CEMENT

ROHINI.G

Cement:
Cement is the mixture of calcareous, siliceous,

argillaceous and other substances.

Cement is a hydraulic binder and is defined as a finely
ground inorganic material which, when mixed with water,
forms a paste which sets and hardens by means of
hydration reactions and processes which, after hardening
retains it's strength and stability even under water.
Popular as building material.
Material with adhesive & cohesive properties.
To bind the fine & coarse aggregate together
To fill voids in between fine & coarse aggregate particle
form a compact mass.

Chemical Composition of
cement
Lime (CaO)
63%
Silica (SiO2)
22%
Alumina
06%
Iron oxide
03%
Magnesium Oxide 01 to
03%
Gypsum
01 to 04%

TYPES OF CEMENTS:
Cement may be hydraulic or non-hydraulic:
1)Non-hydraulic cements (e.g. gypsum plaster) must
be kept dry in order to retain their strength.
2)Hydraulic cements harden because of hydration,
chemical reactions that occur independently of the
mixture's water content; they can harden even
underwater or when constantly exposed to wet weather.
The chemical reaction that results when the anhydrous
cement powder is mixed with water produces hydrates
that are not water-soluble. Hydraulic cement may be:
i) Portland cements
ii) Natural cements
iii) Expansive cements
iv) High-alumina cements

PORTLAND CEMENT
Made by mixing substances containing Calcium Carbonate such as chalk
/ limestone, with substances containing silica , alumina and iron oxide
such as clay/ shale.
Clay/shale:
SiO2
Fe2O3
Al2O3

Silica (silicon oxide) abbreviated S

Ferrite (iron oxide)
abbreviated F
Alumina (aluminium oxide)
abbreviated A

Limestone/chalk
CaCO3

Calcium carbonate

abbreviated C

then the mixture heated and became clinker.

Clinker then grounded to powder.
The hardening Portland cement is a chemical process during which heat is evolved.
Why is it called "portland" cement?
Joseph Aspdin, an English mason who patented the product in 1824, named it portland cement
because it produced a concrete that resembled the color of the natural limestone quarried on the Isle of
Portland, a peninsula in the English Channel

TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT

According to the ASTM standard, there are five basic types of Portland Cement:
1) Regular cement, general use, called Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) Type
2) Moderate sulphate resistance, moderate heat of hydration, C3A < 7% , Modified cement - Type
3) Rapid-hardening Portland cement , With increased amount of C3S, High early strength Type
4) Low heat Portland cement Type V
5) High Sulfate-resisting Portland cement Type V

It is possible to add some additive to Portland cement to produce the following types:
Portland blastfurnace cement Type S
Pozzolanic cement - Type P
Air-entrained cement - Type A
White Portland Cement (WPC)
Colored Portland Cement

Note:
sulphates can react with C4ASH18 to from an expansive product. By reducing the C 3A content, there will be less

C4ASH18 formed in the hardened paste.

Physically and chemically, these cement types differ primarily in their content of C 3A and in their fineness.
In terms of performance, they differ primarily in the rate of early hydration and in their ability to resist sulfate
attack.
The general characteristics of these types are listed in Table 2.
The oxide and mineral compositions of a typical Type I Portland cement were given in Tables

GENERAL FEATURES OF THE MAIN TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT

AST
M
Typ
e

Classification

Characteristics

Applications

Type I

General purpose

Fairly high C3S content

for good early strength
development

General construction (most

buildings, bridges, pavements,
precast units, etc)

Type II

Moderate sulfate
resistance (Modified
cement)

Low C3A content (<8%)

Structures exposed to soil or

water containing sulfate ions

Type
III

High early strength

(Rapid-hardening)

Ground more finely,

may have slightly more
C3 S

Rapid construction, cold

weather concreting

Type
IV

Low heat of hydration

(slow reacting)

Low content of C3S

(<50%) and C3A

Massive structures such as

dams. Now rare.

