. Or everything
arises from something (reason/cause).
4. Democritus gives two-world concept.
 Phenomena (sense-world):Imperfect/untrustworthy
 Reality (rational-world): Ultimate/perfect/valid. It is
made up of invisible atoms (ideas/forms).
• Ultimate reality is made up of numberless atoms
which can be understood by reason, not senses.
 Democritus: Ultimate source of this
universe is ATOMS.
• Leucippus and his
Student Democritus also
believed in determinism.
Every thing is eternally
pre-determined.
 3. Pluralists/Sophists
5. Protagoras gives perception theory—”Man is
measure of all things.” OR it means reality is
relative/subjective(changes person to person).
• So there is no ultimate reality.
• But only sense-world is real.
• Our knowledge is always based on our personal senses.
6. Gorgias brings relativism of Protagoras to Nihilism
—”Nothing exists, second, if anything did exist, we
could never know.”
• So “ultimate reality” of previous philosophers was
extremely challenged by Sophists.
Protagoras: “Man is the Measure of All Things”
Now Summary of Greek Philosophy
 Ionian (Milesian) Philosophers
Reality is One
(1) Thales World Is made up of
(Father of Western Philosophy) water.

(2) Anaximander Universe is composed of a

(father of Cosmology & infinite, limitless Apeiron
Astronomy)

World is originated from

(3) Anaximenes air. Breath is soul.
Reality is One
World Is based on numbers.
(4) Pythagoras “Music is medicine of soul.”
(Father of Numbers) He believed in incarnation.

“Everything is in flux.”
(5) Heraclitus “You can’t step twice into
“The Obscure” same river.”
World is based on fire.

(6) Parmenides & Reality of the world is

“One Being” unchanging,
his student Zeno indestructible.
 Monism vs. Pluralism

Reality is One Reality is Many

Thales Water Empedocles water/air/earth/fire
Anaximander Apeírôn Anaxagoras Seeds/fragments
Anaximenes Air Democritus Atoms
Pythagoras Number
Heraclitus Fire
Parmenides same being
Zeno same One being
 Idealism

1. Discuss Idealism & Its types. CSS 2010

 Idealism
• Idealism holds that ideas or thoughts
make up fundamental reality. Idealism
stresses that spirit or idea is the most
important and essential element of the
life and the universe.
1. The human spirit (idea/mind) is the most
fundamental element in life.
2. The universe is essentially not material in
its ultimate nature.
 Types of Idealism
1. Subjective Idealism: Ideas are within mind.

2. Objective Idealism: Ideas are outside of mind

3. Transcendental Idealism: Ideas are beyond mind

(beyond space & time).

4. Absolute Idealism: Subjective and objective ideas

are part of absolute.
 Major Idealists
• Plato  Objective Idealism
• George Berkeley  Subjective Idealism
• Kant  Transcendental Idealism
• Hegel  Absolute Idealism
 Objective Idealism
(Plato’s Idealism)

• CSS—Pakistan—2013
Q What are ‘Forms’ in Plato’s Philosophy? Why he needed
‘Forms’?
• CSM (Civil Service Main Exams)—Inida—2013, 2012 , 2011
• Q. Explain Plato’s Ontological theory of Forms. Is Knowledge
one of the forms? Give reasons.
• Q. How does Plato relates the world of ideas to empirical
world. Discuss.
• Q. Plato’s Analogy of Cave and Its significance. comment
• PMS—Punjab—2009
• Q Expound and Critically Examine Plato’s Theory of Knowledge?
 Forms (in Plato’s philosophy)
• Forms (or ideas/concepts) are, changeless, perfect,
eternal and nonmaterial patterns (essences) of
which actual visible objects of our world are
poor/imperfect copies.
Perfect form of horse

Imperfect Copies of “Form of horse”

 Forms are:
• 1. Transcendent- They are beyond space and time
• 2. Pure – They exemplify purely one property.
• 3. Archetypes - The forms are the perfect models
upon which all material objects are based.
• 4. Ultimately Real - The forms are the ultimately
real entities, not material objects.
• 5. Causes - The forms are the causes of all things.
• 6. Systematically Interconnected –From higher to
lower; from more general to more particular, from
more objective to more subjective.
 Form (Idea/essence/pattern) of
Triangle
Form of Original Triangle

