Chapter 8: Root Locus Techniques

Overview
Introduction
Defining the Root Locus
Properties of the Root Locus
Sketching the Root Locus
Refining the Sketch
An Example
Transient Response Design via Gain Adjustment
Generalized Root Locus
Root Locus for Positive-Feedback Systems
Pole Sensitivity
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Objectives
Definition of a root locus
How to sketch a root locus
How to refine your sketch of a root locus
How to use the root locus to find the poles of a

closed-loop system
How to use the root locus to describe qualitatively the
changes in transient response and stability of a
system as a system parameter is varied
How to use the root locus to design a parameter
value to meet a transient response specification for
systems of order 2 and higher
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Introduction
What is root locus?

Root locus is a graphical representation of the closedloop poles as a system parameter is varied
It can be used to describe qualitatively the
performance of a system as various parameters are
changed
It gives graphic representation of a systems transient
response and also stability
We can see the range of stability, instability, and the
conditions that cause a system to break into oscillation
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The Control System Problem

The poles of the open loop

transfer function are easily
found by inspection and they do
not change with changes in
system gain. But the poles of
the closed loop transfer function
are more difficult to find and
they change with changes in
system gain

Consider the closed loop

system in the next figure
a) Closed loop system
b) Equivalent transfer function

Note: KG(s)H(s) = Open Loop

Transfer Function, or loop gain

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If

Observations:

G(s) = NG(s) / DG(s)

And
H(s) = NH(s) / DH(s)

Then
T(s) = KG(s) / 1 + K(s)H(s)
Therefore

T(s) = KNG(s)DH(s) / DG(s)DH(s) + KNG(s)NH(s)

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The zero of T(s) consist of

the zeros of G(s) and The
poles of H(s)
The poles of T(s) are not
immediately known without
factoring the denominator
and they are a function of K
Since the systems
performance depends on
the knowledge of the poles
location, we will not be able
to know the system
performance readily
Root locus can be used to
give us a picture of the
poles of T(s) as the system
gain, K, Varies
6

Vector representation of complex

number
Vector has a magnitude

and a direction
Complex number ( +
j) can be described in
Cartesian coordinates
or in polar form. It can
also be represented by
a vector
If a complex number is
substituted into a
complex function, F(s),
another complex
number will result

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Example:
If
s = ( + j) is substituted into
F(s) = (s + a)
Then
F(s) = ( + a) + j
Therefore
(s + a) is a complex number and
can be represented by a vector
drawn from the zero of the
function to point S
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Draw the vector representation of

(s + 7)|s5 + j2
Recall

Or
m

F(s) =

(s +z1)(s +z2)
(s + p1)(s + p2)

F(s) = (s + zi) / (s + pj)

I =1

j =1

Where
= Product
Or
F(s) = M (in polar form)

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Summary
M = zero lengths / pole lengths
m

| (s

zi ) |

i
n

| ( s

pj) |

= zero angles pole angles

m

( s zi ) ( s p j )

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(s + 1)
s(s + 2)

Given F(s) =
point s = -3 + j4

, Find F(s) at the

Graphically:
For (s +1):
(s + 1)|s-3 + j4
= (-3 + j4) + 1
= -2 + j4
= 4.47 116.56o
Similarly:
s|s-3 + j4 = 5 126.9o
(s + 2)|s-3 + j4 = -1 + j4
= 4.12 104.03o
Therefore
M
= F(s)| s-3 + j4
= 4.47 / 5(4.12)
116.56o 126.9o +104.03o
= 0.217 -114.3o

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Defining the Root Locus

Consider the system
represented by block
diagram next:
The C.L.T.F.
= K / s2 +10s + K
Where K = K1K2
If we plot the poles of the
C.L.T.F. for value K = 0
50, we will obtain the
following plots
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Observations:
Root locus is the representation of the path of the closed loop poles as the gain is varied
Root locus show the changes in the transient response as the gain K, varies
For 0 < K < 25
- poles are real and distinct (j = 0)
- Overdamped response
For K = 25
- Poles are real and multiples
- Critical response
For 25 < K < 50 (or K > 25)
- Poles are complex conjugate
- Underdamped response
- Since Ts is inversely to the real part of the pole and the real part remains the same for K
> 25
- Therefore, the settling time, Ts, remains the same regardless of the value of gain (Note
that Ts = 4 / d)
For K > 25
- as the gain increases, the damping ratio, = cos decreases and thus the %OS
decreases too
- Note: %OS = e-[/(1-2)]*100
- As the gain increases, the damped freq. of oscillation, d, which is the imaginary part of
the complex pole also increase
- Since peak time, Tp = / d , thus an increase in d will result in an increase in Tp
- Finally, since the root locus never crosses over into the RHP, the system is always stable,
regardless of the value of gain