Type
V

High sulfate resistance

Very low C3A content

(<5%)

Structures exposed to high

levels of sulfate ions

White

White color

No C4AF, low MgO

Decorative (otherwise has

properties similar to Type I)

Compound composition and fineness of Portland Cements

RAPID HARDENING PORTLAND CEMENT

This type develops strength more rapidly than ordinary Portland cement. The initial

strength is higher , but they equalize at 2-3 months

Setting time for this type is similar for that of ordinary Portland cement
The rate of strength gain occur due to increase of C3S compound, and due to finer
grinding of the cement clinker ( the min. fineness is 3250 cm2/gm (according to IQS 5)
Rate of heat evolution is higher than in ordinary Portland cement due to the increase
in C3S and C3A, and due to its higher fineness
Chemical composition and soundness requirements are similar to that of ordinary
Portland cement

Uses
a)The uses of this cement is indicated where a rapid strength development is desired (to
develop high early strength, i.e. its 3 days strength equal that of 7 days ordinary Portland
cement),
for example:
i) When formwork is to be removed for re-use
ii) Where sufficient strength for further construction is wanted as quickly as practicable, such as
concrete blocks manufacturing, sidewalks and the places that can not be closed for a long time,
and repair works needed to construct quickly.

b) For construction at low temperatures, to prevent the frost damage of the capillary water.
c) This type of cement does not use at mass concrete constructions.

High Alumina Cement

It is manufactured by the burning of bauxite ore and lime stone in correct proportions and at high temperature. The

resulting product is then ground finely.

It develops Strength Rapidly. It is of black colour and resists well the attack of chemicals especially of sulphates and
sea water.
Its ultimate strength is much higher than OPC.
Its initial setting takes more than 2 hours and the final set takes place immediately thereafter.
Most of the heat it gives in the first 10 hrs as a result it can be conveniently used in freezing temperatures.
At ordinary temperature it is used in thin layers.
This cement contains high aluminate % usually between 35-55%.
It gains strength very rapidly with in 24 hours.
It is also used for construction of dams and other heavy structures.
It has resistance to sulphates and action of frost also.

Portland Slag Cement

It is obtained by mixing clinker, gypsum and granulated slag in a proper proportion.
The Properties of this cement is very similar to that of OPC which are as under.
It has lesser heat of hydration and has better resistance of soils, sulphates of alkali metals, alumina and iron.
It has better resistance to acidic water.
This type of cement is mostly used in Marine Works.

Low Heat Cement

The Heat Generated by cement while setting may cause the structure to crack in case of concrete. This Heat

generation is controlled by keeping the percentage of Tri-calcium silicate and that of Tri-calcium aluminate (C3 A) low.
In this cement the heat of hydration is reduced by tri-calcium aluminate (C3 A) content.
It contains less % of lime than ordinary port land cement.
It is used for mass concrete works such as dams etc.
Its initial setting and Final setting times are nearly the same as those of OPC. It is not very suitable for Ordinary

structures because the use of cement will delayed time of drying. It will also need more curing.

Air Entraining Cement

This type of cement was first of all developed in U.S.A to produce such concrete which would

have resistance to weathering actions and particularly to the action of frost.

It is the OPC mixed with some air entraining agents.
Natural resins, fats, oils and fatty acids .etc are common used as air entraining agents.
These materials have the property of entraining air in the form of fine air bubbles. The bubbles
render the concrete to become more plastic, workable and more resistant to freezing. However
because of air entrainment the strength of concrete reduces and as such the quantity of air so
entrained should not exceed 5%.
It is found that entrainment of air or gas bubbles while applying cement, increases resistance to
frost action. Air entraining cement is produced by grinding minute air entraining materials with
clinker or the materials are also added separately while making concrete.
Entrainment of air also improves workability and durability. It is recommended that air contents
should be 3- 4 % by volume.

White Cement
This cement is called snowcrete.
It is the cement of pure white colour and having same properties as those of Ordinary Portland

Cement(Greyish colour of cement is due to iron oxide (FeO)).