Imperfect copies of Orignal Triangles

 Perfect idea of
Horse

Imperfect Copies of Idea of Horse

 World is of two Kinds
 World of Forms: Forms are of two kinds:
 (1) Lower Forms (2) Higher Forms
Lower Forms depend upon higher forms
 Physical world: (1) Images (2) Objects
Shadows depends upon objects for existence
 Plato’s theory of Ideas or Forms
There is a transcendent world of
ideas which is superior to our physical
world (our physical objects are copies
of the that transcendent world).
This theory is an attempt to reconcile
theory of “All-change” and “No-
Change”.
 Characteristics of Forms/Ideas
• Ideas are substances
• Ideas are general and universal
• Ideas are immaterial objects
• Ideas are like classes
• Ideas are indestructible
• Ideas are beyond space and times
• Ideas are more perfect than particulars
 Degrees of Ideas (Forms)

Some ideas are at higher position; some ideas are lower

(those which are very close to material objects); However,
Highest idea/form is GOOD (which is most spiritual/ideal.
 Platonic Idealism (Plato’s Metaphysics)
• Plato based his philosophy on the views of
Protagoras (relativity of perception/mere
appearance of phenomenal object), Parmenides
(True Being—Ontos), Pythagoras (real essence or
Platonic ideal—Ousia), Democritus (how we know
reality through senses/perception shows transient
reality), Heraclitus (everything/matter is in change)
1. Lower Reality (Material) which is known through senses
2. Higher Reality (Ideal)which is known through reason/intellect
• He is rationalist (true knowledge through REASON), idealist
(ultimate reality is idea), realist (Idea is real).
 Heraclitus Vs. Parmenides
“All-Change” Theory “No-Change” Theory
Reality is in Reality is
continuous Flux. Unchangeable.
You can not step Everything is a part
twice in the same river. of unchangeable unity.
Nothing is permanent Change is apparent
except change. and illusion.
 Plato reconciles theory of “Change”
and “Permanence”.
• He says there are two kinds of worlds:
one is changeable (material world) other
is permanent (world of ideas).
• Dichotomy of Existence (of two worlds)
1. Sensuous World (Raining, table, Temp.)
2. Rational World (2+2=4, triangle)
 Plato’s dichotomy of Existence
Sensuous
Sensuous World
World Vs. Rational
Rational
Sensuous World Rational World World
World
It is our
It is our It It
is immaterial/
is spiritual/
immaterial/spiritual/
material/physical mental/theoretical/
theoretical/ transcendent
material/physical /practical transcendent world which is
/practical world which is world which is
world which is changeable, perfect, unchangeable, non-perfect,
changeable, temporal,
temporal, mutable, unchangeable, non-
temporal, eternal, immutable
mutable, temporal, eternal,
imperfectimperfect
and basedandon our and immortaland
immutable andimmortal
based on
based
senseson andour senses and reason and logic.
perceptions. and based on reason and
perceptions. World
logic. of Ideas(universals,
world of senses generalizations,
World of Ideas concepts)
(originals,
world of senses(paticulars
(particulars, merely copies, concepts universals, and
individuals
shadows and and examples)
individual etc.) generalizations etc.)
World of Original Ideas
Perfect idea of Horse

World of Senses and

Copies or Shadows of
“idea of horse”
 Knowledge can be achieved through senses
(imperfect knowledge) n mind (real/perfect)
• Knowledge through senses is relative (b/c we have
different senses/sensory organs)
• Knowledge through mind is objective/real/rational
• We get essence/idea/forms/abstractions/concepts
from material objects by using our mind/reason.
• Knowledge of mathematical forms/formulas and of
“true Being/world-stuff” is ideal and real.
• Every physical object (such as Table, Tree) is copy
of idea (idea of table, idea of tree) which exists in
world of ideas (Platonic world).
 Knowledge is recollection of soul.
• All knowledge is recollection of pre-existent life of
soul. Soul is storage of all truth n knowledge.
• To find truth, go deep into your soul/unconscious
• Soul after death of one body, soul migrates to other
body, born s again and again, so it is immortal.
• So Plato believes in transmigration of Soul.
• Sense-world comes into being from an
unformed/shapeless eternal matter (RECEPTACLE)
according to prescribed pattern of ideas by act of
God.
• God does not create that matter but design it
according to pattern of eternal ideas.
• So Plato adds 3rd type of world (RECEPTACLE) to
Phenomena (PHYSICAL) and reality (IDEAL world).
• In short, God, Ideas, n Receptacle are ultimate.
• Aristotle replaces Plato’s idealism with realism.
 Why Plato needs forms?
• He needs theory of forms to solve following problems:
1. The Ethical Problem: How can humans live a fulfilling,
happy life in a contingent, changing world where
every thing, they deal with, can be removed/changed?
2. The Problem of Permanence and Change: How can the
world appear to be both permanent and changing?
The world we perceive through the senses seems to
be always changing. The world that we perceive
through the mind, using our concepts, seems to be
permanent and unchanging. Which is most real and
why does it appear both ways?
 Aristotle (Realist)
(Important only in PMS/Logic in CSS)