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Properties of the Root Locus

Knowing the properties of Root Locus will enable us to sketch the root locus
without having to factor the denominator of the closed loop transfer function
Consider the general representation of the C.L.T.F:
T(s) = KG(s) / 1 + KG(s)H(s)

A pole exists when the characteristic polynomial in the denominator becomes zero
Hence, KG(s)H(s) = -1 = 1(2k + 1)1800, k =0,+1,+2,
Or |KG(s)H(s)| = 1 and KG(s)H(s) = (2k + 1)1800
Similarly,

1
1 pole length

| G ( s ) H ( s) | M zero length

Hence, Given the poles & zeros of the open loop Transfer function, KG(s)H(s), a
point in the s-plane is on the root locus for a particular value of gain, K, if the
angles of the zeros minus the angles of the poles, all drawn to the selected point
on the S-plane, add up to (2k + 1)1800
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Given a unity feedback system that has a the following forward transfer
function:
K ( s 2)
G(s) 2
( S 4 s 13)

a. Calculate the angle of G(s) at the point (-3 +

j0) by finding the algebraic sum of angle of

the vectors drawn from the zeros & poles of
G(s) to the given point

b. Determine if the point specified in (a) is on

the root locus

c. If the point is on the Root Locus, find the

gain K using the lengths of the vectors

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K ( s 2)
K ( s 2)
G(s) 2

( S 4s 13) ( s 2 j 3)( s 2 j 3)
j

angles = 1800 + 1 + 2 = 1800

-108.430 + 108.430 = 1800

S-Plane

Or

j3

G(s)|s=-3j0
= zeros poles

-3

-2

-1

2
-j3

= 1800 (-108.430 + 108.430)

= 1800
Since the angle is 1800, the point is on
Root Locus

Polelength (
K
Zerolength
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12 32 )( 12 32 )
10
1
18

Sketching the Root Locus

Based on the properties of root locus, some rules are established to

enable us to sketch the Root Locus:

Symmetry
Number
of
Branches

RULES

Real
Axis
segment

Starting
Behavior
&
at
Ending
infinity
Point
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No. of branches
The no. of branches of the
R.L equals the number
of closed-loop poles.
(Since a branch is the
path that one poles
traverses.)

1st

2nd
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Symmetry
The root locus is
symmetrical about the
real-axis. (Since
complex poles always
exist in complex
conjugate form.)
Symmetrical
about real axis

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Real-axis segment
On the real-axis, for K>0,
the root locus exists to
the left of an odd
number of real-axis,
finite open-loop poles
and/or finite open-loop
zeros. (Due to the
angle property of R-L.)

To the left of an
odd number
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Starting & Ending Points

The root locus begins at
the finite & infinite
poles of G(s)H(s) &
ends at the finite &
infinite zeros of
G(s)H(s).

Ending

Starting
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Concept of Infinite pole & zero

Infinite pole: If the function approaches as s

approaches , then the function has an infinite pole.

Infinite zero: If the function approaches zero as s
approaches , then, the function has an infinite zero
Example: KG(s)H(s) = K / s(s + 1)(s + 2)
This function has 3 finite poles at 0, -1, -2 & 3 infinite
zeros.
Every function of s has an equal no. of poles & zeros
if we included the infinite poles & zeros as well as the
finite poles & zeros.
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Behavior at infinity
The root locus approaches straight lines as

asymptotes as the locus approaches infinity.

The equation of the asymptotes is given by the realaxis intercept, a & angle a :
a

finite poles finite zeros

# finite poles # finite zeros

(2k 1)
a
# finite poles # finite zeros

Where k = 0, +1, +2, + 3, and the angle is given in

radians w.r.t. the positive extension of the real-axis.