As iron oxide gives the grey colour to cement, it is therefore necessary for white cement to keep
the content of iron oxide as low as possible.
White cement is manufactured from chalk or limestone and China clay free from Iron Oxide are
suitable for its manufacturing.
Oil fuel and not the coal is used for the burning of this cement.
It is much more costly than ordinary cement. This cement is costlier than O.P.C.
It is mainly used for architectural finishing in the buildings. .

Sulphate Resisting Cement:

It is modified form of O.P.C and is specially manufactured to resist the sulphates.

In certain regions/areas where water and soil may have alkaline contents and O.P.C is liable to
disintegrate, because of unfavourable chemical reaction between cement and water, S.R.C is
used.
This cement contains a low % of C3A not more than 5%.
This cement requires longer period of curing.
This cement is used for hydraulic structures in alkaline water and for canal and water courses
lining.
It develops strength slowly, but ultimately it is as strong as O.P.C.

Coloured Cement
Various coloured cement are prepared when required in special cases. Suitable
pigments are added with OPC to get red or brown cement but for other colours 5 10%
of desired pigments are grounded with white cement. Pigments used should be
chemically inert and also durable so as they must not fade due to the effect of lights
sun or weather.

Portland Pozzolona Cement

Portland Pozzolona cement is produced by grinding together Portland cement and
Pozzolona. This cement has properties similar to those of OPC and can therefore be
used for all general purpose. Portland Pozzolona cement produces less heat of
hydration and offers greater resistance to attack of aggressive water or sulphates
bearing than OPC. Portland Pozzolona cement are particularly used in marine works. It
takes a little longer to gain strength. Ultimate Strength of this cement is more than OPC

MANUFACTURING OF
CEMENT

Manufacture of Ordinary Portland Cement

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is one of several types of cement being manufactured throughout the

world.
OPC consists mainly of lime (CaO), silica (SiO2) , alumina (Al2O3) , iron (Fe2O3) and sulphur trioxide
(SO3). Magnesium (MgO) and other Oxide elements are present in small quantities as an impurity
associated with raw materials.
When cement raw materials containing the proper proportions of the essential oxides are ground to a
suitable fineness and then burnt to incipient fusion in a kiln, chemical combination takes place, largely
in the solid state resulting in a product named clinker.
This clinker, when ground to a suitable fineness, together with a small quantity of gypsum (SO3) is
Portland Cement. SO3 is added at the grinding stage to retard the setting time of the finished cement.
Basic Chemical Components of Portland Cement:
Calcium

(Ca)
(Si)
Aluminum (Al)
Iron (Fe)
Silicon

Typical Raw Materials:

Limestone

(CaCO3)
(SiO2)
Shale, Clay (SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3)
Iron Ore/Mill Scale (Fe2O3)
Sand

2/3 calcareous materials (lime bearing) limestone

1/3 argillaceous materials (silica, alumina, iron)- clay

Raw Materials for Cement Manufacture

o The first step in the manufacture of Portland Cement is to combine a variety of raw ingredients so that

the resulting cement will have the desired chemical composition.

o These ingredients are ground into small particles to make them more reactive, blended together, and
then the resulting raw mix is fed into a cement kiln which heats them to extremely high temperatures.
o Since the final composition and properties of Portland Cement are specified within rather strict
bounds, it might be supposed that the requirements for the raw mix would be similarly strict. As it
turns out, this is not the case. While it is important to have the correct proportions of calcium, silicon,
aluminum, and iron, the overall chemical composition and structure of the individual raw ingredients
can vary considerably. The reason for this is that at the very high temperatures in the kiln, many
chemical components in the raw ingredients are burned off and replaced with oxygen from the air.
o Table 1 lists just some of the many possible raw ingredients that can be used to provide each of the
main cement elements.
Table 1: Examples of raw materials for Portland Cement manufacture