1. Discuss critically Aristotle's Metaphysics.

PMS—2012
2. What is Logic? Evaluate in brief
Aristotelian Logic. CSS-2002,2006, 2008
3. Describe Aristotle’s View of Causation.
CSM (Civil Service (Main) Exams, 2009
 Similarities between Plato & Aristotle
• Both Plato & Aristotle believe in:
• Objectivity (universality) of philosophy
• Value of objective knowledge (or of ultimate
causes
• Dist. b/w knowledge (eternal) &opinion (changing)
• Distinction b/w knowledge and experience
• Knowledge begins in wonder
• Philosophy is the mother (highest) of All sciences
• Philosophical method (dialectical method)
 Dissimilarities between them
Plato Aristotle
1. Philosophy covers moral, practical, 1. Philosophy covers only theoretical aspect
theoretical aspects of knowledge
2. Philosophy also deals with phenomena
2. Philosophical discussion is (actual things and every day life)
intellectual discourse
3. He improved dialectical method by adding
3. He used (analytic) dialectical method of observation to it. And he made
method it scientific and technical method.

4. Ideas are separate from objects 4. Ideas cannot be separated from things.
5. He has less factual interest (but
more ideal one) 5. He wanted to get accurate scientific
knowledge.
6. Being poet, he used myths,
imagination, poetry and mysticism 6. Rather than style, he focused on meaning,
communication and understanding of
7. He used extraordinary poetic language.
language 7. He separate art and reason.
Q. Critically Discuss Aristotle’s Theory of
Knowledge? PMS—2012
• He covered not only philosophy, ethics, logic,
metaphysics, but also naturals sciences.

• Logic:
• Aristotle is founder father of traditional Logic.
• Logic is science of reasoning. It is an ORGANON
(instrument) to achieve correct knowledge. It is
science of all sciences because it is a tool of
scientific research and thinking.
Subject Matter of Logic
 Aristotle’s Logic

• “He says Logic studies thought”

• Thought means not process but product of
thought

1. Concept (Term)
2. Judgment (Proposition)
3. Inference (argument)
 Concept
• Property of mind
• Picture of a thing in mind
• A mental image
• E.g., table, chair, pen, book
 term
• Concept when expressed in language is called

• Categorematic: term by itself; man, table

• Syncategorematic: not term by themselves;
“the”, “an”, “all”, “only”, “of”
• Acategorematic: used in neither case, hurrah!,
“Alas”
 Singular and general terms
• Particular term, socrates, Ravi, Lahore

• Universal terms, man, cricket, university

 Judgment
• Relationship of affirmation/negation b/w
two terms
• Intellectual activity
• Comparison/ evaluation of particular effects of
an experience
• Psychological activity of awareness of objects
and relationships
 Proposition
• Judgment expressed in language
• A statement that can be true or false is called
• Witten or spoken statement in language
• 3 parts:
• Subject
• Predicate
• copula
 Proposition
• A logical sentence.
• It consists of 2 terms (subject & Predicate).
• Subject and predicate are two class which are
related are linked through copula.
• Example of Proposition:
• Subject copula Predicate
• All Men are Mortal.
 Inference
• Combination of more than 1 propositions
• Mental activity
• Where some propositions are given (premises) ,
and other follows from them (conclusion).

• All men are mortal and Socrates is a man. (Given)

• Therefore, All men are mortal. (following)
 Inference
• “A inference or reasoning is a process of transition
from known/perceived facts (Premises) to
unknown or unperceived things.