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Example: Sketch the root locus for the

system shown
a

Notice that there are 4 finite

poles & 1 finite zero.

Thus there will be 3 infinite
zeros.
Calculate the asymptotes of
the infinite zeros:
Intercept on real-axis.

finite poles finite zeros

# finite poles # finite zeros

(1 2 4) (3)
4

4 1
3

(2k 1)
# finite poles # finite zeros

for k 0
3
for k 1
5

for k 2
3

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Root locus and asymptotes for the

system of previous example
/3
Real axis
intercept

5 /3

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27

Real-Axis
Breakaway
&
Break-in Points

Refining
the
Sketch
Finding
the j
axis
crossings
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Angle of
departure
& arrival
from
complex
poles & zeros
28

Real-Axis Breakaway & Break-in

Points
Breakaway point is the

point where the locus

leaves the real-axis.
(-1 in the figure)

Break-in point is the

point where the locus

returns to the real-axis.
(2 in the figure)
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Finding the Breakaway & Break-in

points via differentiation
We know that for a point to be on a Root-locus,

K = -1 / G(s)H(s)
Thus, on the real-axis (j = 0),
K = -1 / G()H()
Note also that
at the breakaway point, K is maximum (for the R-L
on the real-axis),
and at the break-in point, K is minimum.
Breakaway & Break-in point can be found by
differentiating K G()H() = -1 & set it to zero.
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30

Find the breakaway & break-in points

for the root locus shown
From the Root Locus
K ( s 3)( s 5)
KG ( s) H ( s )
( s 1)( s 2)
K ( s 2 8s 15)

( s 2 3s 2)
On the root locus & on the real axis,
KG ( s) H ( s ) 1 KG ( ) H ( )
K ( 2 8 15)
1
2
( 3 2)
k (11 2 26 61)

0
2
2
d
( 8 15)
1.45, 3.82

Note : We will get the same result if we take

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G ( )
0
d

Finding Breakaway & Break-in Points

by transition method
This method eliminates the step

of differentiation.
Derivation in Appendix J.2. on
CD-Rom.
This method states that:
Breakaway & break-in
points satisfy the following
relationship:
m

n
1
1
1 z 1 p
i
i

Re peat the previous example with this method

K ( s 3)( s 5)
( s 1)( s 2)
1
1
1
1

3 5 1 2
11 2 26 61 0
1.45, 3.82
KG ( s ) H ( s )

Where Zi & Pi are the

negative of the zero & pole
values, respectively, of
G(s)H(s).
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32

Finding the j axis crossings

J axis crossing is a point on the R-L that separates the stable

operation of the system from the unstable operation.
The value of at the axis crossing yields the frequency of oscillation.
The gain at the j axis crossing yields the max. positive gain for
system stability.

J-axis crossing can be found by using Routh-Hurwitz criterion as follows:

Forcing a row of zeros in the Routh Table will yield the gain.
Going back one row to the even polynomial equation & solving for the
roots yields the frequency at the imaginary axis crossing.
(Recall that a row of zeros in the Routh Table indicates the existence
of poles on the j axis.)

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33

For the system shown, find the frequency & gain, K, for
which the root locus crosses the imaginary axis. For
what range of K is the system stable?

G ( s)
C.L.T .F of T ( s )
, H ( s) 1
1 G ( s) H ( s)
where
K ( s 3)
T ( s) 4
s 7 s 3 14 s 2 (8 K ) s 3K
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Construction of Routh table

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Continuation of Previous Problem

Solving
For +ve K, only s1 row can be all zeros.
Let -K2 -65K+720 / 90-K = 0 to find value of K on j-axis.
-K2 -65K+720 = 0
K = 9.65
To find the frequency on the j axis crossing, form the even polynomial by
using the s2 row & with K= 9.65,
(90 -K)s2 + 21K = 0
80.35s2 + 202.7 = 0
s2 = -202.7 / 80.35
s = +j1.59
The root-locus crosses the j axis at + j1.59 at a gain of 9.65
The system is stable for 0 < K < 9.65
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Angle of departure & arrival from

complex poles & zeros
Recall that a condition for a

point on the s-plane to be on

the root locus is that the
angles of the zeros minus
the angles of the poles, all
drawn to the selected point
on the s-plane, add up to
(2k + 1) 180.
Example
KG(s)H (s) = (2k + 1 ) 180
Consider the next Figure:
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Angle of departure & arrival

Assume is a point on the root

locus close to a complex pole.