Calcium

Silicon

Aluminum

Iron

Limestone

Clay

Clay

Clay

Marl

Marl

Shale

Iron ore

Calcite

Sand

Fly ash

Mill scale

Gypsum

Shale

Aluminum ore
refuse

Shale

Marly
limestone

Fly ash

Phyllite

Blast furnace
dust

Sea Shells

Rice hull
ash

slate

Slag

Cement Kiln
Dust

Silica

Crushing & Grinding of Raw Materials

Due to the variable nature of these components, they are pre-blended

prior to their use. It is crushed and stored in a pre-blending hall,

utilizing the chevron pile stacking method. In this method, stacking
takes place at one end of the pile. At the other end of the pile the
material is reclaimed and then stored in a feeding hopper which is
ready for use.
The limestone is crushed to less than 25mm in size.
Grinding and blending prior to entering the kiln can be performed
with the raw ingredients in the form of a slurry (the wet process) or in
dry form (the dry process). The addition of water facilitates grinding.
However, the water must then be removed by evaporation as the first
step in the burning process, which requires additional energy. The wet
process, which was once standard, has now been rendered obsolete by
the development of efficient dry grinding equipment, and all modern
cement plants use the dry process. When it is ready to enter the kiln,
the dry raw mix has 85% of the particles less than 90 m in size

Mixing and crushing of raw materials

Actually the purpose of both processes is to change the raw materials to
fine powder.

Dry Process

Wet Process

This process is usually used when raw materials

are very strong and hard

This process is generally used when raw

materials are soft because complete mixing is not
possible unless water is added.

In this process, the raw materials are changed to

powdered form in the absence of water.

In this process, the raw materials are changed to

powdered form in the presence of water

Dehydration zone requires a somewhat shorter

distance than wet process.

Dehydration zone would require up to half the

length of the kiln easiest to control chemistry &
better for moist raw materials

74% of cement produced

26% of cement produced

kilns less fuel requirements

High fuel requirements - fuel needed to

evaporate 30+% slurry water- The kiln is a
continuous stream process vessel in which feed
and fuel are held in dynamic balance

In this process calcareous material such as lime

stone (calcium carbonate) and argillaceous
material such as clay are ground separately to fine
powder in the absence of water and then are
mixed together in the desired proportions.

In this process, raw materials are pulverized by

using a Ball mill, which is a rotary steel cylinder
with hardened steel balls. When the mill rotates,
steel balls pulverize the raw materials which form
slurry (liquid mixture). The slurry is then passed
into storage tanks, where correct proportioning is
done. Proper composition of raw materials can be
ensured by using wet process than dry process.
Corrected slurry is then fed into rotary kiln for
burning.

Water is then added to it for getting thick paste

and then its cakes are formed, dried and burnt in
kilns.

Burning in a Kiln Formation of Cement Clinker

The next step in the process is to heat the blended mixture of raw ingredients (the

raw mix) to convert it into a granular material called cement clinker.

This requires maximum temperatures that are high enough to partially melt the raw

mix. Because the raw ingredients are not completely melted, the mix must be
agitated to ensure that the clinker forms with a uniform composition.
This is accomplished by using a long cylindrical kiln that slopes downward and rotates

slowly.
To heat the kiln, a mixture of fuel and air is injected into the kiln and burned at the

bottom end. The hot gases travel up the kiln to the top, through a dust collector, and
out a smokestack. A variety of fuels can be used, including pulverized coal or coke,
natural gas, lignite, and fuel oil. These fuels create varying types and amounts of ash,
which tend to have compositions similar to some of the aluminosilicate ingredients in
the raw mix. Since the ash combines with the raw mix inside the kiln, this must be
taken into account in order to correctly predict the cement compassion. There is also
an increasing trend to use waste products as part of the fuel, for example old tires. In
the best-case scenario, this saves money on fuel, reduces CO2 emissions, and
provides a safe method of disposal.

Clinker Burning
For the production of cement clinker, the raw meal which is known as kiln feed at

this stage has to be heated to a temperature of about 1550 oC in the long

cylindrical rotating kiln.
The kiln feed enters the system at the top of the pre-heater and fall until the lower
end of the kiln.
The heat exchange occurs during this process when the hot gases from the kiln
end rise up to the top of the pre-heater.
The clinker formation process is divided into four parts: drying, calcining, sintering
and cooling.