• You see smoke and infer/ reason that there is a

fire.
Argument
 Categorical Syllogism
• Syllogism: a deductive argument consisting of
two (2) premises and one (1) conclusion is called
Syllogism.
• Categorical Syllogism: A syllogism with three (3)
propositions & three (3) different terms (Major,
Minor & Middle).
• Each of these terms appears twice.
• All Men are Mortal
• Aslam is a man
• Therefore, Aslam is mortal
 Major Term, Minor term & Middle Term
Middle Term

1. All CSPs are intelligent. Major Premise

2. Some people are not CSPs. Minor Premise
3. Some People are not intelligent. Conclusion

Minor Term Major Term

 Categories
• His categories are part of his metaphysics.
• Categories are fundamental concepts and basic features of
reality because without categories our thought is impossible.
1. Substance: a thing what it is (e.g. Man)
2. Quality: how a thing is constituted (e.g. white)
3. Quantity: how large a thing is (e.g. 2 yards long)
4. Relation: how it is related (e.g. greater)
5. Space: where it is (e.g. in the Lyceum)
6. Time: when it is (e.g. yesterday)
7. Position: What postures it assume (e.g. lies, sits)
8. State: the condition it is in (e.g. armed)
9. Activity: what it does (e.g. burns)
10. Passivity: what is suffers (e.g. is burned)
 Criticism
• Aristotle’s Categories are criticized by stoics
(happiness can be achieved by accepting pain),
Neo-Platonists (who combine Platonism with
mysticism), Plotinus, Kant, Hegel, J.S. Mill. They
hold that classification of categories is only based
on linguistic expediency.
• He gives no arguments to prove these categories.
 Q. Critically discuss Aristotle’s metaphysics.
(Theory of form & Matter)
• Study of the nature of being or substance is
called metaphysics.
• For Plato: substance is Abstract (universal).
• For Aristotle: substance is concrete individual
(particular)

Note:
Abstract: to remove something from something else; When we remove a leave from a tree
(which is context of that leave), then this leave is called abstract. Similarly if we separate idea
from the object, then this separate idea is called abstract.
Concrete: to grow together; when we see a leave by placing the leave within the context or
relation of the tree, then this relational or contextual leave is called concrete. When we see an
idea in relation or context to its object, then this idea is called concrete.
 Aristotle’s Criticism on Plato’s Theory of
Ideas
• Abstract ideas can’t cause concrete things
• Ideas are static & eternal so can’t explain
motion & change.
• Ideas cannot explain particular things
• Ideas are re-duplications of things
• “things are copies of ideas” explains nothing
• Plato separates essence from thing itself,
which is actually not possible.
 Form & Matter
• Matter: Something of which a thing is made.
• Form: which someone imposes on matter.
• To understand it, his theory of causation is imp. b/c
concepts of matter and its cause are interlinked.
• To explain, we need to know “why” & “How” an
event occur.
• Four types of Causes
• (1) Material (2) Efficient (3) Forma (4) Final
• So a thing has two aspects (Material & Formal).
Matter and form are inseparable. An object can’t
exists without both form and matter.
• Form (cubeness) is universal, matter
(sugar cube) is particular. Both are
arranged in ascending order as
• Substances with max. matter & min.
form are arranged at bottom; those
with equal matter & form are at
intermediate level; God (pure form,
without any matter) is at top who sets
the world in motion.
 Features of God (Pure Form)

• God is Prime mover

• God is apex of world process
(highest manifestation
• God is formal cause of the world
• God is Efficient cause of the world
• God is Final cause of the world
 Q. State & examine Aristotle’s theory of
causation.
• Four causes: Example of Table

1. Material Cause: (matter such as wood)

2. Efficient Cause (for change/movement, Carpenter)
3. Formal Cause (Idea/form of Table)
4. Final Cause (Purpose to be achieved)
  Goodbye 
Mian Waqas Haider
 For Lecture Notes Or Classes:
Mian Waqas (M.Phil in Philosophy)
Address: G.C. University, Lahore
(0345-4740019)

Safarhaider@gmail.com
For further guidance , Don’t hesitate to contact.
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 Next Topics

• Critical Analysis of:

1. Subjective Idealism by Berkeley
2. Transcendental Idealism by Kant
(German idealism by Schelling, Fichte & Hegel)

3. Absolute/Dialectical Idealism by Hegel