Sum of all angles drawn from all

other poles & zeros to the pole that
is near to is:

-1, + 2 + 3 4 5 + 6 =(2k+I)180
The angle of departure is:
1 = 2 + 3 4 5,+ 6 - (2k+1)180
Similarly, for complex zero:
-1 + 2 + 3 4 5 + 6 = (2k+I)180
The angle of arrival is:
2 = 1 - 3 + 4 + 5,- 6 + (2k+1)180
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38

Example:
Given the unity feedback system, find the angle of departure from
the complex poles & sketch the root locus

K ( s 2)
KG ( s ) H ( s)
, H ( s) 1
2
( s 3)(S 2s 2)
where
K ( s 2)
KG ( s ) H ( s)
( s 3)(s 1 j1)( s 1 j1)
Root locus for the system
showing angle of departure
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Continuation of Previous Problem

Solving
1 2 3 4 (2k 1)1800 1800 (k 0)
1
1 1
0
tan 180
1
2

1 90 0 tan 1

1 90 0 450 26.50 1800

251.60 108.40
The angle of departure of the complex pole is 108.40
( symmetry about the real axis )
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40

Skill assessment Exercise 8.4: Given a unity feedback system that

has the forward transfer function G ( s) (S K( s4s 2)13)
2

Do the following:
a. Sketch the root locus
b. Find the imaginary axis crossing
c. Find the gain, K, at the j axis crossing
d. Find the break-in point
e. Find the angle of departure from the
complex poles
G (s)

K ( s 2)
K ( s 2)

( S 2 4 s 13) ( s 2 j 3)( s 2 j 3)
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An Example
Sketching the root locus &

Finding the critical points

Find the exact point and
gain where the locus
crosses the 0.45
damping ratio line
Find the exact point and
gain where the locus
crosses the jw-axis
Find the breakaway point
on the real axis
Find the range K within
which the system is
stable
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Transient Response Design via Gain

Adjustment

Use Second order approximation

which satisfy the following
conditions:

Higher order poles are much

farther into the left half of the splane than the dominant second
order pair of poles. The response
that results from a higher order
pole does not appreciably change
the transient response expected
from the dominant second order
poles
Closed loop zeros near the
closed loop second order pole
pair are nearly cancelled by the
close proximity of higher order
closed loop poles
Closed loop zeros not cancelled
by the close proximity of higher
order closed loop poles are far
removed from the closed loop
second order pole pair
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Please Read!!!
Generalized Root Locus
Root Locus for Positive-Feedback Systems

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44

Pole Sensitivity
Since Root Locus is a plot of the Closed Loop Poles

as a system parameter is varied any change in the

parameter will change the system performance too!
Root Locus exhibits nonlinear relationship between
gain and pole

Along some sections of the RL very small changes in

gain yield very large changes in pole location and
hence performance High Sensitivity to changes in
gain
Along other sections of the RL very large changes in
gain yield very small changes in pole location Low
Sensitivity to changes in gain

Preferences Low Sensitivity to changes in gain

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 Applying Definition of

sensitivity root sensitivity

is the ratio of the fractional
change in a closed loop pole
to the fractional change in a
system parameter (e.g. gain)
Using Equation in Ch. 7,
sensitivity of a closed loop
pole, s, to gain, K:
S s:K

S is the current pole

location
K is the current gain
Converting the partials to
finite increments, the actual
change in the closed loop
pole can be approximate as:

K s
s K

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K
K
s is the change in pole
location
K/K is the fractional
Change in gain K
S s( S s:K )

46

Example: Root Sensitivity of a closed

loop system to gain variations
Find the root sensitivity

of the system in Figure

8.4 at s = -9.47 and
-5+j5. also calculate the
change in the pole
location for a 10%
change in K

System C.E. found from

closed loop transfer

function denominator is
s2 +10s + K = 0

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Differenti ate

47