Burning Process
Kiln is typically about 180 m long and 6 m in diameter, has a

downward slope of 3-4%, and rotates at 1-2 revolutions per minute.

The raw mix enters at the upper end of the kiln and slowly works its
way downward to the hottest area at the bottom over a period of
60-90 minutes, undergoing several different reactions as the
temperature increases. It is important that the mix move slowly
enough to allow each reaction to be completed at the appropriate
temperature. Because the initial reactions are endothermic (energy
absorbing), it is difficult to heat the mix up to a higher temperature
until a given reaction is complete.
The general reaction zones are as follows:
1) Dehydration zone (up to ~ 450C)
2) Calcination zone (>450C 900C)
3) Solid-state reaction zone (>900 - 1300C)
4) Clinkering zone (>1300C 1550C)
5) Cooling zone

Grinding and the Addition of Gypsum

Now the final process is applied which is grinding of clinker, it is first cooled

down to atmospheric temperature.

Grinding of clinker is done in large tube mills. After proper grinding gypsum
(Calcium sulphate CaSO 4) in the ratio of 01-04 % is added for controlling the
setting time of cement.
Finally, fine ground cement is stored in storage tanks from where it is drawn
for packing.
Once the nodules of cement clinker have cooled, they are ground back into a
fine powder in a large grinding mill. At the same time, a small amount of
calcium sulfate such as gypsum (calcium sulfate) is blended into the cement.
The calcium sulfate is added to control the rate of early reaction of the
cement
Cement is produced by grinding clinker with gypsum (calcium sulfate) in the
finish-grinding mill to a required fineness.
A small quantity of gypsum, about 3 to 5 %, is needed to control the setting
time of cement produced.
The amount of gypsum being used is determined by the Sulphuric anhydride
(SO3) contents in cement. Cement Grinding

Cement Storage &

Distribution
At this point the manufacturing process is complete and

the cement is ready to be bagged or transported in bulk

away from the plant After the grinding process, cement is
pumped into the storage silos.
This silo is preventing the moisture to react with cement.
When needed cement from the silos is packed into bags
or loaded into road tankers and rail wagons for dispatch.
However, the cement is normally stored in large silos at
the cement plant for a while so that various batches of
cement can be blended together to even out small
variations in composition that occur over time

Setting or Hardening of Cement

When Cement is mixed with water to a plastic mass

called cement paste, hydration reaction begin, resulting

in the formation of gel and crystalline products.
Initial Setting : Hydration of C 3A, C2S, C3S

Gel Formation of C4AF

3CaO.Al2O3 + 6 H2O 3CaO.Al2O3.6H2O
2CaO.SiO2 + 4 H2O 2CaO.SiO2.4H2O
3CaO.SiO2 + 6 H2O 3CaO.SiO2.6H2O
4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 + 7 H2O

3CaO.Al2O3.6H2O + CaO.Fe2O3.H2O

FINAL SETTING AND HARDENING : Hydrolysis of C 3S, C2S

2[3CaO.SiO2] + 6H2O 3CaO.2SiO2.3H2O + 3Ca(OH)2
2[2CaO.SiO2] + 4H2O 3CaO.2SiO2.6H2O + Ca(OH)2

ROLE OF CEMENTING MATERIALS

1) GYPSUM : INITIAL SETTING TIME RETARDER
C3A + 6H2O
C3A.6H2O + HEAT
Quick hardening property

C3A + x H2O + y CaSO4. z H2O

C3A.yCaSO4.z H2O
Gypsum
Insoluble calcium sulphoaluminate

2) Silica / CaO : Imparts srengths

3) Alumina
: Imparts strengths, Makes the cement quick
setting

4) Fe2O3
: Imparts Grey color, strength and hardness
5) SO3
: Imparts soundness
6) Alkalies (MgO, Na2O, K2O) : Lower the clinkering
temperature